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Problem Solving As Pattern Recognition: The Method of

Proton-Seconds
Ian Beardsley

(University of Oregon, Department of Physics, 2022)

Genesis Project ⋅ California ⋅ 2022


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Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………..3

A Brief Explanation…………………………………………4

Introduction……………………………………….…………6

The Theory…………………………………………………..9

Electron-Seconds…………………………………………..11

Generating A Table…………………………………………13

The Formulation…………………………………………….15

Example 1: Radius of Solar System……………………..15

Example 2: Radius of Proton……………………………..22

Building A Matrix…………………………………………..23

Example 3: Abundance of Hydrogen, Helium…………..29

Giordano’s Relationship……………………………………31

Rigorous Formulation of Proton-Seconds………………36

Periodic Table As Squaring of a Circle…………………..38

Example 4: Drift Velocity…………………………………..39

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Abstract

We introduce the concept of Proton-Seconds and see it lends itself to a method of solving
problems across a large range of disciplines in the Natural Sciences. The underpinnings seem
to be in 6-fold symmetry. This lends itself to a Universal Form. We find this presents the
Periodic Table of the Elements as a squaring of the circle. It is rather abstract thinking, but just
as the moment we define truth and as a result it reverses, I think we can treat problem solving
this way.

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A Brief Explanation

There has come to be need for me to elaborate in more lay terms on this paper.

The question it is at the basis of what I was thinking when I formulated the idea. Because we
have 6 protons even if we divide

1 h 4π rp2

α 2 mp Gc

By 1 second. Six protons is carbon C, it has six protons and 6 neutrons. Historically we
developed the mole 6E23 atoms to be the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon, so it is the
basis from which we determine the molar mass of all the other elements. If we divide the above
by six seconds conversely we have one proton. Thus hydrogen and carbon are like cycling
through a factor of six with respect to one another. Hydrogen and carbon form hydrocarbons;
because carbon has four electrons in its outer shell it can combine with other elements (C4-) it
can make long chains with hydrogen that has a deficiency of one electron (H+). These
hydrocarbons define organic matter, the chemistry of which is studied in organic chemistry. Life
is made of organic compounds, but not all organic compounds are produced by life which was
realized when they synthesized urea in the laboratory, but most are.

However if we equate 3 times the above equation to 18 protons, where there are 18 groups in
the periodic table of the elements, and evaluate this at one second we get the radius of a
proton 0.833 fm within experimental errors using the most accurate values we have for input to
all of their digits.

18 groups in the periodic table mean the properties of the elements cycle through 18 groups in
a way that the groups define the physical properties of the elements that belong to them. That
is, for example take carbon in group 14, when it reacts with a non-metal it gains four electrons
to attain noble gas electron configuration where the noble gases are the elements in group 18.
Thus to determine that carbon gains 4 electrons for forming bonds, we take group 18 and
subtract it from group 14 to get 4 electrons, this is how we determine in chemistry that carbon
becomes C4-.

But this is to say that the elements are protons with electrons circling them and the number of
shells increase as you move to the right and increase protons. This is called the Bohr atom, we
say when an electron jumps from one shell to another, then falls back discrete amounts of
energy (photons) are emitted related to the difference of the numbers of the shells.

But these shells or circular orbits don’t exist, however we can predict all the above if we say
they do. In fact, according to quantum mechanics the protons are surrounded by clouds that
predict the probability of where an electron will be. In this sense, people have a problem with
quantum mechanics when first learning it because probability that an electron will be in region
of space is not to say it will, so the electron does not have position. There is nothing
deterministic. That is an idea for classical mechanics. Yet again, like in chemistry we can treat
things this way and get results.

So,…to make a long story short, I thought why not do physics like we do chemistry, and use
proton-seconds as above in the equation which has units of protons times seconds. Proton-
seconds I then define as a number of protons per second through a surface. It is not
necessarily anything like alpha decay, that is why at the beginning of the paper I said this idea
 5 of 43

is abstract, like the electron shells in a Bohr atom, or the clouds we get from the wave
treatment of matter in quantum mechanics. None of it really exists.

I then thought to outline a process where we solve the above equation for integer values with
respect to time by not computing the equation by hand a thousand times but by writing code
that the computer can execute. Thus I was suggesting the method of proton-seconds would
be best used by making coding an integral part of doing mathematics, which in today’s day
and age I don’t see as a ludicrous suggestion. When I made a program that found integer
solutions, I found the elements were produced by number very close to integers which we
need because you can’t have a half a proton, or 3./4 a proton. The program was producing all
the elements in the periodic table which are determined by the number of protons they have.

So, next I found we could solve physics problems by associating a time value with protons,
and as such predict the relative abundances of Hydrogen and Helium that make up 98% of the
universe using Schrodinger’s wave equation.

Further, by not solving the above equation with computer code but by using irrational numbers
like square root 2 and square root 3 which can only be written in closed form (because they are
unending decimal expressions)..which occur a lot in trigonometry and hence physics,…that it
yielded a definition for the size of the solar system. But like I said at the beginning of the paper
this is abstract thinking, but the reason I do it is when you look at chemistry and quantum
mechanics we use these ideas that don’t exist in reality, but that have practical results. Indeed
the more you try to say what reality might be, the more it evades us. I thought in the end all we
have are patterns, and this paper is really about patterns. And there are a lot that line up here
including the mystery why one second works, and with carbon of all things the crux of life and
the element we used to define molar mass for all the elements. I think there is an answer to
that, which I have gone into a bit in other papers, that the second comes to us from the Ancient
Greeks dividing the degree of a circle into 60 minutes and that into 60 seconds because they
used a sexagesimal (base 60) counting system, and this might be the answer because 60 was
probably chosen because it is evenly divisible by 1,2,3,4,5,6. 12, 15,… and the Ancient Greeks
got that from the Babylonians who got it from the Sumerians. Consider then that the second
comes from 365 days and year, 12 hours a day, 60 minutes in and hour, 60 seconds in a
minute. Thus the calendar formed like this (sexagesimal) could be related to the nature of solar
system formation because the 12 moons per year (earth orbital period) divided up by
sexagesimal reconcile these periods.

