INTRODUCTION TO SEISMOLOGY

Seismology: The study of earthquakes, the structure of the earth, propagation of seismic
waves and their recording. Greek words: Seismos-earthquakes; logos-Science

Engineering Seismology: Collaborative attempts of seismologists and engineers to minimize

the damage, caused by earthquakes to structures.

L1 1.1 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

 Plate (tectonic) A large unit of the earth's lithosphere that moves relative to other plates
and the interior of the earth.
 Earthquake. This term is used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting
ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic
activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth.
 Rupture velocity The speed at which a fault rupture propagates along a fault.
 Seismic waves: Body & Surface waves
 Body wave. A seismic wave that moves through the interior of the earth, as opposed to
surface waves that travel near the earth's surface. P and S waves are body waves.
 P-wave. A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth in the same direction
and the opposite direction as the direction the wave is moving. (Primary wave, longitudinal
wave, compressional wave)
 S-wave. A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to the
direction the wave is moving, also called a shear wave, secondary wave and transverse
wave.
 Surface wave. Seismic wave that travels along the earth's surface. Love and Rayleigh
waves are the most common.
 Love wave. A type of seismic surface wave having a horizontal motion that is transverse
(or perpendicular) to the direction the wave is traveling.
 Rayleigh wave. A seismic surface wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical motion,
with no transverse, or perpendicular, motion.
 Particle velocity & wave velocity
 alluvium Loosely compacted sand, gravel, and silt deposited by streams in relatively
recent geologic time.
 Basin. Depressed area filled with sediment.
L2  Amplitude amplification. The increase in surface ground motion amplitude at certain
frequencies in unconsolidated sediments relative to the motion in solid rock.
 Natural frequency The frequency at which an elastic system vibrates when set in motion
by a single pulse.
 overburden Unconsolidated materials overlying rock.
 Soil. In engineering, all unconsolidated material above bedrock.
 gouge Rock crushed in a fault zone.
 Attenuation The decrease in seismic signal amplitude caused by spreading of the wave
and absorption and scattering of seismic energy by the materials of the earth as a wave
propagates from a source.
 Hypocenter. The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture sta rts. Also
commonly termed the focus.
 Epicenter. The point on the earth's surface vertically above the point in the crust where a
seismic rupture begins
 Focal depth The depth below the surface of the hypocenter or focus of an earthquake.
 Epicentral Distance; Hypocentral Distance
 Mainshock. The largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more
foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks.
 Aftershocks. Earthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. They
are smaller than the mainshock and continue over a period of weeks, months, or years. In
general, the larger the mainshock, the larger number of aftershocks, and the longer they
will continue.
 Foreshocks. Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest
earthquake in a series, which is termed the mainshock. Not all mainshocks have
foreshocks.
 swarm (earthquake) A series of related earthquakes concentrated in location and time
with no one earthquake of outstanding size.
 Seismograph. A ground motion recording instrument.
 Seismogram. A record written by a seismograph in response to ground motions produced
by an earthquake, explosion, or other ground-motion sources.
 Intensity. Measure of degree of shaking at a specified place. A number (written as a
Roman numeral) describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the
earth's surface and on humans and their structures.
 Isoseismal. A contour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular
earthquake.
 Magnitude. It is a measure of energy released during earthquake rupture. A number that
characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Value of magnitude is fixed for a particular
earthquake.
 Intraplate earthquake: pertains to processes within a plate.
 Interplate pertains to processes between the plates.
 Seismicity. The geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes.
 Active fault. A fault that is likely to have another earthquake sometime in the future. Faults
are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one or more times in the past.
 Seismogenic. Capable of generating earthquakes.
 Seismotectonics: The study of earthquakes as a tectonic component has become known
as seismotectonics.
 Tectonic: Refers to rock-deforming processes and resulting structures that occur over
regional sections of the lithosphere.
 Bedrock. Relatively hard, solid rock that commonly underlies softer rock, sediment, or soil;
a subset of the basement.
 Earthquake/seismic Hazard. A threatening earthquake, or the probability of occurrence
of a potentially damaging earthquake within a given time period and area
 Earthquake disaster. A serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing
widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected
society to cope using only its own resources.
 Earthquake/seismic risk. refers to the risk of damage from an impending earthquake to
a building, system, or other entity.
 Graben A block of the earth's crust, usually elongated, that has subsided relative to
adjacent rocks along bounding faults.
 horst An elongated block of the earth's crust uplifted relative to surrounding rocks along
bounding faults.

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1.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

1. Based on chemical properties

a. Crust: Low density granite and basalt
b. Mantle: Medium density Ultramafic rocks
c. Core: outer & inner ; Iron and nickel

2. Based on physical properties

a. Lithosphere: Hard & brittle (made of crust and upper mantle);
b. Asthenosphere: Plastic (upper mantle; 150 km thick)
c. Mesosphere: Semi-solid
d. Core: Outer-Liquid; Inner-Solid

According to the theory of plate tectonics, the outer layer of the earth known as Lithosphere is
broken in to different part. These are known as plates.

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 1.3. CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Based on location 2. Based on Epicentral distances

a). Interplate a). Local earthquake <10
b). Intraplate b). Regional earthquake 1-100
c). Teleseismic earthquake >100

3. Based on focal depth 4. Based on magnitude

a). Shallow depth 0-71 km a). Microearthquake <3.0
b). Intermediate depth 71-300 km b). Intermediate earthquake 3-4.9
c). Deep earthquake >300 km c). Moderate earthquake 5-5.9
d). Strong earthquake 6-6.9
e). Major earthquake 7-7.9
f). Great earthquake >8.0
5. Based on process
Natural Source Man-Made Source
 Tectonic Earthquakes  Controlled Sources (Explosive, etc.)
 Volcanic Earthquakes  Reservoir Induces Earthquakes
 Rock falls/ Collapse of Cavity  Mining Induces Earthquakes
 Microseism  Cultural Noise (Industry, Traffic etc.)
6. Earthquake swarm: A sequence of earthquakes occurs closely clustered in space and
time with no dominant main shock

L2 1.4. EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS

 Primary effects: due to the causative process, such as
faulting or volcanic eruptions.
 Secondary effects: due to shaking or passage of elastic
waves

1. Primary Effects:

a. Surface Faulting: Surface faulting -- the differential

movement of the two sides of a fracture at the Earth's surface-
- is of three general types: strike-slip, normal, and reverse.
Combinations of the strike-slip type and the other two types of
faulting can be found. Death and injuries from surface faulting
are very unlikely, but casualties can occur indirectly through
fault damage to structures. Surface faulting, in the case of a strike -slip fault, generally
affects a long narrow zone whose total area is small compared with the total area affected
by ground shaking. Nevertheless, the damage to structures located in the fault zone can
be very high, especially where the land use is intensive. A variety of structures have been
damaged by surface faulting, including houses, apartments, commercial buildings, nursing
homes, railroads, highways, tunnels, bridges, canals, storm drains, water wells, and water,
gas, and sewer lines. Damage to these types of structures has ranged from minor to very
severe. An example of severe damage occurred in 1952 when three railroad tunnels were
so badly damaged by faulting that traffic on a major rail linking northern and southern
California was stopped for 25 days despite an around-the-clock repair schedule.

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 The displacements, lengths, and widths of surface fault ruptures show a wide range. Fault
displacements may have range from a fraction of an inch to more than 20 feet of differential
movement. As expected, the severity of potential damage increases as the size of the
displacement increases. The lengths of the surface fault ruptures on land have ranged from
less than 1 mile to more than 200 miles. Most fault displacement is confined to a narrow
zone ranging from 6 to 1,000 feet in width, but separate subsidiary fault ruptures may occur
2 to 3 miles from the main fault. The area subject to disruption by surface faulting varies
with the length and width of the rupture zone.

b. Tectonic deformations: Uplift and subsidence of landmass occurs due to the great
earthquake. This may cause flooding, change of river direction and associated flooding
and life loss. Change in water level in wells and springs may also occur.

c. Tsunamis: Tsunami is a series of large waves of extremely long period caused by a

violent, impulsive undersea disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean. When a
sudden displacement of a large volume of water occurs, or if the sea floor is suddenly
raised or dropped by an earthquake, big tsunami waves are formed by the gravity force.
Tsunami becomes extremely dangerous and damaging near the shore. The word tsunami
is composed of the Japanese words "tsu" (which means harbor) and "nami" (which means
"wave"). They are some times called seismic sea waves or, erroneously, tidal waves. In
case of tidal waves, disturbance is concentrated only along the free surface and water
flows in a circular form. On other hand, in case of tsunami waves, energy extends to the
ocean bottom and water flows straight. Near the shore, tsunami energy is concentrated in
the vertical direction by the reduction in water depth, and in the horizontal direction by
shortening of the wavelength due to the wave slow down

2. Secondary effects:
 Damage to structures-cracks, partial to complete collapse
 Fires caused by breaking of gas pipe lines
 Damage to water pipelines
Seiche: A free oscillation of the
 Ground cracks in loose soil deposit
surface of an enclosed body of water
 Sound such as lake, pond etc. The period of
 Landslides- oscillations range from few minutes
 Liquefaction-sand boils; sand craters to few hours and oscillations may
 Seiches persist for several hours to 1-2 days.
 Sea quakes
 Panic, fright, dizziness, etc

1.5. ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

1. Engineering properties of soils.

2. Determination of depth of bed-rock and its geometry.
3. Determination of water table.
4. Site-specific ground motion parameters for earthquake resistant design.
5. Preparation of isoseismal and isoforce map.
6. Preparation of seismic zoning maps.
7. Seismic risk analysis and damage & loss scenario of impending earthquake.
8. Detection of cavity.
9. Mapping of sub-surface structures.
10. Detection of nuclear explosion.

