CROSS CULTURE LEADERSHIP

Culture:
Culture may be understood as a consortium of communication
(or a bundle of messages) that a given people have in common:
their shared experiences, shared perceptions, and values, shared
consciousness” (Macdonald, 1991). These values, experiences,
and communications are guidelines about what things mean,
what is important, and what should be done.
• Consists of a set of symbols, ceremonies, and myths that
communicate the underlying
• values and beliefs of that organization to its employees.” -
Ouichi
• Culture consists of learned responses to recurring
situations. The earlier these responses are learned, the more
difficult they are to change.
• Taste and preferences for food and drink, for example,
represent learned responses that are highly variable from culture
to culture and can have a major impact on consumer behavior.
Preference for color is culturally influenced as well.
• For example, although green is a highly regarded color in
Moslem countries, it is associated with disease in some Asian
countries. White, usually associated with purity and cleanliness
in the West, can signify death in Asian countries.
 Characteristics

• Culture is prescriptive. It prescribes the kinds of behaviour

considered acceptable in the society. The prescriptive
characteristics of culture simplify a consumer’s decision-making
process by limiting product choices to those, which are socially
acceptable.

• 2. Culture is socially shared. Culture, out of necessity, must be

based on social interaction and creation. It cannot exist by itself.
It must be shared by members of a society, thus acting to
reinforce culture’s prescriptive nature.

• 3. Culture facilitates communication. One useful function

provided by culture is to facilitate communication. Culture
usually imposes common habits of thought and feeling among
people. Thus, within a given group culture makes it easier for
people to communicate with one another. But culture may also
impede communication across groups because of a lack of
shared common cultural values.

• Culture is learned. Culture is not inherited genetically-it must

be learned and acquired. Socialization or enculturation occurs
when a person absorbs or learns the culture in which he or she is
raised. In contrast, if a person learns the culture of a society
other than the one in which he or she was raised, the process of
 acculturation occurs. The ability to learn culture makes it
possible to absorb new cultural trends.

• 5. Culture is subjective. People in different cultures often have

different ideas about the same object. What is acceptable in one
culture may not necessarily be so in another. In this regard,
culture is both unique and arbitrary.

• 6. Culture is enduring. Because culture is shared and passed

along from generation to generation, it is relatively stable and
somewhat permanent. Old habits are hard to break, and people
tend to maintain its own heritage in spite of a continuously
changing world. This explains why India and China, despite
severe overcrowding, have a great difficulty with birth control.
The Chinese view a large family as a blessing and assume that
children will take care of parents when growth old.

• Culture is cumulative. Culture is based on hundreds or even

thousands of years of accumulated circumstances. Each
generation adds something of its own to the culture before
passing the heritage on to the next generation.

• 8. Culture is dynamic. Culture is passed along from generation

to generation, but one should not assume that culture is static
and immune to change. Far from being the case, culture is
constantly changing-it adapts itself to new situations and new
sources of knowledge.

Elements of Culture
• Language

A group of words or ideas having common meaning and is shared

to a social situation is called language. Language is the entrance
to a culture. Language is a set of socially sound pattern, words,
and sentences having specific meaning and terminology common
to the same culture. Language is a source of communication and
to transmit message from one person to another. It is the method
to mold the behavior and experience of a person. Language differs
from culture to culture and is transmitted from one generation to
another.

• Symbols

Culture is a system of symbols. Symbols are anything used to

represent express and stand for an event situation. Symbols
direct to guide our behavior. It is used to show an event of past,
present or future. For example the heap of ash show that the
something has been burnt or the wet street shows that it has
rained. Bowing head, whistling, winkling of eyes situation, all are
the symbols, which express a specific object idea about other.
American Shake their hand to answer for No. Other examples are
flag, anthem, picture, statues are symbols. Symbols are the short
expression for the identification of an object or situation.

• Norms

Norms as elements of culture are the rules and the guidelines

which specify the behavior of an individual. Norms keep a person
within the boundary of society and its culture. It gives us
restriction about something which to do and which not to do. It
molds our behavior and gives as knowledge about wrong and
right. Norms can be divided into:

Folkways. Folkways are the simple customary ways of the

people. It is the normal and habitual action of people within a
culture. Folkways are the recognized or accepted ways of
behavior. These are the behavior pattern which a person use
generally in his daily life.