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value, 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer values 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest
of the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds.

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Introduction

With the method of proton-seconds we can solve a great deal of problems easily. They
define a definition for the radius of the solar system and predict the radius of a proton
within its experimental errors to predicting the relative abundances of hydrogen and
helium in the Universe from which the heavier elements are made in the interior of stars.
It is doing physics with a chemistry methodology.

The method involves:

Step 1

Write down the fundamental equation which is equation 3:

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = ℕ
α 2 mp

Step 2

Generate a table of values with source code for applying the equation in step 1. Like
using your float values:

float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,

c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

And, the equation that uses them:

protons[I]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

And a loop for finding whole number solutions and listing them:

while (n>=101);

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];

float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;

t=t+increment;

if (decpart<0.25)

{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);

 7 of 43

Then output the values so you can create a list to apply the fundamental equation,
equation 3:

24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart

12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart

8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart

6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart

4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart

3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart

2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart

2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart

1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart

1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart

1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart

1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart

1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart

0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart

0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart

0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

Step 3

Choose the values in the table of outputted integer values as the limits of integration for
the particular problem:

1 h 4π rp2 tC
1
Gc ∫tSi
dt = 6 = carbon(C )
α 2 mp t2

tSi = 0.5secon d s

tC = 1secon d

Or, use non-integer values from a geometric theory

( 2 3)
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78

2 t2

3
1 π −4
∫ 6( )
cos −1(x /2)d x = 3π − 6 − = 0.21

2 2 2

We have considered 2 and 3 . These come from

2cos(45∘) = 2

2cos(30∘) = 3

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From 30 degrees to 45 degrees is 15 degrees. The Earth rotates through 360/24 is 15

degrees per hour. In this instance we see we have generated the relative bunches of N2
and O2 in Earth air:

0.78N 2 + 0.21O2 = 29.0g/m ol

In so far as the second unifies carbon (6 protons) with hydrogen (1 proton) through the
unit of a second as the hydrocarbons the backbones of life we suggest the second is
important as well in terms of the phases of the moon and the earth and that these
determined the calendar system we use. We further suggest there is a connection of this
to the structure found in geometry. We see all of this can be written compactly as:

2cos(π /n) = 1, 2, Φ, 3, . . .

Where n=3, 4, 5, ,6 ,…

We could evaluate this for n equal to other integers, or even the numbers, but these
produce the special triangles, and geometries we are most interested. Thus we will begin
by pointing out that

3 X 4 X 5 X 6 = 360

The amount of degrees into which we divide a circle and that, as such it approximates
the number of days in a year (1 revolution of the earth around the sun) and thus we see
that

2cos(π /n) = 1, 2, Φ, 3, . . .

Represents days as well (The earth moves through about 1 degree a day in its orbit
around the sun) by solving it for n:

d ays = cos −1(y/2)

Where,

5+1
y = 1, 2, , 3, . . .
2
Which correspond respectively to:

n = 3,4,5,6,...
Which are the unit triangle, unit the square, the unit regular pentagon, and the unit
regular hexagon.
 9 of 43

The Theory

In order to present the elements as mathematical structures we need to explain the matter from
which they are made as mathematical constructs. We need a theory for Inertia. I had found
(Beardsley Essays In Cosmic Archaeology. 2021) where I suggested the idea of proton
seconds, that is six proton-seconds, which is carbon the core element of biological life if we
can figure out a reason to divide out the seconds. I found

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 1. = 6proton s

t1α 2 mp Gc

Where h is Planck’s constant 6.62607E—34 Js, rp is the radius of a proton 0.833E-15m, G is

the universal constant of gravitation 6.67408E-11 (Nm2)/(kg2), and c is the speed of light
299,792,459 m/s. And t1 is t=1 second. α is the Sommerfeld constant (or fine structure
constant) is 1/137. The mass of a proton is mp = 1.67262E − 27kg.

The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the speed
of light squared:

Ue
α2 =

mec 2
Matter is that which has inertia. This means it resists change in position with a force applied to
it. The more of it, the more it resists a force. We understand this from experience, but what is
matter that it has inertia?

I would like to answer this by considering matter in one of its simplest manifestations, the
proton, a small sphere with a mass of 1.6726E-27 kg. This is a measure of its inertia.

I would like to suggest that matter, often a collection of these protons, is the three dimensional
cross-section of a four dimensional hypersphere.

The way to visualize this is to take space as a two-dimensional plane and the proton as a two
dimensional cross-section of a sphere, which would be a circle.

In this analogy we are suggesting a proton is a three dimensional bubble embedded in a two
dimensional plane. As such there has to be a normal vector holding the higher dimensional
sphere in a lower dimensional space. Thus if we apply a force to to the cross-section of the
sphere in the plane there should be a force countering it proportional to the normal holding it in
a lower dimensional universe. This counter force would be experienced as inertia. It may even
induce in it an electric field, and we can see how it may do the same equal but opposite for the
electron.

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 11 of 43

1 h 4π rp2
= (6proton s)(1secon d )

α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= (1proton)(6secon d s)

α 2 mp Gc
Ue
α2 =

mec 2
Electron-Seconds

Electrons play a different role in Nature than do protons. Even though they have the same
charge protons are a center piece or core while electrons occupy shells by model and form
clouds that encompass their locations in space over a given time. Protons are not gained or
lost in chemical reactions but electrons are and the numbers of them determines the ionization
of atoms which signifies the nature of their reactions with one another.