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1.6. FAULTS PARAMETERS
A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either
side have moved relative to one another parallel to
the fracture.
Fault Plane. A plane on which there is relative
displacement between the two rock masses.
Strike. Trend or bearing, relative to north, of the line
defined by the intersection of a planar geologic
surface (for example, a fault or a bed) and a
horizontal surface such as the ground.
Hanging wall & Foot wall. The hanging wall lies
above the fault plane and foot wall lies below.
Dip. Is the angle between the fault plane and the
horizontal measured perpendicular to the strike.
Slip/rake. Measured in the plane of fault from the
strike direction to the slip vector showing the motion of the hanging wall relative to the foot wall.

Fault Types
a. Strike-slip faults are vertical (or
nearly vertical) fractures where
the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally.
 Right-lateral. If you were to
stand on the fault and look
along its length, this is a type
of strike-slip fault where the
right block moves toward you
and the left block moves away.
 Left-lateral. If you were to
stand on the fault and look
along its length, this is a type
of strike-slip fault where the
left block moves toward you
and the right block moves
away.
 Transform fault. A special
variety of strike-slip fault that
accommodates relative
horizontal slip between other
tectonic elements, such as
oceanic crustal plates. Often
extend from oceanic ridges.
b. Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically.
 If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed normal
 Whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse (or thrust
dip<450).
c. Oblique-slip faults have significant components of both slip styles.

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1.7. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
An Earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of the earth's crust, which originates naturally
at or below the surface. The word natural is important here, since it excludes shock waves
caused by nuclear tests, man made explosions, etc. About 90% of all earthquakes result from
tectonic events, primarily movements on the faults. The remaining is rela ted to volcanism,
collapse of subterranean cavities or man-made effects. Tectonic earthquakes are triggered
when the accumulated strain exceeds shearing strength of rocks. Elastic rebound theory gives
physics behind earthquake genesis.

- Myths regarding earthquakes were that

1. Earthquakes are generated by supernatural power
2. Origin of earthquake was not know up to the 18 th century
3. Damage and loss of human lives were interpreted as punishment given by god to a sinful
society
4. It is a Devine anger.

REID'S ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

After the devastating 1906 San Francisco, California earthquake, a fault trace was discovered
that could be followed along the ground in a more or less str aight line for 270 miles. It was
found that the earth on one side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on the other
side of the fault by up to 21 feet. This fault trace drew the curiosity of a number of scientists,
especially since nobody had yet been able to explain what was happening within the earth, to
cause earthquakes. From
an examination of the
displacement of the
ground surface which
accompanied the 1906
earthquake, H. F. Reid,
Professor of Geology at
Johns Hopkins University,
concluded that the
earthquakes must have
involved an "elastic
rebound" of previously
stored elastic stress
(Reid, 1911). The gradual
accumulation and release
of stress and strain is now Fig. 1 Schematic of Elastic rebound theory (After Mussett and Khan, 2000).
referred to as the "elastic
rebound theory" of earthquakes.
Suppose continuously increasing shear forces are acting on two blocks of an unstrained
existing fault (Fig. 1a). Further, assume that these stresses are trying to move the western
block northward and the eastern block southward. Because of friction, there is no movement
initially, but the blocks are distorted so that lines originally straight across the fault have
become oblique (Fig. 1b). The weakest part the fault slips suddenly when the strain becomes
more than what the fault can support. The rupture from the weakest part extends rapidly along
the fault plane, allowing the blocks on either side of it to ‘jerk’ into a less strained conditi on.
The half arrows beside the fault in Fig. 1c show the extent of this sudden displacement, called

7
the elastic rebound. The accumulated energy in the
strained volume of rock is suddenly released in the form
of seismic waves and a part is converted into heat or
other forms.

(This picture, taken near Bolinas in Marin County by G.K.

Gilbert, shows a fence that was offset about 8.5 feet
along the trace of fault)

1.8. EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES

The existing structures can be broadly classified as surface structures and

subsurface/underground structures.

a. Underground structures
The underground structures have been found to be less vulnerable to damage from
earthquakes than those on the surface. Usually, seismic design loads for underground
structures are characterized in terms of deformations and strain imposed by the surrounding
ground but, as with surface structures, inertial forces caused by ground accelerations are also
considered in their design. Hence, estimates of the ground motions to be expected at depths
are required. At present, however, there is little information available on which to base these
estimates. Ground motions at depths are likely to be considerably different to those at the
surface due to these factors:
 The effect of the free surface, in theory, means that the motion at depth is two times lower
than that at the surface.
 Rock at the surface is, in general, softer (lower wave-velocities), than those at depth
therefore the motion at the surface will have been amplified with respect to the motion at
depth.
 The attenuation of high frequencies is less at depth than at the surface.
 Interference between the ascending and descending waves and diffraction phenomena can
also diminish the motions at depth.

b. Free surface structures

i. Inertia Forces in Structures: Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So, a building resting
on it will experience motion at its base. Even though the base of the building moves with the
ground, the roof has a tendency to stay in its original position. But since the walls and columns
are connected to it, they drag the roof along with them. The motion of the roof is different from
that of the ground since walls or columns are flexible. Consider a building whose roof is
supported on columns. When the ground moves, even the building is th rown backwards, and
the roof experiences a force, called inertia force. If the roof has a mass M and experiences an
acceleration ‘a’, then the inertia force F is mass M times acceleration ‘a’, and its direction is
opposite to that of the acceleration. Therefore, lighter buildings sustain the earthquake shaking
better.

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ii. Effect of Deformations in Structures: The inertia force experienced by the roof is transferred
to the ground via the columns, causing forces in columns. These forces generated in the
columns can also be understood in another way. During earthquake shaking, the columns
undergo relative movement between their ends. This movement is shown as quantity ‘u’
between the roof and the ground. But, given a free option, columns would like to come back to
the straight vertical position, i.e., columns resist deformations. In the straight vertical position,
the columns carry no horizontal earthquake force through them. But, when forced to bend, they
develop internal forces. The larger is the relative horizontal displacement ‘u’ between the top
and bottom of the column, the larger this internal force in columns. Also, the stiffer the columns
are (i.e., bigger is the column size), larger is this force. For this reason, these internal forces in
the columns are called stiffness forces. In fact, the stiffness force in a column is the column
stiffness times the relative displacement between its ends.

All structures are primarily designed to carry the gravity

loads, i.e., they are designed for a force equal to the
mass M (this includes mass due to own weight and
imposed loads) times the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’
acting in the vertical downward direction. The
downward force Mg is called the gravity load. The
vertical acceleration during ground shaking either adds
to or subtracts from the acceleration due to gravity.
Since factors of safety are used in the design of
structures to resist the gravity loads, usually most
structures tend to be adequate against vertical
shaking. However, horizontal shaking remains a
concern. Structures designed for gravity loads, in
general, may not be able to safely sustain the effects
of horizontal earthquake shaking. Hence, it is
necessary to ensure adequacy of the structures
against horizontal earthquake effects. Flow of Inertia
Forces to Foundations Under horizontal shaking of the
ground, horizontal inertia forces are generated at level
of the mass of the structure (usually situated at the
floor levels). These lateral inertia forces are transferred by the floor slab to the walls or columns,
to the foundations, and finally to the soil system underneath. So, each of these structural
elements (floor slabs, walls, columns, and foundations) and the connections between them
must be designed to safely transfer these inertia forces through them.

Walls or columns are the most critical elements in transferring the inertia forces. But, in
traditional construction, floor slabs and beams receive more care and attention during design
and construction, than walls and columns. Walls are relatively thin and often made of brittle
material like masonry. They are poor in carrying horizontal earthquake inertia forces along the
direction of their thickness. Failures of masonry walls have been observed in many
earthquakes in the past. Similarly, poorly designed and constructed reinforced concrete

9
columns can be disastrous. The failure of the ground storey columns resulted in numerous
building collapses during the 2001 Bhuj earthquake. A typical RC building is made of horizontal
members (beams and slabs) and vertical members (columns and walls), and supported by
foundations that rest on ground. The system comprising of RC columns and connecting beams
is called a RC Frame. Earthquake shaking generates inertia forces in the building. Since most
of the building mass is present at floor levels, earthquake-induced inertia forces primarily
develop at the floor levels. These forces travel downwards - through slab and beams to
columns and walls, and then to the foundations from where they are dispersed t o the ground.
As inertia forces accumulate downwards from the top of the building, the columns and walls at
lower storeys experience higher earthquake-induced forces and are therefore designed to be
stronger than those in storeys above.

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 2. PLATE TECTONICS

 What cause earthquakes?

 Why earthquake epicentres are concentrated in a well defined zones?
 What causes volcanos, why these are found in the same zone?
 How mountains, mid oceanic ridges and trenches are formed?