• b. Mores. Mores is a Latin word and the plural of mos

which means customs or beliefs accordance with a group
customary expectation. It is the “must” behavior of a person.
Mores refers to “what ought to be and what ought not to be.”
Mores are serious norms but are informed like folkways. They
have a serious binding on a group the violation of mores threats
to social order. Punishment may be both formal and informal for
the violation of mores.

Values

Anything getting importance in our daily life becomes our values.

The origin of values is not biological but it is social production
while living in society the values develop. Values depend upon
the culture. Culture varies from society to society and thus
values are different in every social situation. Values are what we
like and what we say will in our society values are the good idea
and thinking of a person.

• Some values are hereditary which we gain from our elders,

books and parents. The culture is full of values and can transmit
from one generation to another. When a natural object get a
meaning it becomes a value.
 5. Beliefs
• Every sect within a culture having some beliefs for cultural
refuge. These beliefs are responsible fro the spiritual fulfillment of
needs and wants. Muslims believe in God, Holly Prophet, The
Day of Judgment, recitation of Holly Quran, Hajj etc. Sikh wear
bangle in one hand, bear a long beard, keeping a dagger. Cross
for Christians and a necklace or a cotton thread around nick, the
water of ganga and are sacred for Hindus.
6. Cognitive Elements
• Cognitive elements of culture are those though which an
individual know how to cope with an existing social situation.
How to survive, how make shelter from storms and other natural
calamities, how to travel and transport etc. are the practical
knowledge which make a culture. Such knowledge is carefully
thought to every generation.

System Approach
• There are many different anthropological approaches to cultural
analysis, some readers may prefer to use this coordinated
systems approach as an alternative.
1. Kinship System: - This system states that the family
relationships and the way a people reproduce, train and socialize
their children. The global manager needs to understand the
significance of the family’s influence to supervise effectively.
Family influences and loyalties can affect job performance or
performance negotiations.
2. Education System: - Educational system may be formal
and informal within any culture. How young or new members of
society are provided with information, knowledge, skills and
values. If one is opening up a factory in India, the training plan
had better include the method of education, whereas in some
societies the training would be for sophisticated technological
positions.
1. Economic System: - The manner in which society produces
and distributes its goods and services. Today, while much of the
world is divided into capitalistic or socialistic economic blocks, it
is evident that regional economic cooperatives are merging to
cross national and ideological boundaries.
2. Political System: - The dominant means of governance for
maintaining order and exercising power of authority. Some
cultures are still in a tribal stage where chief rule, others have a
ruling royal family with an operating king, while still preferring
democracy or communism.
3. Religious System: - The means of providing meaning and
motivation beyond the material aspects of life, that is, the
spiritual side of a culture or its approach to the supernatural.
This transcending system may lift a people to great heights of
accomplishments. Diverse national cultures can be some-what
unified under a share religious beliefs.
4. Association System: - The network of social groupings that
people form. These may range from fraternal and secret societies
to professional/trade associations. Some cultures are very group
oriented and create formal and informal associations for every
conceivable type of activity. Other societies are individualistic and
avoid such organizing.
5. Health System: - The way a culture prevents and cures
disease or illness, or cares for victims of disasters or accidents.
The concepts of health and wholeness, well being and medical
problems differ by culture. Some countries have witch doctors
and herb medications, other like India have few government-
sponsored social services, while Britain has a system of socialized
medicine.