1. Metals gain electrons and non-metals lose electrons to form ionic bonds between
themselves where the net charges of each kind of atom determine their respective numbers
of atoms which is such that the compound formed is neutral.

2. Covalent bonds where electrons are shared are such that each atom has noble (inert) gas
electron configuration, which is group 18 in the period table of the elements.

Electrons flow in a circuit when there is a voltage across it, but proton don’t; positive is the
deficiency of electrons in a battery where negative is a surplus.

This is analogous to the difference between loose and attached, where we would say electrons
are loose like a nut and protons are attached like a bolt. As in the following illustration:

 12 of 43

We take the bolt as attached to a main body and the nut as free but, can attach to a bolt where
a nut and a bolt are in another sense free to move separately from one another or together.

If protons are to remain attached according to some mathematical definition, then we should
be able to determine how many times less massive an electron must be than a proton if they
are to combine with them. We know the mass of an electron is:

me = 9.10938356E − 31kg

And the mass of a proton is:

mp = 1.67262E − 27kg

Which is a factor of:

1.67262E − 27
= 1,836t im es

9.10938356E − 31
The classical radius of an electron is:

1 e2
re = ⋅ = 2.81794E − 15m

4πϵ0 mec 2
Changing the mass of a proton to the mass of an electron and the radius of a proton to the
radius of an electron in equation 1, we have

1 h 4π re2
= 6electron s

t1α 2 me Gc

Which is indeed true:

1 4π (6.62607E − 34)(2.82794E − 15)2

= ⋅

1/1372(9.10938356E − 31) (6.67408E − 11)(299792459

=37,588.00032 electron-seconds

We have:

1 h 4π re2
Equation 2. = 37,588electron s

t1α 2 me Gc
 13 of 43

Generating A Table

We make a program that looks for close to whole number solutions so we can create a table of
values for problem solving. I set it at decimal part equal to 0.25. You can choose how may
values for t you want to try, and by what to increment them. Here are the results for
incrementing by 0.25 seconds then 0.05 seconds. Constant to all of this is hydrogen and
carbon. The smaller integer value of seconds gives carbon (6 protons at 1 second) and the
largest integer value of seconds gives hydrogen (1 proton at six seconds) and outside of that
for the other integer values of protons you get are at t>0 and t<1. Equation 1 really has some
interesting properties. Here are two runs of the program( decpart is just me verifying that my
boolean test was working right to sort out whole number solutions):

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100

24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart

12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart

8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart

6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart

4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart

3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart

2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart

2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart

1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart

1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart

1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart

1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart

1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart

0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart

0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart

0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.05

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100

40.1998 protons 0.150000 seconds 0.199837 decpart

30.1499 protons 0.200000 seconds 0.149879 decpart

24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart

20.0999 protons 0.300000 seconds 0.099918 decpart

17.2285 protons 0.350000 seconds 0.228500 decpart

15.0749 protons 0.400000 seconds 0.074938 decpart

12.0599 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059950 decpart

10.0500 protons 0.600000 seconds 0.049958 decpart

8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039966 decpart

7.0941 protons 0.850000 seconds 0.094088 decpart

6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029975 decpart

5.2435 protons 1.150000 seconds 0.243457 decpart

5.0250 protons 1.200000 seconds 0.024980 decpart

4.1586 protons 1.450000 seconds 0.158605 decpart

4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019985 decpart

3.1737 protons 1.899999 seconds 0.173673 decpart

3.0923 protons 1.949999 seconds 0.092296 decpart

3.0150 protons 1.999999 seconds 0.014989 decpart

2.2333 protons 2.699999 seconds 0.233325 decpart

2.1927 protons 2.749999 seconds 0.192719 decpart

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2.1536 protons 2.799999 seconds 0.153564 decpart

2.1158 protons 2.849998 seconds 0.115782 decpart

2.0793 protons 2.899998 seconds 0.079303 decpart

2.0441 protons 2.949998 seconds 0.044061 decpart

2.0100 protons 2.999998 seconds 0.009993 decpart

1.2433 protons 4.850000 seconds 0.243294 decpart

1.2306 protons 4.900001 seconds 0.230607 decpart

1.2182 protons 4.950001 seconds 0.218177 decpart

Here is the code for the program:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <math.h>

int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;

float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,

c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do

printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");

scanf("%f", &increment);

printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?):
");

scanf("%i", &n);

while (n>=101);

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];

float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;

t=t+increment;

if (decpart<0.25)

{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);

}}}}

While I understand that one second is a human invention and can’t be taken as significant, the
equations have meaning in that there are two equations each utilizing a second so they are
connected. But what really makes me wonder is how one can predict carbon, and the other
hydrogen so accurately with the unit of a second. It was a conspiracy on the part of those who
formulated the duration of a second a long time ago to be what it is? The Ancient Egyptians,
The Babylonians, The Julian calendar—who, what, when?

6 protons gives a little more than a second. This makes a shorter day. We have

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1 h 4π rp2
Equation 3. = 1.004996352secon d s

6α 2 mp Gc

H=1.00784 g/mol, carbon = 6 protons

h=6.62607E-34, r_p=0.833E-15, G=6.67408E-11, c=299,792,459

The Formulation

We can actually formulate this differently than we have. We had

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton s

t1 α 2 mp Gc

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton

t6 α 2 mp Gc

But if t1 is not necessarily 1 second, and t6 is not necessarily six seconds, but rather t1 and t2
are lower and upper limits in an integral, then we have:

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
Equation 4. dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

This Equation is the generalized equation we can use for solving problems.