Answer to
these
questions
comes from
the theory of
plate
tectonics.
Theory of
plate
tectonics was
proposed in
1965 by A.
Holmes.
Before theory
of plate
tectonis,
contracting Fig. 1 Geographical distribution of epicentres of 30,000 earthquakes
earth hypotheis occurred during 1961-1967 illustrates the tectonically active regions
was proposed of the earth (After: Barazangi and Dorman, 1969).
to explain the
existance of mountains and oceans. These feature were considered to be the permant feature
of the earth. As we know, according to the Nebular Hypothesis of Origin of solar system, in
early days earth was in a hot gassies form. The continuous cooling of the earth has brougth
the earth in the present form. Outer layer (crust) first came into solid form due to cooling,
Further, cooling caused the decrease of volume of material below the crustal mass. So,
according to the Contracting Earth Hypothesis, the mountain ranges were thought to have
formed on its shrinking surface like wrinkles on a desiccating apple. Horizontal tectonic
displacements were known, but were considered to be a by-product of more important vertical
motions. The realization that large overthrusts played an important role in the formation of
mountains implied amounts of horizontal shortening that were difficult to accommodate in the
contraction hypothesis. A new school of thought emerged in which mountain -building was
depicted as a consequence of horizontal displacements. The continental drift hypothesis and
Isostasy was proposed to explain the existance of mountains and oceans on the globe.

Wegener’s Continental drift theory was hotly debated off and on for decades following
Wegener's death (1930) before it was largely dismissed as being eccentric, preposterous, and
improbable. However, beginning in the 1950s, a wealth of new evidence emerged to revive the
debate about Wegener's provocative ideas and their implications. Although much of this
supporting evidence for continental drift was known and available for many years, the concept
received little acceptance and in fact open decision, until researchers began to formulate
explanations for the mechanisms of movement. Pieces of information from many sources were
assembled over time to develop a uniform concept. An understanding of the importance of
convection currents in the mantle goes back to the Dutch researcher Felix Menesz in 1930,
long before any kind of acceptance of that idea. Harry Hess’ work, History of Ocean Basins,
described sea-floor spreading in 1960. In 1968, Bryan Isacks et al. plotted the occurrences of
shallow and deep focus earthquakes along the plate edges.

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 2.1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Supporting Evidences

12
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15
2.2 THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

In particular, four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of the plate -tectonics
theory:

a. Demonstration of the ruggedness in the form of oceanic ridges, island arcs, trenches
and youthness of the ocean floor.
b. Confirmation of repeated reversals of the earth magnetic field in the geologic past and
development of paleomagnetism.
c. Emergence of the seafloor-spreading hypothesis and associated recycling of oceanic
crust. The sea floor spreading at the oceanic ridges was first recognized by H. Hess in
1962. He suggested that new oceanic crust is generated from upwelling hot mantle
material at the ridges.
d. Precise documentation that the world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated
along oceanic trenches and submarine mountain ranges. A global map of seismicity
(Fig. 1) revealed most of the actively deforming regions of the world.

Fifty years after Wegener first proposed his theory of continental drift the science of plate
tectonics finally came to the rescue of his intellectual honor and his life’s work was vindicated.
According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust,
behaves as a strong, rigid layer, known as the lithosphere. This outermost shell overlies a
weaker region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere. Further, the lithosphere is broken
into numerous segments called plates, which are in motion and are continually changing in
shape and size. The implications of plate tectonics are so far -reaching that this theory is today
the framework within which to view most geologic processes.

Fig.2 The major and monir lithospheric plates. The arrows indicate relative velocities in
mm/year at different types of active plate margins. (After: DeMets et al., 1990).

16
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
The radially layered model of the Earth's interior assumes spherical symmetry. This is not
valid for the crust and upper mantle. These outer layers of the Earth show important lateral
variations. The crust and uppermost mantle down to a depth of about 70 -100 km under deep
ocean basins and 100-150 km under continents is rigid, forming a hard outer shell called the
lithosphere. Beneath the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, a layer in which seismic velocities
often decrease, suggesting lower rigidity. It is about 150 km thick, although its upper and lower
boundaries are not sharply defined. This weaker layer is thought to be partially molten; it may
be able to flow over long periods of time like a viscous liquid or plastic solid, in a way that
depends on temperature and composition. The asthenosphere plays an important role in plate
tectonics, because it makes possible the relative motion of the overlying lithospheric plates.

The brittle condition of the lithosphere causes it to fracture when strongly stressed. The rupture
produces an earthquake, which is the violent release of elastic energy due to sudden
displacement on a fault plane. Earthquakes are not distributed evenly over the surface of the
globe, but occur predominantly in well-defined narrow seismic zones that are often associated
with volcanic activity. These are: (a) the circum-Pacific ‘ring of fire’; (b) a sinuous belt running
from the azores through north Africa and the Alpine-Dinaride-Himalayan mountains chain as
far as SE Asia; and (c) the world-circling system of oceanic ridges and rise. The seismic zones
subdivide the lithosphere laterally into tectonic plates.

A plate may be as broad as 10,000 km (e.g., the Pacific plate) or as small as a few thou sand
km (e.g., the Philippines plate). There are ten major plates (Antarctica, Africa, Eurasia,
India, Australia, Arabia, North America, South America, Pacific, Nazca) and several minor
plates (e.g., Philippines, Cocos, Scotia, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca).

The positions of the boundaries between the North American and South American plates and
between the North American and Eurasian plates are uncertain. The boundary between the
Indian and Australian plates is not sharply defined, but may be broad region of diffused
deformation.

2.3 PLATE DRIVING FORCES

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2.4 PLATE MARGINS AND SEISMICITY OF THE EARTH

It is important to keep in mind that the tectonic plates are not the crustal unit. They evolve the
entire thickness of the lithosphere, of which the crust is only the outer skin. The oceanic crust
is thin close to the ridge axis, but thickens with distance from the ridge, reaching a value of 80-
100km; the oceanic crust makes up only the top 5-10km. Continental lithosphere may be up
to 150km thick of which only the top 30-60km is continental crust. Driven by mechanisms that
are not completely understood, the lithospheric plates move relative to each other across the
surface of the globe. There are three types of plate margins:

 Constructive plate margin/Divergent boundaries - where new crust is generated as

the plates pull away from each other.
 Destructive plate margin /Convergent boundaries - where crust is destroyed as one
plate dives under another.
 Conservative plate margin /Transform boundaries - where crust is neither produced
nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.

a. Divergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are
moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the
mantle. The place where new crust is formed in ocean due to the
divergence of plates is known as mid oceanic ridges. The vast majority
of these boundaries are located in the oceans, however it is evident that
these boundaries also exist in in continental regions. These areas of contin ental diverging
boundaries are known as rift zones. A good example is the East African rift valley. Places
where mid oceanic ridges have been identified are: Atlantic, India , Antarctica, South Pacific
oceans, Norwegian sea, Arctic basin.

Perhaps the best known of the

divergent boundaries is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. This submerged
mountain range, which extends
from the Arctic Ocean to beyond
the southern tip of Africa, is but
one segment of the global mid-
ocean ridge system that encircles
the Earth. The distribution of
earthquakes defines a narrow Fig. 1
band of seismic activity close to
the crest of an oceanic ridge.
These earthquakes occur at shallow depths of a few km (2-8 km) and are mostly small;
magnitudes of 6 or greater are rare. The point is that the lithosphere is very thin and weak at
these boundaries, so strain cannot build up enough to cause large earthquakes. Associated
with this type of seismicity is the volcanic activity along the axis of ridges. The seis mic energy
released at ridges is an insignificant part of the world-wide annual release. Analyses show that
the earthquakes are associated with normal faulting, implying extension away from the ridge
axis.

b. Convergent boundaries:

19
The size of the Earth has not changed significantly during the past 600 million years, and very
likely not since shortly after its formation 4.6 billion years ago. The
Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be
destroyed at about the same rate as it is being
created, as Harry Hess surmised. Such
destruction (recycling) of crust takes place
along convergent boundaries where plates
are moving toward each other, and
sometimes one plate sinks (is subducted)
under another. The location where sinking
of a plate occurs is called a subduction
zone. Convergence can occur between an
oceanic and a largely continental plate, or
between two largely oceanic plates, or Schematic of oceanic-continental
between two largely continental plates. At
the subduction zone all short of earthquake can occur. For example, magnitude range may be
-3.0 to 9.5; depth range may be 3-670 km and focal machanism may be both trust and normal
faulting.

i. Oceanic-continental convergence: The deepest parts of the ocean are found in arc-
shaped depressions in the ocean floor known as trenches. If by magic we could pull a plug and
drain the Pacific Ocean, we would see a most amazing sight -- a number of long narrow,
curving trenches thousands of kilometers long and 8 to 10 km deep cutting into the ocean floor.
Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by subduction. The arc
shape results from the geometry of plate movement across the spherical earth, and the convex
side of the arc points toward the open ocean. These trenches, because of the tectonic and
volcanic behavior associated with them, are often accompanied by arc-shaped bands of
islands. Off the coast of South America along the Peru-Chile trench, the oceanic Nazca Plate
is pushing into and being subducted under the continental part of the South American Plate.
In turn, the overriding South American Plate is being lifted up, creating the towering Andes
mountains, the backbone of the continent. Strong, destructive earthquakes and the rapid uplift
of mountain ranges are common in this region. Even though the Nazca Plate as a whole is
sinking smoothly and continuously into the trench, the deepest part of the subducting plate
breaks into smaller pieces that become locked in place for long periods of time before suddenly
moving to generate large earthquakes. Such earthquakes are often accompanied by uplift of
the land by as much as a few meters.

