COURSE TITLE:

INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: EDC 121D

Lecturers: Dr. Samuel Asare Amoah
&
Prince Laryea
020 813 1469 / 0206141325
 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY
 EDUCATION
• To educate means to train people to
acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• The process of acquiring these is known as
learning.
What is Education?
• It is the process of human learning by which
knowledge is imparted, faculties trained
and skills developed.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
• A process by which individuals born into a
society learn the ways of life that include
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the
society so that they can function
effectively as members of the society.
• Education, however, can be described as
the process by which people acquire
knowledge, attitude, skills, habits, values
and moral behaviour.
 EDUCATION AS A
FUNCTION
• Education has always lived a tension
between two functions.
➢Education is a matter of assuring
continuity, that is, passing on what is
known.
➢Education is a matter of fostering
creativity and change, that is, propelling
learners into the unknown
• Education helps people to become useful
to themselves and their society
• It is the business of developing an individual
or the continuous all-round development of
the individual for life through the formal,
informal or non-formal approach.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)

Formal education
• Organized and structured learning
and training that takes place in
schools.
• It usually has a curriculum and syllabus
that are prescribed; and
examinations are used for evaluation.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
Informal education
• Learning or training that takes place
casually all the time throughout a person’s
life. Most of the time, informal learning
takes place unconsciously through all kinds
of experiences in the family, with friends,
and the whole community.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
Non-formal education
• The type of learning or training that is
organised at specified times but is not part
of a school programme.
• Usually, it is organised by various
established bodies to meet specific
learning needs of various groups.
• These programmes are usually loosely
structured.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
It can be deduced from the definitions that
Education:
• Involves acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes,
• Is a process (i.e. It involves activities)
• Is value related.
 OBJECTIVES IN
EDUCATION
• Educational objectives can be
classified into three areas or domains.
❖The cognitive (knowledge),
❖the affective (sense of value or
attitude)
❖the psychomotor domain (physical
activity)
• The cognitive domain aims at increasing a
person’s knowledge and mental
(intellectual) skills. It tries to improve the
human ability to think and reason logically
and effectively.
• The greatest aspect of educational
objectives falls into the cognitive domain.

• The affective domain deals with feelings,

values and appreciation. It aims at enabling
the individual to develop appropriate moral
and spiritual attitudes and emotions.
• It is a form of character training, which helps
the individual to fit into the society in which
he or she lives.
• The psychomotor domain includes the
development of person’s muscular or
mechanical skills and abilities or
manual dexterity.
• These skills can be developed by such
courses as handwriting, speech
training, vocational, technical and
physical education.
• These three domains are interrelated and
should be combined in any teaching-
learning process and curriculum
development.
• Such a combination will ensure an all-round
human development and a balanced
society
 TECHNOLOGY
• The word “Technology” was derived from
the Greek word “Technos” meaning “Art”.
• In Ancient Greek when people talked of Art
they were talking of skills/techniques and
ideas used in drawing, painting and
sculpturing.
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Technology is the complex of human
activity which is concerned with the using
of the findings of art and science to solve
human problems.

• The word technology does not simply mean

the accumulation or use of hardware such
as projectors, radio, television sets, video
and other gadgets
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Instead it has to do with all the ways
people use their inventions and discoveries
to satisfy their needs and desires.

• Technology is a systematic and integrated

organization of men, machine, ideas and
procedures to achieve a desired goal.

• Technology can be explained in two ways.

That is, technology as a process, and
technology as a product.
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• As a process will mean the on-going
business of practicing an approach to
doing a thing.
This can be termed as soft technology.

• As a product is the end result of the

practicing business.
These are visible aspects of technology and
they can be termed as hard technology.
 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• Trickton (1970) defined educational
technology as a systematic way of
designing, carrying out and evaluating the
total process of learning in terms of specific
objectives based on research in human
and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction”.
• Educational technology "is the application
of research, learning theory, emergent
technologies, and child and adult
psychology to solving instructional and
performance problems“ (University of North
Carolina Media Services, 1997).
 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Educational technology is the study and
ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using,
and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources (Association of
Educational and Communication
Technology, AECT, 2008).

• The definition contains four components.