Solving Problems With Proton-Seconds Example 1 Radius of Solar System

While we have

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

Is a number of protons

1 h 4π rp2

α 2 mp Gc

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of protons because it is a mass divided

by the mass of a proton. But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure
number. We have that

 16 of 43

( 2 3)
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78

2 t2

3
1 π −4
∫ 6( )
cos −1(x /2)d x = 3π − 6 − = 0.21

2 2 2
Interestingly 78% is the percent of N2 in the atmosphere and 21% is the percent of O2 in the
atmosphere (by volume). These are the primary constituents that make it up. The rest is
primarily argon and CO2. This gives the molar mass of air as a mixture is:

0.78N 2 + 0.21O2 = 29.0g/m ol

Now interestingly, I have found this connected to the solar system by considering a mixture of
silicon, the primary constituent of the Earth crust, and germanium just below it in the periodic
table, in the same proportions of 78% and 21%. Silicon is also the primary second generation
semiconductor material (what we use today) and germanium is the primary first generation
semiconductor material (what we used first). The silicon is directly below our carbon of one
proton-second, silicon directly below that, and germanium directly below that, in the periodic
table. So we are moving directly down the periodic table in group 14. The density of silicon is
2.33 g/cm3 and that of germanium is 5.323 g/cm3. Let us weight these densities with our 0.21
and 0.78:

0.21Si + 0.78Ge = 4.64124g/cm 3

Now consider this the starting point for density of a thin disc decreasing linearly from the Sun
to Pluto (49.5AU=7.4E14cm). Thus,…

( R)
r
ρ(r) = ρ0 1 −

Thus,…

∫0 ( R)
2π R
r
∫0
M= ρ0 1 − rdrdθ

Or,…

πρ0 R 2
M=

3
Thus,…

π (4.64124)(7.4E14)2
M= = 2.661E 30

3
If we add up the masses of the planets in our solar system they are 2.668E30 grams.

 17 of 43

Since

2.661
(100) = 99.736

2.668
Meaning mixing germanium and silicon in the same proportion that occurs with N2 and O2 in
the atmosphere and with

( 2 3)
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78

2 t2

3
1 π −4
∫ 6( )
cos −1(x /2)d x = 3π − 6 − = 0.21

2 2 2
Where

1 h 4π rp2
6= 2

α mp Gc

In the first integral. See the following pages to see the computation of the mass of the planets
in the solar system…

 18 of 43

As we can see Jupiter carries the majority of the mass, Saturn a pretty large piece, and
somewhat large Uranus and Neptune. We don’t even list Pluto’s mass. When we consider

( 2 )
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78

2 t2 3
3
1 π −4
∫
cos −1(x /2)d x =
6 ( 3π − 6) − = 0.21

2 2 2

We are considering 2 and 3 . These come from

2cos(45∘) = 2

2cos(30∘) = 3

 19 of 43

From 30 degrees to 45 degrees is 15 degrees. The Earth rotates through 360/24 is 15 degrees
per hour. The hour is divided into 60 minutes and minutes into 60 seconds…(Next page)Radius
of the Solar System

We have said

πρ0 R 2
M=

3
For a thin disc. Thus we have a definition for the radius of the solar system, Rs:

3Mp
Equation 5. Rs =

π (0.78Ge + 0.21Si )

Where

1 h 4π rp2 3
1
Gc ∫
Equation 6. dt = 0.78

α 2 mp 2 t2

∫
Equation 7. cos −1(x /2)d x = 0.21

Equation 8. air = 0.78N2 + 0.21O2

air
Equation 9. ≈ Φ

H2O

Mp is the mass of all the planets. We also have that the molar mass of air to the molar mass of
water is approximately the golden ratio. The interesting thing is we determine a definition for
the radius of the solar system and predict the hydrocarbons (backbones of life) all in one fell
swoop.

In so much as we have a definition for the radius of the solar system

3Mp
Rs =

π (0.78Ge + 0.21Si )

1 h 4π rp2 3
1
Gc ∫
dt = 0.78

α 2 mp 2 t2
 20 of 43

∫
cos −1(x /2)d x = 0.21

Through life at its fundamental structure the hydrocarbons

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton s

t1 α 2 mp Gc

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton

t6 α 2 mp Gc

Which occurs in air and water that makes life possible

air = 0.78N2 + 0.21O2

air
≈ Φ

H2O
We want to consider its ground state, and because Mercury the first planet is so small and
carries little energy we proceed to Venus and describe it in terms of silicon and germanium like
we did with our definition for the radius of the solar system. I find by molar mass we have its
average orbital distance from the sun (0.72 AU) precisely in the following expression:

Si 3
1 2SiGe + Ge
Equation 10. 0.72AU =

Ge 2 1+
Si 2
Ge 2

Where Si=28.09 grams/mole and Ge=72.64 grams/mole. If we rewrite this:

x3
1 2x y + y
Equation 11. r (x, y) = 2

y 1+
x2
y2

And differentiate

∂r x 4 + x 2 y 2 + 2y 4
=

∂x y(x 2 + y 2)2

∂r x(x 4 + x 2 y 2 + 2y 4)
=

∂y y 2(x 2 + y 2)2
And evaluate these for silicon and germanium we have

 21 of 43

∂r
= 0.0022626491

∂x
∂r
= 0.008749699

∂y
Which is:

AU ⋅ m ol
(0.00226)2 + (0.00875)2 = 0.009037151

gra m
Thus doing as we did before, we move down group 14 of the periodic table from carbon, to
silicon, to germanium and have:

C+Si+Ge=12.01+28.09+72.64=112.74g/mol

We have

AU ⋅ m ol g
0.009037 ⋅ 112.74 = 1.0AU

g m ol
Which is Earth Orbit. Plots of our equation for Venus are:

 22 of 43

It may be we want to consider Jupiter the ground state as it carries the majority of the mass of
the solar system. We may have that Venus is the ground state for the terrestrials planets and
Jupiter the ground state for the outer gas giants, as separated by the asteroid belt, the location
where a planet cannot form. This takes us to Mars, which is beyond which it lay.