Key Terminology
• Acculturation – It refers to the processes by which families,
communities and societies react to inter-cultural contact while
retaining characteristics of own culture. As a result a new,
composite culture emerges, in which some existing cultural
features are combined, some are lost, and new features appear.
The earliest recorded western discussion of acculturation appears
to be that of Plato in 348 BC. More than 100 different taxonomies
of acculturation have been formulated since then. See also
adaptation, assimilation, enculturation, syncretism and
transculturation.
• Age Discrimination – It is discrimination against a person
or group on the basis of age. Age discrimination usually comes in
one of two forms: discrimination against youth, and
discrimination against the elderly.
• Assimilation - is a process of consistent integration
whereby members of an ethno-cultural group, typically
immigrants, or other minority groups, are "absorbed" into an
established larger community. If a child assimilates into a new
culture, he/she gives up his/her cultural values and beliefs and
adopts the new cultural values in their place.
• Belief system - is the way in which a culture collectively
constructs a model or framework for how it thinks about
something. A religion is a particular kind of belief system.
• Biculturalism - The simultaneous identification with two
cultures when an individual feels equally at home in both
cultures and feels emotional attachment with both cultures. The
term started appearing in the 1950s.
• Capitalism - Economic or socio-economic system in which
production and distribution are designed to accumulate capital
and create profit. A characteristic feature of the system is the
separation of those who own the means of production and those
who work for them.
• Cross Cultural - Interaction between individuals from
different cultures. The term cross-cultural is generally used to
describe comparative studies of cultures. Inter cultural is also
used for the same meaning.
• Cross Cultural Awareness - develops from cross-cultural
knowledge as the learner understands and appreciates the
deeper functioning of a culture. This may also be followed by
changes in the learner's own behavior and attitudes and a greater
flexibility and openness becomes visible.
• Discrimination - Treatment or consideration based on class
or category defined by prejudicial attitudes and beliefs rather
than individual merit. The denial of equal treatment, civil liberties
and opportunities to education, accommodation, health care,
employment and access.
• Ethnicity - Belonging to a common group with shared
heritage, often linked by race, nationality and language.
Ethnocentrism - Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic
group. Seeing the world through the lenses of one's own people or
culture so that own culture always looks best and becomes the
pattern everyone else should fit into.
• Hybridism - Refers to groups as a mixture of local and non-
local influences; their character and cultural attributes is a
product of contact with the world beyond a local place. The term
originates from agriculture and has for a long time been strongly
related to pejorative concepts of racism and racial purity from
western colonial history.
• Integration - The bringing of people of different racial or
ethnic groups into unrestricted and equal association, as in
society or an organization; desegregation. An individual
integrates when s/he becomes a part of the existing society.
• Minority Group - A group that occupies a subordinate
position in a society. Minorities may be separated by physical or
cultural traits disapproved of by the dominant group and as a
result often experience discrimination. Minorities may not always
be defined along social, ethnic, religious or sexual lines but could
be broad based e.g.
non-citizens or foreigners.
• Prejudice - Over-generalized, oversimplified or exaggerated
beliefs associated with a category or group of people. These
beliefs are not easily changed, even in the fact of contrary
evidence.

CULTURAL SENSITIVTY:

Cultural sensitivity, also sometimes referred to as cross-cultural

sensitivity or simply cultural awareness, is the knowledge,
awareness, and acceptance of other cultures and others' cultural
identities. It is related to cultural competence (the skills needed
for effective communication with people of other cultures, which
includes cross-cultural competence), and sometimes regarded as
the precursor to the achievement of cultural competence, but is a
more widely used term than cultural competence. On the
individual level, cultural sensitivity enables traveler and workers
to successfully navigate a different culture with which they are
interacting.

Cultural sensitivity counters ethnocentrism, and involves

intercultural communication and other skills. Many countries'
populations include minority groups comprising indigenous
peoples and immigrants from other cultures, and workplaces,

educational institutions, media and organization of all types are

mindful of being culturally sensitive to these groups.
Increasingly, training is being incorporated into workplaces and
students' curricula at all levels. The training is usually aimed at
the dominant culture, but in multicultural societies may also be
taught to migrants to teach them about other minority groups,
and it may also be taught to expatriates working in other
countries.

CROSS CULTURAL LEARNING

Cross-cultural learning increases students’ understanding of
their own and other cultures; it enhances one’s knowledge of the
norms, values, and behaviors that exist in cultures. And it allows
the student both to discern and communicate cultural differences
with sensitivity and confidence. Thus, as a result of the cross-
cultural training, sojourners are usually better adjusted to their
new cultural milieu.
Cross-cultural training enhances interpersonal skills and
increases people's ability to be effective global leaders. Individuals
who demonstrate effective communication skills across cultures
are much more likely to motivate others and be able to lead with
influence.
The definition of cross-cultural is a person or thing that relates to
different cultures or nations. An example of cross-cultural is a
home with a foreign exchange student. ... Of or relating to
different cultures, nations, etc. or to comparisons of them.
Where one is concerned with intercultural training, education, or
development, all employees should learn about the influence of
culture and be effective cross-cultural communicators if they are
to work with minorities within their own society or with
foreigners encountered at home or abroad. For example, there
has been a significant increase in foreign investments in the
United States— millions of Americans now work within the
borders of their own country for fpreign employers. A'll along the
U.S.-Mexican border, twin plants have emerged that provide for a
flow of goods and services between the two countries.