 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
▪ First, the focus is a “study and ethical
practice.”
▪ Second, the purpose of educational
technology is “facilitating learning and
improving performance”.
▪ The third part of the definition tells us how we
do this: “by creating, using and managing”.
▪ The fourth stage of the definition tells us what
we work with: technological processes and
resources.
• Any technology which increases the rate of
learning would enable the teacher to
teach less and the learner to learn more. Sir
Eric Ashby

• Cuban assertion on Educational

Technology is any device available to
teachers for use in instructing students in a
more efficient and stimulating manner
rather than the sole use of the teacher’s
voice.
 FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• Educational technology can be viewed in
two functional perspectives. That is,
❑Technology in Education and
❑Technology of Education

• These two have distinct historical

conceptions which can be called the
physical sciences concept and the
behavioural science concept.
 FUNCTIONAL
PERSPECTIVES……
♠ Technology in Education refers to the
product, that is, the application of
technological products such as audio,
visual and audio-visual to education.

♠ Technology of Education refers to the

process, that is, systematic planning,
executing and evaluating of educational
process to enhance efficiency and
effectiveness.
 DOMAINS IN EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• The concept of educational technology by
Seels and Richey (1994), can be classified
into 5 domains:
♠ Design,
♠ Development,
♠ Evaluation,
♠ Utilisation, and
♠ Management
DOMAINS IN EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
 INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• A field concerned with improving the
efficiency and effectiveness of learning,
performance and instruction through:
• Designing instruction (including all the
phases of activity from needs assessment
to evaluation)
• [Instructional technology] … is the art and
science of designing, producing, and using with
economy and elegance solutions to institutional
problems;
• these solutions
• may combine verbal or audio-visual
media and
• may be experienced with or without
human mediation and
• may take the form of learners, courses or
whole systems
• that facilitate learning efficiently,
effectively and humanely (Molenda,
2003).
 INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES
• These are wide range of instructional
materials and devices designed to provide
realistic imagery and substitute experience
to enrich curricular experiences of many
kinds.
• The types which are widely applied to
teaching in the classroom include
chalkboards, smartphones, tablets,
projectors, bulletin boards among others.
 INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNIQUES
• Instructional techniques these include the
skills of imparting and promoting
knowledge through the use of workshop,
seminars, symposia, conferences, talks,
debates, exhibitions, fairs, in-service, etc.
• The aim is to help diffuse and adopt
innovative ideas, which were derived
through research, inventions, social, and
curriculum change.
 INSTRUCTIONAL
METHODOLOGY
• Methodology includes all the special ways
through which an instructor imparts or
inculcates knowledge in the learner.
• Such instructional methods may vary from
teacher to teacher and from subject to
subject.
• Examples of some instructional methods
used by instructors include group, lecture,
dramatization, simulation, field trips etc
 GOAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
It seeks to:
• Teach how to plan, design, develop, implement,
evaluate and manage instructional processes
effectively to ensure improved performance by
learners
• Understand how people learn and how to best
design instructional delivery systems and
materials
• Use appropriate technology to aid in the design
and delivery of the instruction.
• More professionals now use educational
technology in a general sense to describe
any use of technology in an educational
endeavour while instructional technology
has more to do with direct application of
technology in the acts of teaching and
learning.
• Instructional technology is a sub-category
of educational technology.
 IMPORTANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL
❖It evokes curiosity
TECHNOLOGY
❖It enhances understanding.
❖It makes teaching and learning easier
❖It takes care of individual differences
❖It improves learning outcomes
o Clarify and illustrate concepts,
o Create interest and variety,
o Aid in retention, extend scope of experience.
❖It increases collaboration among learners when
learning.
❖It gives instruction a scientific base
 THEORIES AND36

PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING AND
INSTRUCTION
 DEFINITION OF 37

LEARNING
• Learning does not have one UNIVERSAL
definition
• Learning is any process that in living
organisms leads to permanent capacity
change and which is not solely due to
biological maturation of ageing (Illeris, 2009).
• Learning involves ongoing, active processes
of inquiry, engagement and participation in
the world around us (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2000).
 38

• We do it from the moment we’re born and it

takes place anywhere such as the schools
and beyond those school walls, including the
homes, communities, among many others,
and throughout our lives.
• Learning from the lenses of most educational
psychologists, is the relatively permanent
change in behaviour due to practice and
experience (Rose & Meyer, 2002).
• Lifelong learning should be seen as the
foundation of an effective school, an active
community, and a fulfilled and meaningful
life.
 39

• Learning is a process as well as the actual

change in behaviour- product.
• Learning focuses on the
development/construction of knowledge,
skills and attitudes that result in behaviour
change.
• Learners can acquire knowledge, skills and
attitudes independently, but most often they
need help.
• This help is what is referred to as
instruction/teaching or learning support.
 DEFINITION OF
40

INSTRUCTION
• Instruction emphasizes how information is
conveyed to learners and focus on the
activities, methods, and structures of the
environment that are designed to facilitate
learning.