Solving Problems With Proton-Seconds Example 2 Radius of Proton

In that we have

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

And the periodic table of the elements is cyclical with 18 groups and

1 h 4π rp2
6= 2

α mp Gc

Then perhaps we are supposed to write

3 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = 18

α 2 mp

In fact, what if the 3 is supposed to be pi, then

π h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = 18

α 2 mp

Then we would say that

k=18/pi=5.7229577951

The parameter in our constant with the most uncertainty is the radius of a proton rp. If the 3 is
supposed to be pi, then the radius of a proton becomes:

Gc
rp = k α 2 mp

4πh
Which gives

rp = 8.790587E − 16m

About 95% raw most recent value measured. But, if

 23 of 43

1 h 4π rp2

α 2 mp Gc

Is supposed to be 6 and it is supposed to be multiplied by three to give 18 even which we

need for chemistry so we have 18 protons in the last group of the periodic table which is
important because we need argon with 18 protons for predicting valence numbers of elements
in terms of their need to attain noble gas electron configuration. Then we get

rp = 8.288587E − 16m = 0.829f m

This is in very close agreement with the most recent value measured which is

rp = 0.833 + / − 0.014

Which is good for chemistry.

Building A Matrix

We pull these AI elements out of the periodic table of the elements to make an AI periodic
table:

We now notice we can make a 3 by 3 matrix of it, which lends itself to to the curl of a vector
field by including biological elements carbon C (above Si):

i⃗ j⃗ k⃗
∂ ∂ ∂
=

∂x ∂y ∂z
(−C ⋅ P)y (Si ⋅ Ga)z (Ge ⋅ As)y

(Ge ⋅ As − Si ⋅ Ga) i ⃗ + (C ⋅ P) k ⃗ =

[(72.64)(74.92) − (28.09)(69.72)] i ⃗ + [(12.01)(30.97)] k

⃗
Which resulted in Stokes theorem (Beardsley, Essays In Cosmic Archaeology Volume 3):

 24 of 43

Ge Ge Ge

( Ge − Si ∫Si )
1
∇ × u ⃗ ⋅ d a ⃗ = exp
∫Si ∫Si
5
ln(x)d x

Where

∇ × u ⃗ = (Ge ⋅ As − Si ⋅ Ga) i ⃗ + (C ⋅ P) k
⃗

d a ⃗ = (zd yd z i ⃗ + yd yd z k )

u ⃗ = (−C ⋅ P)y i ⃗ + (Si ⋅ Ge)z j ⃗ + (Ga ⋅ As)y k

⃗
We were then able to write this with product notation

Ge Ge n
∇ × u ⃗⋅ d a ⃗ =
∫Si ∫Si ∏
5 n xi

i=1

While we have the AI BioMatrix

Which we used to formulate a similar equation (Beardsley, Essays In Cosmic Archaeology

Volume 2). We can form another 3X3 matrix we will call the electronics matrix (Beardsley,
Cosmic Archaeology, Volume Three):

We can remove the 5th root sign in the above equation by noticing

 25 of 43

∏
xi = Si ⋅ Ge ⋅ Cu ⋅ Ag ⋅ Au

i=1

=(28.085)(72.64)(12.085)(107.8682)(196.9657)=

g5
523,818,646.5

m ol5

Where we have substituted carbon (C=12.01) the core biological element for copper (Cu).

But since we have:

Ge Ge
( ∇ × u ⃗ ) ⋅ d a ⃗ = 170,535,359.662(g/m ol )5

∫Si ∫Si
Equation 12.

We take the ratio and have

523,818,646.5
= 3.0716

170,535,359.662
Almost exactly 3 which is the ratio of the perimeter of regular hexagon to its diameter used to
estimate pi in ancient times by inscribing it in a circle:

Perimeter=6

Diameter=2

6/2=3

π = 3.141...

Thus we have the following equation…

 26 of 43

Ge Ge 5
(∇ × u ⃗) ⋅ d a ⃗ =
∫Si ∫Si ∏
π xi

i=1

Showing The Calculation using the most accurate data possible…

Ge=72.64

As=74.9216

Si=28.085

Ga=69.723

C=12.011

P=30.97376200

⃗
(Ge ⋅ As − Si ⋅ Ga) i ⃗ + (C ⋅ P) k =

⃗
[(72.64)(74.9216) − (28.085)(69.723)] i ⃗ + [(12.011)(30.97376200)] k =

( m ol ) ( m ol )
2 2
k
⃗
g g
3,484.134569 i ⃗ + 372.025855

( ) ( )
Ge Ge 2 2
k ⃗ ⋅ (zd yd z i ⃗ + yd yd z k )
⃗

( )
g g
∫Si ∫Si
3,484.134569 i ⃗ + 372.025855
m ol m ol

( m ol ) ( m ol )
Ge Ge 2 2

( )
g g
∫Si ∫Si
3,484.134569 ⋅ zd zd y + 372.025855 ⋅ yd zd y

Ge
(72.64 − 28.085)2 Ge

∫Si ( ) ∫Si
3,484.134569 dy + 372.025855y ⋅ (72.64 − 28.085)d y

( m ol ) ( m ol ) (
4 3

)
g g (72.64 − 28.085)2
3458261.42924 (72.64 − 28.085) + 16575.6119695

=154,082,837.980+16,452,521.6822=

( m ol )
5
g
170,535,359.662

∏
xi = Si ⋅ Ge ⋅ C ⋅ Ag ⋅ Au=

i=1

(28.085)(72.64)(12.085)(107.8682)(196.9657)=

 27 of 43

g5
523,818,646.5

m ol5
Where we have substituted carbon C=12.01 for copper Cu. We use Cu, Ag, Au because they
are the middle column of our electronics matrix, they are the finest conductors used for
electrical wire. We use C, Si, Ge because they are the middle column of our AI Biomatrix. Si
and Ge are the primary semiconductor elements used in transistor technology (Artificial
Intelligence) and C is the core element of biological life. We have

523,818,646.5
= 3.0716

170,535,359.662

π = 3.141...