ii. Oceanic-oceanic convergence: As with

oceanic-continental convergence, when two
oceanic plates converge, one is usually
subducted under the other, and in the
process a trench is formed. The
Marianas Trench (paralleling the
Mariana Islands), for example, marks
where the fast-moving Pacific Plate
converges against the slower moving
Philippine Plate. The Challenger
Deep, at the southern end of the
Marianas Trench, plunges deeper Schematic of oceanic-oceanic convergence.
into the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000
m) than Mount Everest, the world's tallest mountain, rises above sea le vel (about 8,854 m).
Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of
volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean
floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes
are typically strung out in chains called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs,

20
 which closely parallel the trenches, are generally curved. Magmas that form island arcs are
produced by the partial melting of the descending plate and/or the overlying oceanic
lithosphere. The descending plate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact,
leading to frequent moderate to strong earthquakes.

iii. Continental-continental convergence:

The Himalayan mountain range dramatically
demonstrates one of the most visible and
spectacular consequences of plate
tectonics. When two continents meet
head-on, neither is subducted
because the continental rocks are
relatively light and, like two colliding
icebergs, resist downward motion.
Instead, the crust tends to buckle
and be pushed upward or sideways.
The collision of India into Asia 50 Schematic of continental- continental
million years ago caused the convergence.
Eurasian Plate to crumple up and override the Indian Plate. After the collision, the slow
continuous convergence of the two plates over millions of years pushed up the Himalayas and
the Tibetan Plateau to their present heights. Most of this growth occurred during the past 10
million years. The Himalayas, towering as high as 8,854 m above sea level, form the highest
continental mountains in the world. Moreover, the neighboring Tibetan Plateau, at an average
elevation of about 4,600 m, is higher than all the peaks in the Alps except for Mon t Blanc and
Monte Rosa, and is well above the summits of most mountains in the United States.

iv. The seismicity at a subduction zone: The seismicity at a subduction zone provides the
key to the processes active there. Where one plate is thrust over the other, the shear causes
hazardous earthquakes at shallow depths. Below this region, earthquakes are systematically
distributed within the subducting plate. They form an enclined Wadati-Benioff zone, which may
extend several hundred kilometers in to the mantle.

WADATI-BENIOFF ZONE: The distributions of epicentral locations and focal depths of

intermediate and deep earthquakes give important evidence for the processes at a subduction

Schematic cross section

through a subduction
zone. The most active
region is the zone of
contact between the
converging plates at
depth of 10-60 km.
There may be a ‘back-
arc’ seismic zone in the
overriding plate. Below
about 70 km depth a
Wadati-Benioff seismic
zone is described within
the subduction plate.
(After, Isacks, 1989.)

21
zone. When the earthquake foci along a subduction zone are projected onto a cross -section
normal to the strike of the plate margin, they are seen to define a zone of seismicity about 30-
40 km thick in the upper part of the 80-100 km thick subducting oceanic plate. The dip-angle
of the zone varies between about 30' and 60', becoming steeper with increasing depth. It can
extent to depth of several hundred kilometers into the earth. The deepest reliable located focal
depth extent down to about 670km. Important changes in the crystalline structure of mantle
minerals occur below this depth. Studies of the focal mechanisms show that at shallow depths
the downgoing plate is in a state of down-dip extension. Subducting lithosphere is colder and
denser than the underlying asthenosphere. This gives it negative buoyancy, which causes it
to sink, pulling the plate downward. At greater depths the mantle is more rigid than the
asthenosphere, and its strength resists penetration. While the upper part is sinking, the bottom
part is being partly supported by the deeper layers; this results in down -dip compression in the
lower part of the descending slab and down-dip extension in the upper part. A gap in the depth
distribution of seismicity may arise where the deviatoric stress changes from extensional to
compressional. In a very deep subduction zone the increase of resistance with depth causes
down-dip compression throughout the descending slab.

c. Transform boundaries

The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is
called a transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary.
The concept of transform faults originated with Canadian
geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed that these large faults or
fracture zones connect two spreading centers (divergent plate
boundaries) or, less commonly, trenches (convergent plate boundaries). Most transform faults
are found on the ocean floor. They commonly offset the active spreading ridges, producing
zig-zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes. However, a few
occur on land, for example the San Andreas fault zone in California. The San Andreas fault
zone, which is about 1,300 km long. Along it, the Pacific Plate has been grinding horizontally
past the North American Plate for 10 million years, at an average rate of about 5 cm/yr. Other,
transform boundaries are San Andreas Fault, Anatolian Fault near Turky, St. Paul Fault and
Alpine fault in New Zealands.

Along the transform boundaries, the earthquakes occur at shallow depth, unaccompanied by
volcanic activity. The nature of slip is always srike-slip and magnitude up to 8.0 is reported on
the transform boundaries. The friction between the plates can be so great that very large strain
can built up before they are periodically relieved by large earthquakes. Neverthless, activity
does not always occur along the entire length of the fault during any one earthquake. For
instance, the 1906 San Francisco event was caaused by breakage only along the northern end
of the San Andreas Fault. 1994-North ridge earthquake, 1989-Lomaprita earthquake.

22
2.5 THE MOVEMENT OF INDIAN PLATE:

Among the most dramatic and visible creations of

plate-tectonic forces are the lofty Himalayas, which
stretch 2,900 km along the border between India
and Tibet. This immense mountain range began to
form between 40 and 50 million years ago, when
two large landmasses, India and Eurasia, driven by
plate movement, collided. Because both these
continental landmasses have about the same rock
density, one plate could not be subducted under
the other. The pressure of the impinging plates
could only be relieved by thrusting skyward,
contorting the collision zone, and forming the
jagged Himalayan peaks.

About 225 million years ago, India was a large

island still situated off the Australian coast, and a
vast ocean (called Tethys Sea) separated India
from the Asian continent. When Pangaea broke
apart about 200 million years ago, India began to
forge northward. By studying the history--and
ultimately the closing--of the Tethys, scientists
have reconstructed India's northward journey.
About 80 million years ago, India was located
roughly 6,400 km south of the Asian continent,
moving northward at a rate of about 9 m a century.
When India rammed into Asia about 40 to 50 million
years ago, its northward advance slowed by about
half. The collision and associated decrease in the
rate of plate movement are interpreted to mark the
beginning of the rapid uplift of the Himalayas.

After the collison both the Indian and Euracian plates are moving towards north. This was
verified on the basis of various evidences, one of them is the plant & animal fossils found fifty
kilometers north of Lhasa (the capital of Tibet). Scientists found layers of pink sandstone
containing grains of magnetic minerals (magnetite) that have recorded the pattern of the
Earth's flip-flopping magnetic field. These sandstones also contain plant and animal fossils that
were deposited when the Tethys Sea periodically flooded the region. The study of these fossils
has revealed not only their geologic age but also the type of environment and climate in which
they formed. For example, such studies indicate that the fossils lived under a relatively mild,
wet environment about 105 million years ago, when Tibet was closer to the equator. Today,
Tibet's climate is much more arid, reflecting the region's uplift and northward shift of nearly
2,000 km. Fossils found in the sandstone layers offer dramatic evidence of the climate change
in the Tibetan region due to plate movement over the past 100 million years.

2.6. SEISMICITY OF THE EARTH

The epicenters of about 30,000 earthquakes are now reported annually by the International
Seismological Center (ISC). A global map of seismicity reveals most of the actively deforming
regions of the earth. The seismicity map is important evidence in support of the plate tectonic
theory, and delineates the presently active plate margins. The major plate boundaries and the
diffuse bands of seismicity associated with the distributed deformation zones such as the
Alpine-Himalayan belt and the Great Basin in the western United States can be traced out

23
easily. The existence of seismicity thus can be used to deduce the tectonic activity of a region,
particularly in submarine regions and other areas that are otherwise inaccessible.

Earthquake epicenters are not uniformly distributed over the earth surface, but occur
predominantly along narrow zones of interplate seismic activity. The circum-pacific zone, in
which 75-80% of the annual release of seismic energy takes place, forms a girdle that
encompasses the mountain range on the west of the Americans and the island arcs along the
east coast of Asia and Australia.

The Mediterranean-trans-asiatic zone, responsible for about 15-20% of the annual energy
release, begins at the Azores triple juction in the Atlantic Ocean and extends along the Azores-
Gibraltar ridge, after passing through North Africa it makes a loop through the Italian peninsula,
the Alps and the Dinarides; it then runs through turkey, Iran, The Himalayan mountain chain
and the island arcs of the Southeast Asia, where it terminates at the circum-pacific zone.

The system of oceanic ridges and rises form the third most active zone of seismicity, with about
3-7% of the annually released seismic energy. In addition to their seismicity, each of these
zones is also characterized by active volcanism.

The remainder of the Earth is considered to be aseismic. However, no region of the Earth can
be regarded as completely earthquake-free. About 1% of the global seismicity is due to
intraplate earthquakes, which occur remote from the major seismic zones. These are not
necessarily insignificant: some very large and damaging earthquakes (e.g. the Koyna, 1967;
Latur, 1993 and Jabalpur, 1997 earthquakes of India) have been of the intraplate variety.

Earthquakes can also be classified according to their focal depths. Earthquakes with shallow
focal depths less than 70 km occur in all the seismically active zones; only shallow earthquakes
occur on the oceanic ridge systems. The largest proportion (about 85%) of the annual release
of seismic energy is liberated in shallow-focus earthquakes. The remainder is set free by
earthquakes with intermediate focal depths of 70-300 km (about 12%) and by earthquakes
with deep focal depths greater than 300 km (about 3%). These occur only in the circum-Pacific
and Mediterranean-transasiatic seismic zones, and accompany the process of plate
subduction. Further, about 85% of the moment release occurs at subduction zones.