• Environment is not only where instruction

takes place but also the methods, the
media, and equipment needed to convey
information and guide the learners.
 STUDENT-CENTERED
ENVIRONMENTS
• Learners are given direct access to the
knowledge base and work individually and
in small groups to solve authentic problems.
• In such environments, parents and
community members also have direct
access to teachers and the knowledge
base, playing an integral role in schooling
process
 TEACHER-CENTERED
APPROACH
• Teachers serve as the center for
epistemological authority, directing the
learning process and controlling students'
access to information
• Under this paradigm, students are treated
as "empty vessels" and learning is viewed
as an additive process
 DEFINITION OF TEACHING
• Teaching is more than just the interaction
between teacher and learner.
• Teaching can be thought of as consisting
of three distinct aspects, namely,
❖planning,
❖interaction and
❖assessment.
 PLANNING PHASE
• Teachers think about the outcomes of the
interaction and the needs of the learners
that they will be teaching so that they can
design learning experiences and activities
in which the learners will be involved
 INTERACTION PHASE
• Interaction refers to what takes place
between the teacher and the learners.
• Thus the learning situation should be
structured in such a way that the
interaction between the adult and learner
will result in realising the learner’s potential
for cognitive development
 ASSESSMENT PHASE
• The teacher assesses each learning
experience created with the aim of
improving and developing strategies for
assisting those learners who did not
achieve the outcomes set.
 48

PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING
• Educational psychologist and pedagogues
have identified several principles of learning
• Also referred to as laws of learning

• They provide additional insight into what

makes people learn most effectively.

• Edward Thorndike developed the first three

"Laws of learning:" i.e. readiness, exercise, and
effect.
 CONT.
49

These principles are:

♣Readiness
♣Exercise
♣Effect
♣Primacy
♣Recency
♣Intensity
♣Freedom
♣Requirement
 READINESS 50

• Readiness implies a degree of concentration

and eagerness

• Individuals learn best when they are physically,

mentally, and emotionally ready to learn

• Do not learn well if they see no reason for

learning.

• Learning is an active process, so students must

have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a
definite reason for learning something
 CONT.
51

• As teachers or instructors we need:

❖to get students ready to learn and
❖to create interest
❖to show the value of the subject matter,
and
❖to provide continuous mental or physical
challenge.

• On the basis of securing good marks in

various subjects in an academic
examination, leads to mentally and
emotionally readiness to do more
 52

EXERCISE
• The principle of exercise states that those things
most often repeated are best remembered.

• It is the basis of drill and practice.

• It has been proven that students learn best and

retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.

• The key here is that the practice must be

meaningful.
 53

CONT.
• It is clear that practice leads to improvement
only when it is followed by positive feedback.

• The human memory is fallible. The mind can

rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts
or practices after a single exposure.

• The instructor must

• repeat important items of subject matter at
reasonable intervals, and
• provide opportunities for students to practice
while making sure that this process is directed
toward a goal.
 54

EFFECT
• The principle is based on the emotional reaction
of the student.

• It has a direct relationship to motivation.

• Learning is strengthened when accompanied

by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and

• Learning is weakened when associated with an

unpleasant feeling.

• Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to

success and motivate the learner
 CONT. 55

• Whatever the learning situation, it should:

➢contain elements that affect the students
positively and
➢give them a feeling of satisfaction.

• Therefore, instructors should be cautious about

using punishment in the classroom.

• It is better to tell students that a problem or task,

although difficult, is within their capability to
understand or perform.

• Every learning experience does not have to be

entirely successful, nor does the student have to
master each lesson completely
 56

PRIMACY
• Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a
strong, almost unshakable, impression.

• Things learned first create a strong impression in

the mind that is difficult to erase.

• For the instructor, this means that what is taught

must be right the first time.

• For the student, it means that learning must be

right.
 57

CONT.
• The student's first experience should be positive,
functional, and lay the foundation for all that is
to follow.

• What the student learns must be procedurally

correct and applied the very first time.

• The instructor must present subject matter in a

logical order, step by step, making sure the
students have already learned the preceding
step.
 58

RECENCY
• The principle of recency states that things most
recently learned are best remembered.

• The closer the training or learning time is to the

time of actual need to apply the training, the
more apt the learner will be to perform
successfully.

• Information acquired last generally is

remembered best.
 59

CONT.
• Frequent review and summarization help fix in
the mind the material covered.

• Instructors recognize the principle of recency

when they carefully plan a summary for a
lesson or learning situation.

• The instructor repeats, restates, or

reemphasizes important points at the end of a
lesson to help the student remember them.
 60

INTENSITY
• The more intense the material taught, the
more likely it will be retained.