Perimeter/Diameter of regular hexagon = 3.00

3.141 + 3.00
= 3.0705

2
The same value as our 3.0716 if taken at two places after the decimal.

Thus we are interested in:

Ge Ge 5
(∇ × u ⃗) ⋅ d a ⃗ =
∫Si ∫Si ∏
π xi

i=1

∏
xi = Si ⋅ Ge ⋅ C ⋅ Ag ⋅ Au

i=1

Because we see these elements are a gaussian distribution (See graph on next page) and a
wave graph (page 39)…

 28 of 43



 29 of 43

Solving Problems With Proton-Seconds Example 3 Relative Abundances Of Hydrogen

and Helium in The Universe

We consider a Gaussian wave-packet at t=0:

x2
ψ (x,0) = Ae −

2d 2
We say that d which in quantum mechanics would be the delocalization length when squared is
Si − C Ga − P
. A is the amplitude and we might say it is . We write the wave packet as a
C C
Fourier transform which is:

x2 dp
2d 2 ∫ 2π ℏ
i px
−
ψ (x,0) = Ae = ϕp e h

We use the identity that gives the integral of a quadratic:

∞
π β2
∫−∞
−α 2 x+βx
e dx = e 4α

α
Solve the equation

p̂
iℏ∂t ψ (x, t) = ψ (x, t)

2m
With the initial condition

p2 d2

∫
i
ψ (x,0) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅ e − h px

A plane wave is the solution:

i
e ℏ ( px−ϵ( p)t)

p2
Where, ϵ( p) =

2m
The wave-packet evolves with time as

p2 d2 p2

∫
− hi ( px− 2m t)
ψ (x, t) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅e

Calculate the Gaussian integral of dp

d2 it ix
α= 2+ and β =

2ℏ 2mℏ ℏ
 30 of 43

The solution is:

[ d 1 + t 2 /τ 2 ]
2 x2 1 m d2
ψ = exp − 2 ⋅ where τ =

We notice here one of the things you can do with equation 3 is integrate from 0.5 sec to 1 sec
and you get one which multiplied by the constant which is six yields six. Now look up 0.5
seconds from the data output from the program and it is silicon, then go to one second and it
is carbon, thus the integral from silicon in time to carbon in time is carbon in protons. Now
consider life as we know it is based on carbon because it has four valence electrons, but it is
not based on silicon, which has four valence electrons as well, because in the presence of
oxygen it readily forms SiO2 (sand or glass) leaving it unavailable to nitrogen, phosphorus, and
hydrogen to make make amino acids the building blocks of life. But silicon can be doped with
phosphorus, boron, gallium, and arsenic to make semiconductors -- transistor technology from
which we can build artificial life (artificial intelligence, AI). We can integrate over many time
ranges to explore millions of more facets to the equation:

1 h 4π rp2 tC
1
Gc ∫tSi
dt = 6 = carbon(C )

α 2 mp t2

tMg = 0.5secon d s

tC = 1secon d

We should say

Si − C 4 16
d= = or d 2 =

C 3 9
The way I am using equation 1 is τ = d 2. We have:

2 C2 x2 1
Equation 13. ψ = exp − ⋅

[ m(Si − C)2 ]
(Si − C )2 ℏC 2
2
1+ t2

Thus for hydrogen:

2 9 2 1
ψ = exp − x ⋅

16 ℏ281 2
1+ 2 t
m 256
 31 of 43

2 9 1
ψ = (1)exp − (1proton)2 ⋅ =74%.

16 1+
(0.075)81
(6secon d s)2
(1)256

For Helium:

2 9 1
ψ = (2)exp − (2proton)2 ⋅ =26%

16 1+
(0.075)81
(3secon d s)2
(4)256

This is interesting because the Universe is about 74% Hydrogen and 24% Helium, the rest of
the elements making up the other 2%. Thus we can say ℏ2 = 0.075 or ℏ = 0.27386. We have
multiplied the first by 1 for Hydrogen element 1 (1 proton), and the second by 2 for helium
element 2 (2 protons). In a sense then, the probabilities represent the probability of finding
hydrogen and helium in the Universe. Hydrogen much of the helium were made theoretically in
the Big Bang of the big bang theory. The other elements were synthesized from these by the
stars. The difference between hydrogen and helium is that some of the helium was made in
stars, that may be why it is 26% not 24% because it could include the remaining 2% of
elements in the universe. It must be kept in mind the data we have on the universe as a whole
for relative abundances can only currently be ballpark figures.

Giordano’s Relationship

Warren Giordano writes in his paper The Fine Structure Constant And The Gravitational
Constant: Keys To The Substance Of The Fabric Of Space, March 21, 2019:

In 1980, the author had compiled a series of notes analyzing Einstein’s geometric to kinematic
equations, along with an observation that multiplying Planck’s constant ‘h’ by ‘1 + α’, where ‘α’
is the Fine Structure Constant, and multiplying by 10 23 yielded Newton’s gravitational constant
numerically, but neglecting any units.

Let’s do that

(6.62607E-34Js)(1+1/137)(1E23)=6.6744E-11 Js

And it works, G is:

G=6.67408E-11 N(m2/kg2)

This is like saying gravitational constant masses equal ten to the 23 Planck velocities:

G m1 = 10 23h(1 + α)(v1)

G m1 = 10 23h(1 + α)(v1)

Where m1 is a kilogram and v1 is 1 meter per second.