GLOBAL TRANSFORMATIONS
The concept of "global transformations" first appeared in the
works of French and American authors in the 60s of the 20th
century. It marked the transition from the modern to the latest
phase of globalization, when the wave of global flows and
relationships significantly increased and qualitatively changed
the basic forms of social activities (political, economic and
cultural). Global transformations is defined as significant
structural changes (changes and transformations) in the
contemporary post-industrial informational (via the Internet, the
media) and real (cultural, economic, political) world dimension
between different countries. In the broad meaning, "global
transformations" are the process of real system social, cultural,
economic and political (and legal) changes (up to the radical
reorganization of the world model), dynamically developing in the
period from the second half of the 20th –beginning of the 21st
century in the relations between various national states. One of
the possible risks of global transformations becomes the
inevitability of confrontation between the leading countries of the
world for the world’s resources, geopolitical influence and
economic dominance. Global transformations of cultural
organization. Major changes of cultural globalization occur in the
field of cultural identity and system of values at the ethno-
cultural, national and global levels. The key question remains –
what changes in the culture of identity and what is vulnerable in
the global transformation of the culture. Cultural globalization
changes the context in which the production and reproduction of
national cultures occurs. Global transformations are a process of
real change in the economic, political and cultural organization at
the regional, national and global levels.

GLOBAL COMPETENCIES

Global competence is the skills, values, and behaviors that

prepare young people to thrive in a more diverse, interconnected
world. In a rapidly changing world, the ability to be engaged
citizens and collaborative problem solvers who are ready for the
workforce is essential. In the 21st century and beyond this is
what all people will need. To be engaged citizens. To be prepared
for jobs of the future. To be local and global problem solvers.

Global Competence is a multi-dimensional construct that

requires a combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
successfully applied to global issues or intercultural situations.
Global issues refer to those that affect all people, and have deep
implications for current and future generations. Intercultural
situations refer to face-to-face, virtual or mediated encounters
with people who are perceived to be from a different cultural
background.
GLOBAL LEADERS AND COMMUNICATION:
Global or international communication is the development
and sharing of information, through verbal and non-verbal
messages, in international settings and contexts. It is a broad
field that incorporates multiple disciplines of communication,
including intercultural, political, health, media, crisis, social
advocacy, and integrated marketing communications, to name
just a few.
The study of global communication examines how information
is exchanged across geographical and social divides, as well as
how communication both impacts and is influenced by
culture, politics, media, economies, health, and relationships
in the age of globalization. Its strategies and practices allow
marketers and creative directors, public relations specialists,
political consultants, market researchers, journalists, non-
profit leaders, and other professionals in foreign or
international industries to develop and share messages that
reach audiences across borders, whether to resonate
politically, help sell a product, or expose illegal labor practices.
Global communication can take various forms, including
global advertisements, political speeches, journalistic news
stories, social media posts, press releases, books and
traditional print publications, and more.

Global communication Process:

Communications is a continuous process which mainly
involves three elements viz. sender, message, and receiver. The
 elements involved in the communication process are explained
below in detail:
1. Sender
The sender or the communicator generates the message and
conveys it to the receiver. He is the source and the one who
starts the communication
2. Message
It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is
generated by the sender and is then intended to be
communicated further.
3. Encoding
The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically
such as in the form of words, pictures, gestures, etc. before it is
being conveyed.
4. Media
It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted.
The message may be transmitted orally or in writing. The
medium of communication includes telephone, internet, post,
fax, e-mail, etc. The choice of medium is decided by the sender.
5. Decoding
It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender.
After decoding the message is received by the receiver.
6. Receiver
He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the
message was sent by the sender. Once the receiver receives the
message and understands it in proper perspective and acts
according to the message, only then the purpose of
communication is successful.
7. Feedback
Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the
message and understood it, the process of communication is
complete.
8. Noise
It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message
or receiver during the process of communication. For example,
bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty decoding,
inattentive receiver, poor understanding of message due to
prejudice or inappropriate gestures, etc.
CULTURAL FACTORS IN COMMUNICATION:
Culture can be defined as the learned behaviour of values,
attitudes, thought patterns and ways of doing things that a
person brings with them from a particular place where they were
brought up as a child. These values and attitudes can have an
impact on communication across cultures because each person's
norms and practices will often be different and may possibly
clash with those of co-workers brought up in different parts of
the world.
Factors