• A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting

learning experience teaches more than a
routine or boring experience.

• The principle of intensity implies that a student

will learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute.

• Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide

variety of instructional aids, to improve realism,
motivate learning, and challenge students.
 61

CONT.
• Instructors should emphasize important points
of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and
voice.

• Demonstrations and role playing do much to

increase the learning experience of students.

• For example, a student can get more

understanding and appreciation of a movie
by watching it than by reading the script.
 62

FREEDOM
• The principle of freedom states that things
freely learned are best learned.

• Conversely, the further a student is coerced,

the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate
and implement what is learned.

• The greater the freedom enjoyed by

individuals within a society, the greater the
intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed
by society as a whole.
 63

CONT.
• Since learning is an active process, students
must have freedom:
❖freedom of choice,
❖freedom of action,
❖freedom to bear the results of action

• These are the three great freedoms that

constitute personal responsibility.

• If no freedom is granted, students may have

little interest in learning.
 64

REQUIREMENT
• The law of requirement states that "we must have
something to obtain or do something."
• It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that
may help us to learn or gain something.
• A starting point is needed
• For example, if you want to draw a person,
• You need to have the materials with which to
draw, and
• You must know how to draw a point, a line, a
figure and so on
• Until you reach your goal, which is to draw a
person.
 65

THEORIES OF LEARNING
• Theories of learning explain how learning
occurs.
• How teachers/instructors view the role of
media and technologies in the classroom
depends very much on their beliefs about how
people learn.
• Different learning theories have different
implications for instruction in general and for
the use of media for teaching/instruction in
specific
 66

CONT.

The three basic learning theories

are:
• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
 67

BEHAVIOURISM
• Behaviourism is primarily concerned with
observable and measurable aspects of human
behaviour.

• The origins of behaviourist learning theories may be

traced backed to the early 1900's with the
formulation of "associationistic" principles of
learning.

• Emphasize changes in behaviour that result from

stimulus-response associations made by the
learner.
 68

CONT.
• Behaviourism is a worldview that assumes a
learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli.

• The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e.

tabula rasa)

• Learner’s behaviour is shaped through

reinforcement and punishment
 REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
(Behaviour Increases) (Behaviour Decreases)

POSITIVE Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

(Something is Something is added to Something is added to
increase desired behaviour decrease undesired
added) behaviour
Ex: Smile and compliment Ex: Give student detention
student on good for failing to follow the class
performance rules

NEGATIVE Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment

(Something is Something is removed to Something is removed to
increase desired behaviour decrease undesired
removed) behaviour

Ex: Give a free homework Ex: Make student miss their

pass for turning in all time in break for not
assignments following the class rules
 EDUCATIONAL
70

IMPLICATIONS
• Instruction should be provided gradually or little by little,
from simple to complex and the subsequent one should
build on the previous one.

• Material to be learned should be arranged

systematically and in sequential steps from simple to
complex.

• Students should be encouraged to progress at their

own pace.
• Teachers should encourage learner’s participation.

• Teachers should reinforce the behaviour in their

students which they wish to be repeated.
 71

COGNITIVISM

• The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues

that the “black box” of the cognitive domain
should be opened and understood.

• The learner is viewed as an information

processor (like a computer).

• Originators and important contributors: Merrill,

Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner, Schank,
Scandura.
 72

EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
Teachers should
• Speak aloud so that learners can hear clearly what
they are saying.
• Write clearly so that learners can see.
• Do well gain learners’ attention and interest.
• Motivate learners by creating desirable learning
environment.
• Give a piece of information at a time.
• Encourage learners to rehearse information.
 73

CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview
posits that learning is an active, constructive
process.
• The learner is an information constructor.
• People actively construct or create their own
subjective representations of objective
reality.
• New information is linked to prior knowledge,
thus mental representations are subjective.
 EDUCATIONAL
74

IMPLICATIONS
• The goal of instruction is not teach information
• but to create situations or learning
environments that enable the students to
interpret information from their own
understanding.
• The teacher should act as a facilitator, guiding
and supporting learners in the process of
constructing knowledge.
• The acquisition of knowledge should include
active construction of knowledge.
 BEHAVIOURIST
SUMMARY
COGNITIVIST CONSTRUCTIVIST
Knowledge is: Passive, largely Abstract symbolic A constructed
automatic representations in entity made by
responses to the mind of each individual
external factors in individuals through the
the environment learning process

Learning is: A relative A change in a Discovery and

permanent learner’s construction of
change in understanding meaning
behaviour
Focus of learning Association, Increased Problem-solving
is on: operant meaning and and construction
behaviour, improved of meaning
conditioning memorisation
Key learning Reinforcement Elaboration Intrinsic motivation
concept: and programmed
learning

Centred on: Teacher Learner Learner

INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA
 WHAT IS MEDIA?
• It is derived from a Latin word “medium”
meaning “between”.