Volcanic earthquakes also produce insignificant amounts of moment relea se. In the
examination of the seismotectonics of any region, one needs to keep an awareness of the
relative moment released in different earthquakes and of that with respect to the moment
release expected from the total deformation of the region. The commo n use of magnitude often
obscures these differences because it is a logarithmic measure of moment and because,
unless moment magnitude is used, it saturates for the earthquakes that contribute the most to
the moment release.

24
2.7. INTRAPLATE EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

Although the vast majority of seismic moment release occurs at plate bound aries, some
regions of seismicity are far removed from plate boundaries. This seismicity is referred to as
intraplate, and it represents internal deformation of a plate. About 1% of the global seismicity
is due to intraplate earthquakes, which occur remote from the major seismic zones. These
are not necessarily insignificant: some very large and damaging earthquakes (e.g. the Koyna,
1967; Latur, 1993 and Jabalpur, 1997 earthquakes of India) have been of the intraplate variety.
The nature of intraplate seismicity is often quite complicated, and the tectonic driving
mechanisms are poorly understood. Intraplate and interplate earthquakes differ in two
important ways.
a. The recurrence interval of intraplate events is generally much longer than that of
interplate events.
b. Intraplate events typically have much higher stress drops.
These two observations may be coupled; since intraplate faults fail infrequently, they appear
to be "stronger" than interplate faults. There are several possible explana tions for this. Faults
that move frequently with a high slip rate will produce a well defined gouge zone, which
weakens the fault. Further, interseismic healing, involving chemical processes that
progressively weld a fault, will be more effective for faults with long recurrence times.

Intraplate seismicity is difficult to characterize seismically because the recurrence times are
long and we have few examples of repeat events. Often, earthquakes occur on old zones of
crustal weakness such as sutures or rifts that are reactivated by the present stress field. The
faults that produce intraplate earthquakes are not easily recognized at the surface. This is
because the faulting is usually several kilometers deep, and little cumulative offset occurs
because of the long recurrence intervals.

The origin of the stress field

that causes intraplate
earthquakes is somewhat
problematic. The seismic
activity of the peninsular
India can be explained
using the plate tectonic
forces. There are several
linear seismic zones in the
Indian peninula. One of
these runs along the NW
direction and divides the
peninsula into two large
blocks. Most of the seismic
zones are trending along
one of the two dircetions;
NW or NE. These
directions are consistent
with the conjugate system
of faults expected to
develop in an approximately NS compressive-
strain regime. The collision of the Indian plate provides just such a strain environment. Due to
the resistance to subduction of the Indian plate, a part of the strain due to plate convergence
is released in the peninsula- along the NW-and NE trending faults, giving rise to many of the
seismic zones.

Some intraplate earthquakes are induced; this means that human activity triggers the
earthquakes. The example of reservoir induced seismicity is the seismicity associated with the
Koyna dam in the Deccan traps of western India. The impounding of water began at Koyna in
1962, in an area that appears to have been aseismic for at least the previous hundred years.

25
In early 1964, earthquakes began to occur under the lake at shallow depths. In 1967,
earthquakes with M = 5.5 and 6.5 occurred, the largest event causing 117 casu alties. Since
that time, the seismicity level has decreased, although a peak in seismicity appears to occur 1
to 2 months after the rainy season when the reservoir is at its highest level. What causes
reservoirs to generate earthquakes? It is unlikely that the cause is simply the weight of the
water, which would only add a tiny fraction of the total stress 2 or 3 km below the surface. A
more likely explanation is that the pore pressure increases because of the hydrostatic head of
the reservoir.

Fig. 2 Seismicity map of India (after, IS:1893 (Pt. 1): 2002)

26
2.8. SEISM OTECTONICS OF INDIA
Earthquakes have been occurring in the Indian subcontinent from the times immemorial but
reliable historical records are available for the last 200 years ( Oldham, 1883 ). From the
beginning of this century; more than 700 earthquakes of magnitude 5 or more have been
recorded and felt in India until 2002 as given in the catalogues prepared by US National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/USGS, India Meteorological
Department (IMD), National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI). Out of this, Peninsular
India has experienced only about 100 earthquakes of magnitude 5 or more. Seismotectonics
of India can be divided in to four zones. Himalayan Zone: MFT, MBT, MCT & ISZ; Andaman
Nicobar thrust best; Kutch region and Intra-continental tectonic activity.

i. Himalayas region: Himalayas is

one of the tectonically most active
belts of the World and one of the
rare sites of active continent-
continent collision. A major portion
of the strain due to collision is taken
up in the thrusting phenomenon
along the Himalaya while the
remaining strain is distributed north
of it in a wide area from Tibetan
Plateau to Pamirs. The push from the Asian side has given rise to compression from north
producing gigantic thrusts progressing from north to south. The existing thrusts in the
Himalaya from north to south ward are
• Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ISZ) marks the northern limit of Indian subcontinent and
developed when India collided with Asia.
• Main Central Thrust (MCT): about 250km south of ISZ & developed during 25 Ma. It
is at the base of central crystaline zone and dips 30 0 to 450 northward.
• Main Boundary Thrust (MBT): about 50 km south of MCT & formed during 10Ma. It
has a steep thrust plain 60 0 to 800 northward and appears to flatten out at depth.
• Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) :South of MBT being developed

Himalayan region earthquakes

SN Name Location Year Magnitude Death
1. Kashmir Earthquake Srinagar, j. k. 1885 --- 3,000
2. Shillaong Earthquake Shillaong, Platau 1897 8.7 1,600
3. Kangra Earthquake Kangra, H.P. 1905 8.5 20,000
4. Bihar-Nepal Earthquake Bihar-Nepal boarder 1934 8.3 10,000
5. Assam Earthquake Assam 1950 8.5 1,526
6. Bihar-Nepal Earthquake Bihar-Nepal boarder 1988 6.5 1,000
7. Indo-Burma Earthquake India-Burma Boarder 1988 7.3
8. Uttarkashi Earthquake Uttarkashi, U.A. 1991 7.0 768
9. Chamoli Earthquake Chamoli, U.A. 1999 6.8 54
ii. Andaman Nicobar: Earthquakes in the Andaman and Nicobar region are occuring due to
convergence of the indian and asian plates.

SN Name of earthquake Location year Magnitude Casuality

1. Andaman-Nicobar EQ Andaman-Nicobar 1941 8.1

iii. Kutch region: The faults in Peninsular India are small and so only moderate earthquakes
have occurred except in Kutch region. The source of stress responsible for tectonic activity in the
Kutch region is not well defined.
Kutch region earthquakes

27
SN Name of earthquake Location year Mag./Max. Casuality
intensity
1. Samaji Earthquake Samaji, Delta of Indus 1668 X
2. Kutch Earthquake Kutch , Gujarat 1819 8.0 2,000
3. Anjar Earthquake Anjar, Gujrat 1956 6.1 115
4. Bhuj Earthquake Bachau, Gujarat 2001 6.9 20,000

iv. Peninsular India: The northward

movement of the Indian plate and the
continued convergence process along
the Himalaya has transmitted large
northerly compression in the Indian
Peninsula, causing NE oriented faults.
The other tectonic features like ENE
trending Narmada Son graben and NW
trending Godavari and Mahanadi
grabens are older. Sometimes the NW
faults have been displaced by the
younger NE faults. Present day
tectonics as indicated by seismicity
study shows strike-slip faulting either
along NE or NW trending faults by
reactivation. Normal faults along
Narmada, Godavari and Koyna rifts
are also reactivated occasionally.

The active faults in the indogangatic

planes are: AR-Arravalli Ridge; DHR-
Delhi Hardwar Ridge; MF-Moradabad
Fault; LF-Lucknow Fault; FR-Faizabad
Ridge; PF-Patna Fault; MSR-Monghyr
Saharsa Ridge and DF-Dauki Fault.
Similarly in the rest of the peninusular india are NSL-Narmada-Son Lineament; DG-Damodar
Graben; MG-Mahanadi Graben; GG-Godavari graben; DT- Deccan Trap; WCF-West Coast Fault;
CB-Cuddapah Basin and KOF-Koyna Fault.

SN Name of earthquake Location year Mag./Max Casuality

Intensity
1. Bombay-Surat Bombay-Surat 1856 VII
Earthquake
2. Son Valley Earthquake Son Valley 1927 6.5
3. Satpura Earthquake Satpura 1938 6.3
4. Balaghat Earthquake Balaghat, M.P. 1957 5.5
5. Koyna Earthquake Koyna 1967 6.0 177
6. Ongole Earthquake Ongole, Bhadrachalam 1967 5.4
7. Broach Earthquake Broach 1970 5.4 26
8. Latur Earthquake Latur, Maharashtra 1993 6.2 10,000
9. Jabalpur Earthquake Jabalpur, M.P. 1997 6.0 39

28
 3: EARTHQUAKE SIZE
3.1 EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY

Large earthquakes produce alterations to the Earth's natural surface features, or severe damage
to man-made structures such as buildings, bridges and dams. Even small earthquakes can result
in disproportionate damage to these edifices when inferior constructional methods or materials
have been utilized. Intensity is a way of measuring or rating the effects of an earthquake at
different sites. The intensity of an earthquake at a particular place is classified on the basis of
the local character of the visible effects it produces. It depends very much on the acuity of the
observer, and is in principle subjective. Intensity estimates have proved to be a viable method
of assessing earthquake size, including historical earthquakes.