1. Racial Identity
Racial identity refers to how one's membership to a particular
race affects how they interact with co-workers of different races.
2. Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity highlights the role ethnicity plays in how two co-
workers from different cultures interact with one another. In the
United States, white European and Americans are less likely to
take their ethnicity into account when communicating, which
only highlights the importance of addressing different ethnicities
in a workplace as a way of educating all co-workers to the
dynamics that may arise between individuals of the same or
different ethnic groups.
So, what is the difference between race and ethnicity? According
to experts from PBS, "While race and ethnicity share an ideology
of common ancestry, they differ in several ways. First of all, race
is primarily unitary. You can only have one race, while you can
claim multiple ethnic affiliations. You can identify ethnically as
Irish and Polish, but you have to be essentially either black or
white."

3. Gender Roles
Another factor that impacts intercultural communication is
gender. This means that communication between members of
different cultures is affected by how different societies view the
roles of men and women. For example, a Westerner's reaction to
rules that require women in Saudi Arabia to cover themselves
and only travel in public when accompanied by a male family
member as repressive and degrading. This is looking at the world
through a Western lens. Saudi women generally view themselves
as protected and honoured. When studying gender identity in
Saudi Arabia it is important that we view the Saudi culture
through a Saudi lens. Women in the West generally struggle with
these traditional stereotypes, while women in Saudi Arabia
embrace their cultural roles.

4. Individual Identity
The individual identity factor is the fifth factor that impacts
cross-cultural communication. This means that how a person
communicates with others from other cultures depends on their
own unique personality traits and how they esteem themselves.
Just as a culture can be described in broad terms as "open" or
"traditional," an individual from a culture can also be observed to
be "open-minded" or "conservative." These differences will have
an effect on the way that multiple individuals from the same
culture communicate with other individuals.