 32 of 43

6E 23 = NA

But, if we are working with kilograms we say

NA = 6E 20

Is Avogadro’s number, so we have

NA
G m1 = h(1 + α)(v1)

6
Which is to say

k ilogra m s N
6 ⋅ secon d s = h A (1 + α)

m eter G
But H=0.001 kg/mol not 1.00 g/mol and carbon is C=0/0.012 kg/mol not 12.01 g/mol

Thus

k ilogra m s 1000NA
6 ⋅ secon d s =h (1 + α)

m eter G
Thus if H is the molar mass of hydrogen (1 g/mol=0.001kg/mol) then there are 6E26 atoms in a
kilogram of it.

k ilogra m s 1 N
6 ⋅ secon d s = h A (1 + α)

m eter 1000 G
Thus saying

k ilogra m s N
6 ⋅ secon d s = 1000h A (1 + α)

m eter G
Remembering we now say in this system of units NA = 6E 20atom s /m ol if we are working in
kg.

If we say

NA
= 6E 23

H
And our equations become

k ilogra m s 2 N (1 + α)
Equation 14. 6 ⋅ secon d s =h A

m eter H G
 33 of 43

secon d s N (1 + α)
Equation 15. 6 ⋅ k ilogra m s 2 =h A

m eter E G
These are the variables:

NA

E
Where NA is Avogadro’s number and E is the molar mass of an element. Velocity on the lefts
inverted (seconds per meter) is velocity as a frequency. We have the following Schematic (next
page)…

Equation 2 gives 6 kg squared seconds per meter when evaluated for hydrogen and 1 kg
squared seconds per meter evaluated for carbon. This relationship between 6 and 1 is the
same I got for these same two elements as well in my paper Proton Seconds and Quanta
which was

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 16. = (6proton s)(1secon d )

α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 17. = (1proton)(6secon d s)

α 2 mp Gc


 34 of 43

Ue
α2 =

mec 2
Combining equation 13 with equation 15 (Giordano’s reationship my proton-seconds):

1 1 rp G 4π x N
Equation 18. = 12 A ℤ

(1 + α) α 2 mp hc m1 E

Where ℤ is a number of protons. x1 and m1 are meters 1 and kilograms 1 respectively. The
subscripts can increment by integer values for different values.

Taking equation 13

secon d s N (1 + α)
6 ⋅ k ilogra m s 2 =h A

m eter E G
And Writing it

0.5
(1 + α) 1
∫1.0 E 2
Equation 17. h NA d E = 6

G
And looking back at equation 3:

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

We see they are the same because

(1 + α) 1 h 4π rp2
Equation 18. h NA = 2

G α mp Gc

kg 2
But on the left side are ⋅ s and proton − secon d s on the right. Which says square
m
kilograms per meter are protons. This is the Divergence Theorem (Next page)…

 35 of 43

This is to say, Since we can write

h{(1+𝛼)/G}Nª∫{dE/E²}=ℕ

And, we had

1/(𝜶²m_p)√{4𝜋h)(𝐫p²)/Gc}∫{dt/t²}=ℕ

Where

h{(1+𝛼)/G}Nª=1/(𝜶²m𝑝)√{4𝜋h(r𝑝²)/Gc}

Then…

∭dxdydz=(1-0)(1-0)(6-0)=6(kg²)m

Which is the divergence theorem…

∭(𝛻∙𝐮)dV=∯𝒖⋅ds

 36 of 43

Thus we see in conclusion Proton-Seconds and Giordano’s relationship have the

potential to solve a wide range of problems across many disciplines in the Natural
Sciences and that since both take on what could be called six-fold symmetry, 6 is crux of
Nature. That is:

1 h 4π rp2 1.0
1
Gc ∫0.5
dt = 6
α 2 mp t2

1.0
(1 + α) 1
∫0.5 E 2
h NA dE = 6
G

Rigorous Formulation of Proton-Seconds

Essentially we can rigorously formulate the notion of proton-seconds by considering

∫t ∬S
Equation 2.1 qdt = t 2 ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

Is protons-seconds squared where current density is J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ and ρ = Q /m 3. We say

∫V
Equation 2.2 Q= ρdV

Keeping in mind q is not charge (coulombs) but a number of charges, here a number of
protons. It is

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 2.3 ℕ= 2

α mp Gc

Dividing 2.1 through by by t:

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t ∬S
Equation 2.4 =t ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

α 2 mp

Which is proton-seconds. Dividing through by t again:

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t 2
Equation 2.5 = proton s

α 2 mp

We see that if J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ where ρ = Q /m 3 and v = m /s then J is I/m2 (current per square

meter) is analogous to amperes per per square meter which are coulombs per second through
 37 of 43

a surface. Thus we are looking at a number of protons per second through a surface. Thus we
write:

1 h 4π rp2 tC
dt 1.0

Gc ∫tMg ∫0.5
=6 t −2 dt = − 6(1 − 2) = 6

α 2 mp t 2

Is carbon where 0.5 seconds is magnesium (Mg) from the values of time corresponding to
protons in the output from our program and 1.0 seconds is carbon (C). We see we have the
following theorem:

h 4π rp2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S
⃗
1 dt
∫ ∬
Equation 2.6. =
α 2 mp Gc t t 3
S

So as an example,…

( 0.25 )
h 4π rp2 1.0
J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗ = − 3 1 −
1 dt 1 proton s
Gc ∫0.5 ∬S
= =9

α mp
2 t 3 secon d

Is fluorine (F). Divide by xy with x=y=1 and we have current density. And multiply by 1 second
which is carbon and we have protons per square meter. Charge conservation gives:

+ ∇ ⋅ J ⃗ = 0

∂ρ
∂t
Is 9-9=0. In general…

⃗ y, z) = (0,0,J ) = − J k
⃗
J (x,

d S ⃗ = d x d y k
⃗

J ⃗ ⋅ d S ⃗ = (0,0,J ) ⋅ (0,0,d x d y) = − Jd x d y

 38 of 43

We consider the surface through which J passes a circle of radius R where J decreases linearly
as r with J0 at the center we have:

∫0 ( R)
2π R
π J0 R 2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S ⃗ = J0
r
∬S ∫0
Equation 2.7 1− rdrdθ =

Periodic Table As Squaring Of A Circle

The question becomes does our formulation of proton-seconds explain the periodic table of
the elements. Perhaps it does. We considered a flow of protons into a square surface and into
a circle. The solution seems to be that the periodic table is squaring the circle, an age old
problem that has not been solved which is to construct a circle from a square that has the
same area. If it cannot be done, how can the periodic table do it? The answer as current
density decreases as we move out from the center of a circle at and at some point dotted with
its surface it will approach the surface density while constant dotted with a square surface. We
have for a unit square of side length l, that its area is l 2, and for a circle of radius R, its area is
π R 2. We have if l = 1, then:

1
R2 =

π
That is the apothem, a, of the square is 1/2=0.5 and R=0.564189584. Then

0.5
= 0.866226271

0.564189584
3
But this is very nearly the which is the cosine of pi over 6 radians or 30 degrees. Thus we
2
have the six-fold symmetry characteristic of our proton-seconds in the periodic table of the
elements. So this is all but solved because in equation 2.7:

 39 of 43

∫0 ( R)
2π R
π J0 R 2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S ⃗ = J0
r
∬S ∫0
1− rdrdθ =

3
We have instead of

( R)
r
1− rdrdθ

We have J varying not as r, but as the sine of theta because the integral of sine is cosine:

π/6
3
∫0
1− = sinθdθ

Example 4: Drift Velocity

We have equation 2.6:

h 4π rp2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S
⃗
1 dt
Gc ∫t t 3 ∬S
=
α 2 mp

And equation 15, Giordano’s Relationship (which I have reformulated as):

(1 + α) m3
h NA H = 6.0003 2

G s ⋅ kg

Where NA = 6.02E 23 and H=1 gram/atom

Because for hydrogen 1 proton is molar mass is 1 gram, for carbon 6 protons is 6 grams and
so on for 6E23 atoms per gram.

Since

1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton ⋅ secon d s

α 2 mp Gc

We have

Hydrogen is 1 proton occurs at 6 seconds, and helium is 2 protons occurs at 3 seconds. We

have:

dt 1
∫t t 3
6 = − 3(1/36 − 1/9) = proton /sec

4
 40 of 43

J ⃗ ⋅ d S
⃗
∫ ∫S
0.25proton s /sec =

Suggesting since carbon is 6 protons is 1.00 seconds, we have

0.25proton s /sec = Jx y

(0.25proton s /secon d )(6proton s) = Jx y(1secon d )

(0.04167 ⋅ 1/secon d )/x y = 1secon d ⋅ Nproton s /secon d /m eter 2

(0.041678 ⋅ sec −1)/x y = 1.00 ⋅ N ⋅ proton s /m 2

1
= (24 ⋅ proton s /m 2)N

xy

Nx y = 0.04167 ⋅ m 2 /proton

Where N is an integer. If N=1 it is hydrogen (1 proton) then xy=1/24 square meters per proton,
or…

24proton s /m 2

Now we call upon equation 15, Giordano’s Relationship,…

(1 + α) m3
h NA H = 6.0003 2

G s ⋅ kg
Since this is for hydrogen we multiply by the mass of a proton is 1.67262E-27kg, and multiply
by 6 seconds squared since six seconds is hydrogen. We have

6 m3/(s2kg)(ⅿ𝚙)(36 sec)=3.6129E-25 m3

We take the cube root and square to get

5E-17 m2

Take our result where N=1 (hydrogen)

xy=(0.04167 meter2/proton)

And divide by 5E-17 m2

8.334E14 proton^-1

1.1999E-15 protons and 1.2E-15 protons

Multiply by the mass of a proton

 41 of 43

(1.67262E-27kg/proton)(1.2E-15 protons)=2.007E-42 kg

The mass of an electron is 9.10938E-31kg so this is

4.5388E11 electrons

We actually formulated electron-seconds (Equation 2) after our model for proton seconds, they
are

1 h 4π re2
= 37,588electron s ⋅ secon d s

α 2 me Gc

We have if we want the number of electrons to equal our 1.2E-15 protons

(37,588 electron∙seconds)(4.5388E11 electrons)=8.28E-8 seconds

In this amount of time we will have a number of electrons equal to 1.2E-15 protons. The
electrons will thus move at a velocity of:

vt=distance

The Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom is

4πϵ0ℏ2
= 5.3E − 11m

mee 2
v=0.00064 m/s=0.64 mm/second

This is on the order of drift velocity in a right circular cylinder wire. The drift velocity of free
electrons in copper wire is 7mm/s with a resistivity of 1.79E − 8 ⋅ Ωm and free electron
density of 8.45E28 electrons/m3.

The drift velocity is given by

I
vd =

ne A
n=free electron density

I=current flow

e=charge of an electron

A=cross-sectional area

Because of its high conductivity copper is more efficient than any other electrical conductor
and is as such the international standard to which all other conductors are compared. This is
much owed to its ductility as well, which means it can be drawn out into long wires. This ability
is owed to it allowing atoms to roll over each other into new positions without breaking the
metallic bond. Thicker wires have lower resistance because there is more freedom for electrons
to move. Ductility is defined by the degree to which a material can sustain plastic deformation
under stress before failure. Since resistance increase with length we see that conductivity is a
 42 of 43

function of length. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity rating of all non-precious
metals, thus though less than silver and gold it is more abundant and thus affordable. It is

5.96E7 S/m

Or rather the resistivity of copper in general is given as

1.68E-8 𝝮m

At 20 degrees centigrade which is room temperature and the temperature at which we need to
use it.

The resistivity is

A
ρ=R

l
Where l is the length of the wire, R is the resistance of the wire in ohms and A is the cross-
sectional area in square meters. This will give the resistivity in Ωm.

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