The rating of Intensity of the effects an earthquake does not require any instrumental
measurements. In order to evaluate the intensity of site (1) questionnaires may be distributed to
the population, asking for observations; (2) personal feeling that can be used to estimate the
intensity. The questionnaires are evaluated with the aid of an intensity scale and the intensity
assigned at the location of each observer is plotted on the map.

The first attempt to grade earthquake severity was made in the late 18th century by Domenico
Pignataro, an Italian physician, who classified more than 1000 earthquakes that devastated the
southern Italian province of Calabria in the years 1783-1786. His crude analysis classified the
earthquakes according to whether they were very strong, strong, moderate or slight. In the mid
19th century an Irish engineer, Robert Mallet, produced a list of 6831 earthquakes and plotted
their estimated locations, producing the first map of the world's seismicity and establishing that
earthquakes occurred in distinct zones. He also used a four-stage intensity scale to grade
earthquake damage, and constructed the first isoseismal maps with lines that outlined areas with
broadly equal grades of damage.

The Rossi-Forel intensity scale, developed in 1883 by the Italian scientist M. S. de Rossi and
the Swiss scientist F. Forel, incorporated ten stages describing effects of increasing damage. In
1902 an Italian seismologist, G. Mercalli, proposed a still more extensive, expanded intensity
scale which reclassified earthquake severity in twelve stages. A variation, the Modified Mercalli
(MM) scale, was developed in 1931 to suit building conditions in the United States, where a
later modification is in common use. The Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) scale,
introduced in Europe in 1964, also has twelve stages and differs from the MMI scale mainly in
details. Modified in 1981, it has proved useful for over 30 years. A new European
Macroseismic Scale (EMS) was proposed in 1992. The new 12-stage EMS-scale is based on
the MSK scale but takes into account the vulnerability of buildings to earthquake damage and
incorporates more rigorous evaluation of the degree of damage to structures with different
building standards.

The Mevedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) and Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scales are
commonly used to seek information on the severity of effects of an earthquake. Intensity ratings
are expressed as Roman numerals. The Intensity Scale differs from the Richter Magnitude Scale
in that the effects of any one earthquake vary greatly from place to place, so there may be many
Intensity values (e.g.: IV, VII) measured from one earthquake. Each earthquake, on the other
hand, should have just one Magnitude.

29
MSK Intensity Scale (Mevedev-Sponheuer-Karnik, 1964):
The main features of MSK intensity scale are as follows:

a) Type of Structures (Buildings):

Type of structure Definitions

A Buildings in fieldstone, rural structures, unburnt-brick
houses, clay houses.
B Ordinary brick buildings, buildings of the large-block and
prefabricated type, half timbered structures, buildings in
naturally dressed (hewn) stone.
C Reinforced buildings, well built wooden structures

b) Definition of Quantity:

Quantity Percentage
Single, few About 5 %
Many About 50 %
Most About 75 %

c) Classification of Damage to Buildings:

Grade Definitions Descriptions

G1 Slight damage Fine cracks in plaster; fall of small pieces of plaster
G2 Moderate Small cracks in walls; fall of fairly damage large pieces of
plaster, pantiles slip off; cracks in chimneys; parts of
chimney fall down.
G3 Heavy damage Large and deep cracks in walls; fall of chimneys.
G4 Destruction Gaps in walls; parts of buildings may collapse; separate parts
of the building lose their cohesion; and inner walls collapse.
G5 Total damage Total collapse of buildings.

MSK Intensity Scale:

Intensity Descriptions
I Not The intensity of the vibration is below the limit of
noticeable sensibility; the tremor is detected and recorded by
seismographs only.

II Scarcely Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in

noticeable houses, especially on upper floors of buildings
(very slight)

30
III Weak, The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people, outdoors only
partially in favourable circumstances. The vibration is like that due to the
observed passing of a light truck. Attentive observers notice a slight
only swinging of hanging objects, somewhat more heavily on upper
floors
IV Largely The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors
observed by few. Here and there people awake, but no one is
frightened. The vibration is like that due to the passing of a
heavily loaded truck. Windows, doors and dishes rattle.
Furniture begins to shake. Hanging objects swing slightly.
Liquids in open Vessels are slightly disturbed. In standing
motor cars the shock is noticeable.

V Awakening a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by many.

Many sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors. Animals
become uneasy. Buildings tremble throughout. Hanging
objects swing considerably. Pictures knock against walls or
swing out of place. Occasionally pendulum clocks stop,
Unstable objects may be overturned or shifted. Open doors
and windows are thrust open and slam-back again. Liquids
spill in small amounts from well-filled open containers. The
sensation of vibration is like that due to heavy object falling
inside the buildings.
b) Slight damages in buildings of Type A are possible (G1).
c) Sometimes changes in flow of springs.
VI Frightening a)Felt by most indoors and outdoors. Many people in buildings
are frightened and run outdoors. A few persons lose their
balance. Domestic animals run out of their stalls. In few
instances dishes and glassware may break, books fall down.
Heavy furniture may possibly move and small steeple bells
may ring.
b)Damage of Grade G1 is sustained in single buildings of Type
B and in man y of Type A. Damage in few buildings of Type
A is of Grade 2.
c) In few cases cracks up to widths of 1.0 cm possible in wet
ground; in mountains occasional landslips; change in flow of
springs and in level of well water are observed.
VII Damage of a)Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it
buildings difficult to stand. The vibration is noticed by persons driving
motor cars. Large bells ring
b)In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade I is caused; in
many buildings of Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 3, few of Grade
4.
c)In single instances landslips of roadway on steep slopes;
cracks in roads; seams of pipelines damaged; cracks in stone
walls

31
VIII Destruction a)Fright and panic; also persons driving motor-cars are
of buildings disturbed. Here and there branches of trees break off. Even
heavy furniture moves and partly overturns. Hanging lamps
are damaged in part
b) Most buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 2, and few
of Grade 3. Most buildings of Type B suffer damage of Grade
3, and most buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 4.
Occasional breaking of pipe seams. Memorials and
monuments move and twist. Tombstones overturn. Stone-
walls collapse .
c) Small landslips in hollows and on banked roads on steep
slopes; cracks in ground up to widths of several cm. Water in
lakes becomes turbid. New reservoirs come into existence.
Dry wells refill and existing wells becomes dry. In many
cases change in flow and level of water is observed.
IX General a) General panic; considerable damage to furniture. Animals
damage to run to and fro in confusion and cry.
buildings b) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 3, and a
few of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type B show damage of
Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type A
suffer damage of Grade 5. Monuments and columns fall.
Considerable damage to reservoirs; underground pipes
partly broken. In individual cases railway lines are bent and
roadway damaged
c) On flat land overflow of water, sand and mud is often
observed. Ground cracks to widths of up to 10 cm, on slopes
and river banks more than 10 cm; furthermore a large
number of slight cracks in ground; falls of rock, many
landslides and earth flows; large waves in water. Dry wells
renew-their flow and existing wells dry up
X General b)Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 4, and a
destruction few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type B show damage of
of buildings Grade 5; most of Type A have destruction of Grade 5; critical
damage to dams and dykes and severe damage to bridges.
Railway lines are bent slightly. Underground pipes are
broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt show waves.
c) In ground, cracks up to widths of several cm, sometimes up
to 1 m. Parallel to water course occur broad fissures. Loose
ground slides from steep slopes. From river-bank and steep
coasts, considerable landslides are possible. In coastal areas,
displacement of sand and mud; change of water level in wells;
water from canals, lakes, rivers, etc, thrown on land. New
lakes occur.
XI b)Severe damage even to well built buildings, bridges, water
Destruction dams and railway lines; highways become useless;
underground pipes destroyed.
c) Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and fissures,
as well as by movement in horizontal and vertical directions;

32
 numerous landslips and falls of rock. The intensity of the
earthquake requires to be investigated specially.
XII Landscape b) Practically all structures above and below ground are greatly
changes damaged or destroyed.
c) The surface of the ground is radically changed. Considerable
ground cracks with extensive vertical and horizontal
movements are observed. Falls of rock and slumping of river-
banks over wide areas, lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear,
and rivers are deflected. The intensity of the earthquake
requires to be investigated specially.

3.2 ISOSEISMAL MAP:

A unique type of map is often constructed to show the areal variation of intensity for a single
earthquake. The procedure involves plotting the intensity values to their respective location on
a base map and then connecting equal or a certain range of inte nsity values by a line. These
lines by general definition are termed isolines or isopleths (lines connecting points of some
equal value). Because the lines in this particular example are connecting points of equal
earthquake intensity, they are called isoseismals and the map is called an isoseismal map.
The areas enclosed by the isoseismals are, therefore, characterized by a range of intensity
different from that of other areas.

The contours shown in figure represent equal strength of shaking during Bhuj earthquake of
January 26, 2001. The numbers (ranging from V to X) are intensity values and should not be
confused with earthquake magnitude. The intensity is usually strongest near the earthquake
epicenter and decreases with distance until eventually, at some point far away, the earthquake
is no longer felt by anyone. Other factors such as the local geology beneath a particular site,
the regional geology and the orientation of the earthquake fault can all affect intensities. The
numbers on the map represent relative shaking strength and can by qualitatively interpreted.