1. Social Class
A sixth factor which influences intercultural communication is
the social identity factor. The social identity factor refers to the
level of society that person was born into or references when
determining whom they want to be and how they will act
accordingly.
Class often plays an important role in shaping our reactions to
and interpretations of culture. For example, French sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu (1987) studied the various responses to art,
sports, and other cultural activities of people in different French
social classes. According to Bourdieu, working-class people prefer
to watch soccer whereas upper-class individuals like tennis or
golf and middle-class people prefer photographic art whereas
upper-class individuals favour less representational art. As these
findings reveal, class distinctions are real and can be linked to
actual behavioural practices and preferences."
2. Age
The age identity factor refers to how members of different age
groups interact with one another. This might be thought of in
terms of the "generation gap". More hierarchical cultures like
China, Thailand, and Cambodia pay great deference and respect
to their elders and take their elders' opinions into account when
making life-changing decisions. Cultures like the United States
are less mindful of their elders and less likely to take their advice
into account when making important decisions. Such attitudes
towards age cause the age identity factor to impact intercultural
communication in the workplace.
VARIABLES IN COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
Each variable influences our perceptions, which in turn influence
the meanings we behaviour. Seeking to work effectively in a
multicultural environment one Should recognize these and study
the cultural specifics for the country or area to be visited:
1. Attitudes- are psychological states that predispose us to
behave in certain ways. An undesirable attitude for
managers working in a multicultural environment is
ethnocentrism or self-reference criterion. This is the
tendency to judge others by using one's own personal or
cultural standards. For example, instead of attempting to
understand the Japanese within their own cultural context,
an ethnocentric person tries to under-. stand them as
similar to or different from Americans. It is vital to refrain
from constantly making comparisons between our way of
 life and that of others. Rather, one must understand other
people in the context of their unique historical, political,
economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In that way it
is possible to become more effective-interactors with them.
2. Social organization- of cultures is also a variable that
influences one's perceptions. A geographic society is
composed of members of a nation, tribe, or' religious sect;
and a role society is composed of members of a profession or
the elite of a group. Managers are members of the same role
society, i.e., the business environment, but they are often
members of different geographic societies. At one level
communication between managers from two different
cultures should be relatively smooth. On another level,
significant differences in values, approach, pace, priorities,
and other factors may cause difficulties.
3. Thought patterns or forms of reasoning may differ from
culture to culture. The Aristotelian mode of reasoning
prevalent in the West is not shared by people in the East.
What is reasonable, logical, and self-evident to an American
may be unreasonable, illogical, and not self-evident to a
Japanese.
4. Roles in a society and expectations of a culture concerning
behaviour affect communication. Some roles have very
prescriptive rules. For example, the meishi or name card of
the Japanese business person identifies his or her position
in
NEGOTIATING FOR LONG TERM FOR
MUTUAL BENEFITS
Cross-cultural negotiation-
Negotiation is a process in which two or more entities discuss
common and conflicting interests in order to reach an agreement
of mutual benefit. In international business differences in the
negotiation process from culture to culture include language,
cultural conditioning, negotiating styles, approaches to problem
solving, implicit assumptions, gestures and facial expressions, an
e roe o ceremony a formality
For international negotiations to produce long-term synergy, and
not just short-term solutions, individuals involved in the
negotiation must be aware of the multicultural facets in the
process. The negotiator must understand the cultural space of
his or her counterparts. It is our belief that negotiating is a skill
and it can be improved. This section addresses some of the
cultural variables and considerations of negotiations.
Cross- cultural negotiation is the interactions, typically in
business, that occur between various cultures. These
negotiations are typically viewed as occurring between various
nations, but cross-cultural studies can also occur between
different cultures within the same nation, such as between
European-Americans and Native Americans. As the world
becomes more and more interdependent as a result in the
expansion of globalization and international business relations,
cross-cultural negotiations are becoming a common feature in
business and political transactions
FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
NEGOTIATIONS:
There are 12 variables in every negotiation with persons from
other countries that impact the negotiations and therefore can
significantly influence the outcome either positively or negatively:
1. Basic conception of negotiation process:
There are two opposing approaches to the concept of
negotiations: strategic and synergetic. In the strategic
model, resources are perceived as limited. The sides are
competitive and bargaining is perceived as who will get the
larger portion of the pie.
2. Negotiator Selection Criteria:
These criteria include negotiating experience, seniority,
political affiliation, gender, ethnic ties, kinship, technical
knowledge and personal attributes. Each culture has
preferences and biases regarding selection.
3. Significance of types of Issue:
Defining the issues in negotiation is critical. Generally
substantive issues focus on control and use of resources
(space, power, property). Relationship-based issues centre
around the ongoing nature of mutual or reciprocal interests.
The negotiation should not hinder relationship and future
negotiations.
4. Concern with Protocol:
Protocol is the accepted practices of social behaviour and
interaction. Rules of protocol can be formal or informal; for
example, Americans are generally less formal than Germans.
5. Complexity of Language:
Complexity refers to the degree of reliance on non-verbal cues
to convey and to interpret intentions and information in
dialogue. These cues include distance (space), eye contact,
gestures, and silence. There is high- and low-context
communication. Cultures that are high context in
communication (China) are fast and efficient communicators
and information is in the physical context or pre-programmed
in the person. Low-context communication, in contrast, is
information conveyed by the words without shared meaning
implied. The United States is a low-context culture.
6. Nature of Persuasive Arguments:
One way or another, negotiation involves attempts to influence
the other party. Counterparts can use an emotional or logical
approach.
7. Role of Individuals' Aspirations:
The emphasis negotiators place on their individual goals and
needs for recognition may. also vary. In some cases, the
position of a negotiator may reflect personal goals to a
greater extent than corporate goals. In contrast, a negotiator
may want to prove he or she is a hard bargained and
compromise the goals of the corporation.
8. Bases of Trust:
Every negotiator at some point must face the critical issues
of trust. One must eventually trust one’s counterparts;
otherwise, resolution would be impossible. Trust can be
based on the written laws of a particular country or it can be
based on friendship and mutual respect and esteem.