 Earthquake isoseismal maps provide valuable documents of macro-seismic effects of large

earthquakes.
 Isoseismal maps of past earthquakes help us to understand the nature of the earthquakes
in a particular region.
 Scientifically, it is still a far cry to predict an earthquake, and to be able to take effective
steps for minimizing the damage due to the same. In the absence of earthquake prediction,
the next best approach that one can hope to follow is to prepare for an area, long term
seismic zoning maps or seismic hazard index map which in practical terms means to
quantify, the areas according to their seismic activity.
 Comparison of the isoseismal maps with the geological maps helps to explain the response
of ground to the shaking of an earthquake.
 Intensity data are valuable for the construction of seismic risk map, which portray
geographically the estimated earthquake hazard of a region or country.
 Seismic risk maps are useful in planning safe sites for important structures like nuclear
power plants or high dams. Risk maps are also valuable to insurance companies.

33
Fig. 1 Isoseismal map for Bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001.

34
 3.3 EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE SCALES

a. Magnitude scales based on recorded amplitude

Magnitude is a measure of the
amount of energy released during
an earthquake. It may be
expressed using the Richter
scale. To calculate magnitude, the
amplitude of waves on a
seismogram is measured,
corrected for the distance
between the recording instrument
and the earthquake epicentre.
Since magnitude is representative
of the earthquake itself, there is
thus only one magnitude per
earthquake. Each earthquake has
a unique amount of energy, but
magnitude values given by
different seismological
observatories for an event may
vary. Depending on the size,
nature, and location of an Fig. Sample of the data used by Richter to construct the
earthquake, seismologists use magnitude scale for southern California. The symbols
several different methods to represent observed peak ground motions for earthquakes
recorded during January of 1932 (different symbols represent
estimate magnitude. The
different earthquakes). The dashed lines represent the
uncertainty in an estimate of the reference curve for the decrease in peak-motion amplitude
magnitude is about plus or minus with increasing distance from the earthquake. A magnitude
0.3 units. Seismologists often 3.0 earthquake is defined as the size event that generates a
revise magnitude estimates as maximum ground motion of 1 millimeter (mm) at 100 km
they obtain and analyze additional distance.
data. The magnitude scale is
logarithmic. This means that, at the same distance, an earthquake of magnitude 6 produces
vibrations with amplitudes 10 times greater than those from a magnitude 5 earthquake and
100 times greater than those from a magnitude 4 earthquake.

i). Richter Magnitude/Local magnitude (M L):

In 1931 a Japanese seismologist named Kiyoo Wadati constructed a chart of maximum ground
motion versus distance for a number of earthquakes and noted that the plots for different
earthquakes formed parallel, curved lines (the larger earthquakes produced la rger amplitudes).
The fact that earthquakes of different size generated curves that were roughly parallel
suggested that a single number could quantify the relative size of different earthquakes.

One of Dr. Charles F. Richter's most valuable contributions was to recognize that the seismic
waves radiated by all earthquakes can provide good estimates of their magnitudes. In 1935
Charles Richter constructed a similar diagram of peak ground motion versus distance and used
it to create the first earthquake magnitude scale (a logarithmic relationship between
earthquake size and observed peak ground motion). He collected the recordings of seismic
waves from a large number of earthquakes, and developed a calibrated system of measuring
them for magnitude. Richter showed that, the larger the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the
larger the amplitude of ground motion at a given distance.

35
The idea of a logarithmic earthquake magnitude scale struck into the mind of Richter after
analysing the roughly parallel curves generated by different size earthquakes on the plot of log
of the recorded amplitude at various epicentral distances. The logarithm of recorded amplitude
was used due to enormous variability in amplitude. The parallel nature of curves for different
earthquakes suggested that a single number could quantify the relative size of different
earthquakes. He proposed zero magnitude for an earthquake that would produce a record with
amplitude of 1.0 m at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre on Wood-Anderson (WA)
seismograph with 1.25 Hz natural frequency and 2800 magnification factor. Thus zero
magnitude amplitude (A0) at 100km epicentral distance is 1.0 m. In another way, Richter
magnitude ML at 100 km epicentral distance can be written as

M L  log10 A0 ( m) at 100 km epicentral distance (1)

Means ML is zero when A0=1.0 m. Thus, an earthquake trace with amplitude 10m on WA-
seismograph at an epicentral distance of 100 km has magnitude 1.0. But, the actual ground
displacement at 100 km epicentral distance for magnitude 1.0 is only 0.00356m (10m/2800).

He calibrated his scale of magnitudes using measured maximum amplitudes of shear waves
recorded in southern California. The logarithmic form of Richter magnitude scale (M L) for any
epicentral distance is as given below.

M L  log10 A( m)  log10 A0 ( m) for any epicentral distance (2)

Where A0 is the zero magnitude amplitude for different epicental distances. How could a
magnitude be less than zero? Remember the equation 2. Equation 2 can also be written as

 1 
M L  log10 A( m)  log10  
 A0 m
The zero magnitude amplitude can be computed for different epicentral distances taking into
account the effects of geometrical spreading and absorption of considered wave. The Richter
Magnitude equation used in Southern California for different epicentral distances and
amplitude measured in ‘mm’ , and 18 km fixed focal depth is as follows.

ML = log10 A (mm) + Distance correction factor ‘  ’ (3)

Distance correction factor ‘  ’ is log of inverse of zero magnitude amplitude measured in mm
at an epicentral distance ‘∆’ in km. For, measured amplitude in ‘mm’, the distance correction
factors at different epicentral distances are given in table 1.

The distance correction factors given in table 1 cannot be used in other regions of the world
since considered focal depth was constant. So, to compute M L in any region like Himalayas,
first zero magnitude amplitude should be determined according to the original definition of ML
at 100 km and different focal depth taking into account the geometrical spreading and
appropriate measure of absorption and then distance correction factors for different epicentral
distances should be computed.

Since, nowadays, sufficient time resolution of high frequency r ecords is no longer a problem,
therefore frequency dependent distance correction factors matched with Richter scale at 100
km distance have been developed based on epicentral as well as hypo -central distances
(Hutton and Boore, 1987, 97; Kim, 1998 and Langston et al., 1998).

Although, Richter magnitude was originally developed using earthquake records of WA -

seismometer in Southern California but the records of any short period seismometers can be
used. Now, procedures are available to synthesise precisely the response characteristics of
WA-seismograph from digital broadband recordings (Plesinger et al., 1996). Therefore, WA-
36
seismographs are no longer required for carrying out M L determinations. In a first
approximation, ML can be determined by converting record amplitudes from another
seismographs with a displacement frequency response ‘Mag (T i)’ into respective WA-trace
amplitudes by multiplying them with the ratio MagWA (T i)/ Mag (T i) for given period of Amax
(Greenhalgh and Singh, 1986).

Table 1: Distance correction factors (  ) for M L (Elementary Seismology, Richter,

1958).
 (km) ()  (km) ()  (km) ()  (km) ()
0 1.4 90 3.0 260 3.8 440 4.6
10 1.5 100 3.0 280 3.9 460 4.6
20 1.7 120 3.1 300 4.0 480 4.7
30 2.1 140 3.2 320 4.1 500 4.7
40 2.4 160 3.3 340 4.2 520 4.8
50 2.6 180 3.4 360 4.3 540 4.8
60 2.8 200 3.5 380 4.4 560 4.9
70 2.8 220 3.65 400 4.5 580 4.9
80 2.9 240 3.7 420 4.5 600 4.9

These include body-wave magnitude (mB) and surface-wave magnitude (MS). Each is valid for
a particular period range and type of seismic wave. In its range of validity each is equivalent
to the Richter magnitude. Magnitude should be a measure of seismic energy released and
thus be proportional to the velocity of ground motion, i.e. to A/T with T as the period of the
considered wave. So, the general form of Richter magnitude scale based on measurements
of ground displacement amplitudes A of considered wave with periods T is.

M  log10 A  T max
  , h   Cr  C s (5)

Where (∆,h), distance correction factor, is log of inverse of zero magnitude amplitude at an
epicentral distance ‘’ and focal depth ‘h’. Cr is the regional source correction term to account
for azimuth dependent source directivity and C s is the station correction factor dependent on
local site effects. (A/T) for different periods are computed and maximum of them is used in the
magnitude computation.

ii). Surface Wave Magnitude:

Gutenberg and Richter
developed two magnitude
scales for application to
distant earthquakes: mB is
measured using the first five
seconds of a teleseismic
(distant) body waves and MS
is derived from the maximum
amplitude Surface waves.
Thus, mB and MS can be
computed, if the distance Fig. 2 Seismogram with body and surface waves used in m b
correction factors are and MS computations.
known for epicentral
distances  and focal depth h for considered wave. A commonly used equation for computing
MS of a shallow focus (<50 km) earthquake from seismograph records between epicentral
distances 200<<1600 is the following one proposed by Bath (1966).

37
 M S  log10  s   1.66 log10   3.3
A (6)
 T  max
Where AS is the amplitude of the horizontal ground motion in ‘m’ deduced from the surface
wave with period T (around 202 seconds) and epicentral distance  is in degree.

iii). Body Wave Magnitude (mB ):

Gutenberg (1945) developed body wave magnitude mB for teleseismic body-waves such as P,
PP and S in the period range 0.5 s to 12 s. It is based on theoretical amplitude calculations
corrected for geometric spreading and attenuation and then adjusted to empirical observations
from shallow and deep-focus earthquakes.
mB  log10 A  T max
  , h  (7)
Gutenberg and Richter (1956) published a table with distance correction factors (, h) for
body waves, which enable magnitude determinations. These distance correction factors are
used when ground displacement amplitudes are measured in ‘m’.

iv). Body Wave Magnitude (mb ):

Later, with the introduction of the WWSSN (World Wide Standardised Seismic Network) in the
1960s it became customary to determine mb on the basis of short-period narrow-band P-wave
recordings using short-period 1s-seismometers only (Fig. 2). Additionally, it was recommended
to take the largest amplitude within the first few seconds (5 half cycles) instead of measuring
the maximum amplitude in the whole P-wave train. The resulting short-period mb values
strongly underestimated the body wave magnitudes for mB > 5.

b. Moment Magnitude:

Rupture dimensions and displacements:

What length of a fault ruptures in

an earthquake, how large are the
displacements, and how far away
from the fault plane does the
elastic rebound extend? The
ruptured area of a fault due to a
large earthquake has a length
along strike that is usually much
greater than its depth down dip, so
we can approximate it by a
rectangle, as shown in Figure. The
simplest way to measure the
length, L, and displacement, D, of
a fault is to look at the newly faulted surface, or fault break, but often ruptures do not break the
surface or are under water so indirect means are used, as they must be to estimate the down-
dip extent, W, of the rupture. After large earthquakes there follow many smaller earthquakes,
called aftershocks, whose numbers dwindle with time. These are believed to reveal the rupture
plane because most of them lie on a plane that also includes the main shock, and when there
is a visible fault break the aftershock plane is found to match it in position and length .

The extent of strain release can be deduced by comparing accurate maps made just before
and after an earthquake. Though maps are unlikely to be made just before an earthquake,
earlier maps can reveal the extent of the strained area, and - coupled with measurements of
the rebound in a few places give a good idea of the area and amount of strain release. In

38
addition to the above methods, there are other, more sophisticated ways of estimating the
dimensions of rupture and its displacement (such as examining the form of the seismic waves
radiated in different directions), but these will not be described.

The most commonly quoted

measure of earthquake size is the
Richter magnitude but a later and
better measure is the seismic
moment, Mo. The estimated
magnitude based on both body
waves and surface waves are
dependent on the period of the
portion of the wave train with
maximum amplitude.
Seismologist belief that for very
large earthquakes MS and mb
under-estimate the energy
released. Seismologists have
more recently developed a
standard magnitude scale based on long period spectrum of the seismic waves making use of
physical dimension of the focus. It is called the moment magnitude, and it comes from the
seismic moment. Just before a fault ruptures, the shear forces on either side of the fault (Fig.
) exert a couple, whose size, or moment, equals the product of the shear forces and the
perpendicular distance between them, that is, 2Fb. The force F depends on the strain, the
area of the rupture, A, and the rigidity modulus, . The strain depends on the fault offset and
the width of the strained volume, and so equals d/2b, where d is the average displace ment.
These are combined as follows:
Moment of couple (Mo) = F. 2b
As F =  A x strain, and strain = d/2b
Mo =  A d
The rigidity modulus is measured on samples of rock or is estimated from knowledge of the
rocks in the area; as this quantity varies far less than do the dimensions of the rupture, its value
need not be known exactly. The seismic moment can also be estimated from the forms of
seismograms, useful when there are no aftershock data.

The formula above, for the moment of an earthquake, is fundamental to seismologists

understanding of how dangerous faults of a certain size can be. There is a standard way to
convert a seismic moment to a magnitude. The equation is:

Broadly, the larger the rupture, the larger will be the earthquake. The ruptures of small
earthquakes do not extend over the whole of the down-dip extent, W, of the fault plane, but
above some size of earthquake they do, and then a rupture can enlarge only by increasing its
length, L, along the fault. As a result, the dependence of seismic moment on rupture length is
different for small and large earthquakes. The relationship also depends on the type of fault.
Strike-slip faults do not have so large a depth W as thrust faults do, so, to produce a given
seismic moment, the rupture is longer, normal faults lie between. The largest earthquakes
have very great rupture lengths; for instance, for the 1960 Chile earthquake, one of the largest
in the past hundred years, the displacement, which was along a thrust fault, was 800 km long.
This suggests that earthquakes cannot be much larger, for to be so they would have to extend
across whole continents.

39
3.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY:

The intensity and magnitude scales for estimating the size of an earthquake are defined
independently but they have some common features. Intensity is a measure of earth quake
size based on the degree of local damage it causes at the location of an observer. The
definition of magnitude is based on the amplitude of ground motion inferred from the signal
recorded by the observer's seismograph, and of course it is the nature of the ground motion -
its amplitude, velocity and acceleration - which produce the local damage used to classify
intensity. However, in the definition of magnitude the ground-motion amplitude is corrected for
epicentral distance and converted to a focal characteristic. Isoseismal maps showing the
regional distribution of damage give the maximum intensity (Imax ) experienced in an
earthquake. However, for earthquakes with focal depth h< 50 km the dependence of Imax on
the focal depth can be taken into account, and it is possible to relate the maximum intensity to
the magnitude with an empirical equation (Karnik, 1969):
I max  1.5M S  1.8 log10 h  1.7
This type of equation is useful for estimating quickly the probable damage that an earthquake
causes. For example, it predicts that in the epicentral region of an earthquake with magnitude
5 and a shallow focal depth of 10 km, the maximum MSK intensity will be VII (moderately
serious damage).

3.5 ENERGY RELEASED IN AN EARTHQUAKE:

The definition of earthquake magnitude relates it to the logarithm of the amplitude of a seismic
disturbance. Noting that the energy of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude it
should be no surprise that the magnitude is also related to the logarithm of the energy. Several
equations have been proposed for this relationship. An empirical formula worked out by
Gutenberg and Richter (Gutenberg, 1956), relates the energy release E to the surface -wave
magnitude MS
log10 E  4.4  1.5M S (1)

where E is in joules. An alternative version of the energy-magnitude relation, suggested by

Bath (1966) for magnitudes MS>5, is:
log10 E  5.24  1.44M S (2)

More recently, Dr. Hiroo Kanamori came up with a relationship between seismic moment and
seismic wave energy. It gives:
Energy=(Moment)/20,000 (3)

For this relation moment is in units of dyne-cm, and energy is in units of ergs. The logarithmic
nature of eqn. 1 & 2 means that the energy release increases very rapidly with increasing
magnitude. For example, when the magnitudes of two earthquakes differ by 1, their
corresponding energies differ by a factor 28 (=10 1.44) according to Bath's equation, or 32 (10 1.5)
according to the Gutenberg-Richter formula. Hence, a magnitude 7 earthquake releases about
780 (= 102.88) to 1000 (= 10 3) times the energy of a magnitude 5 earthquake.

The seismic energy yield in terms of quantities of the explosive TNT (with assumption that one
ounce of TNT exploded below ground yields 640 million ergs of seismic wave energy,
1ounce=28.33gm, 16ounce=1pound, 1pound =454gm)

40
3.6 GUTENBERG-RICHTER RECURRENCE LAW/ EARTHQUAKE FREQUENCY:

Gutenberg and Richter (1944) gathered data for

southern California earthquakes over a period of Earthquake Number Annual
many years and organized the data according to the magnitude per year energy
number of earthquakes that exceeded different (1015jouleyr-
1
magnitudes during that time period. They divided the )
number of exceedances of each magnitude by the > 8.0 0-1 0-600
length of the time period to define a mean annual rate 7-7.9 18 200
of exceedance, m of an earthquake of magnitude m. 6-6.9 120 43
5-5.9 800 12
As would be expected, the mean annual rate of
4-4.9 6,200 3
exceedance of small earthquakes is greater than that
3-3.9 49,000 1
of large earthquakes. The reciprocal of the annual
2-2.9 350,000 0.2
rate of exceedance for a particular magnitude is
1-1.9 3,000,000 0.1
commonly referred to as the return period of Table 1 Earthquak e frequencies since 1900
earthquakes exceeding that magnitude. When the (based on data from the US Geological
logarithm of the annual rate of exceedance of southern Survey National Earthquak e Information
California earthquakes was plotted against earthquake Center) and the estimated mean annual
magnitude, a linear relationship was observed. The energy release computed with the energy-
magnitude relation of Bath (1966)
resulting Gutenberg-Richter law for earthquake
recurrence was expressed as
logm= a-bm
where m is the mean annual rate of exceedance of magnitude
m, 10a is the mean yearly number of earthquakes of magnitude
greater than or equal to zero.The value of ‘a’ varies between
about 8 and 9 from one region to another, while ‘b’ is
approximately unity for regional and global seismicity. Most of
the time b is assumed to be equal to 1; for b>1 in an area it
generally means that small earthquakes occur frequently; for
b<1, it indicates an area that is more prone for a larger
earthquake. In volcanic areas where there is lots of earthquake
swarms b>1. b<1 along subduction zones and continental rifts
where there is many large earthquakes with few aftershocks.
The mean annual numbers of earthquakes in different
magnitude ranges are listed in Table 1; the frequency decreases with increasing magnitude,
in accordance with Eq.

Example: Using the above figure compute the return period of

M=8 earthquakes on the Circumpacific and alpide belts.

Solution: Figure indicates that the Circumpacific and Alpide

belts have mean annual rates of exceedance of 1.76 per year
and 0.31 per year, respectively. Therefore the corresponding
return periods are

Circumpacific: T R =1/m=1/1.76=0.6 year

Alpide: T R =1/m=1/.31=3.2 years

41