• A medium (plural- media) is channel of

communication.

• It refers to anything that carries information

from a source to a receiver.
• Media are the replicable “means”, forms, or
vehicles by which instruction is formatted,
stored, and delivered to the learner

• Examples: Film, Television, diagrams, computer,

printed materials, etc.

• They are considered instructional media when

they carry messages for instructional purposes.

• The basic characteristic of media is that they

carry a message to a receiver.
• There are normally two types of training media
within a learning program.
❑The first is the instructional setting or major
media.
➢For example, you might have an e-learning
program delivered to them.

❑The second is the delivery systems within the

major medium. These are the various
instructional methods that take place within the
instructional setting.
➢Example, an e-learning platform with several
types of media within it, such as videos,
readings, and simulations incorporated into
it.
• Note that it is not unusual for a medium to carry
another medium.
• For example, a television (one form of media)
carrying the spoken word (another form of media)
of the thoughts of a person.

• The second medium, the spoken word, can

change to best deliver the message
• For example rather than speaking, the person can
draw, act, or write the message.
• Just as people use a variety of tones, pitches,
rhythm, timbre, loudness, inflections, gestures,
etc. to communicate ideas to others;

• You should also use a variety of media to aid in

the transfer of learning.

• This is also referred to as Blended Learning.

 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• The broad-range of resources which can be used
to facilitate effective and efficient communication
in the teaching and learning process (Abimbade,
1997).

• This may include traditional materials such as

• chalkboards,
• handouts,
• charts, and slides,
• overheads, real objects, and videotape or film
• Newer materials and methods such as
• computers,
• DVDs, CD-ROMs,
• the Internet, and interactive video conferencing.
 EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
• They are both human and material resources
which can be used in the classroom to teach
in order to make teaching and learning to be
explicit, thought provoking, interesting,
efficient and effective.

• They are Audio, Visuals or Audio-Visual

materials which helps in the achievement of
specific learning objectives.
 ?
• Educational media should not
be master to the teacher but
a good servant.

• Educational media are means

to an end but not an end in
themselves.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEDIA
❖They have the capability to diffuse information
and knowledge

❖They have the capability to show some colour,

motion, symbolic representation, or
simultaneous picture and sound.

❖Some are static e.g. pictures, photographs,

maps and some are dynamic (motion films
and TV).
 CONT…
❖Some are locally designed or produced by
classroom teacher while others are
commercially produced.

❖Some are big and are usually very complex,

sophisticated and expensive. E.g. TV,
Computer,

❖Some are small and are less complex,

sophisticated and less expensive. E.g. charts,
slides, films, maps etc.
 EDGAR DALE’S “CONE
OF EXPERIENCE”
• Some educators believe that different experiences
are more or less effective for achieving different
types of instructional outcomes.
• For example, text with pictures is not as effective as
live demonstrations for teaching motor skills.

• Instructors who are considering the use of media

should ask themselves, “How do I expect the
media or type of learning activity to make learning
more effective?”
 TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA
• Real objects and models
• Printed text (books, handouts, worksheets)
• Printed visuals (pictures, drawings, charts, graphs)
• Display boards (chalk, bulletin, multipurpose)
• Slides and filmstrips
• Audio (tape, disc, voice)
• Video and film (tape, disc)
• Television (live)
• Computer software
• The Web
 THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL /
EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
♣Gain attention
♣Recall prerequisites
♣Present objectives to the learners
♣Present new content
♣Support learning through examples and visual
elaboration
♣Elicit student response
♣Provide feedback
♣Enhance retention and transfer
♣Assess performance
email: asareamoahy@yahoo.com
 CLASSIFICATION OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• What Classification is?
• Classification according to perceptual
functions is concerned with how the medium
will stimulate the student to learn.

• A person who wants to communicate with an

audience does not just grab any medium for that
purpose.

• He or she will have to consider many things before

deciding which medium to use to facilitate the
communication process.
• There are different ways to classify media.
These may include:
❑Print media, non-print media, electronic
media
❑Projected media & non-projected
media
❑Audio media, Visual media & Audio-
visual
❑Hardware and software
❑Power Consumption
❑Physical dimensions
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• Objective(s) of the lesson to be taught.
• Learning style of the learners
• The type of learning which the learners are to be
engaged in
• Practicability of the media
• Availability of the media
• Durability of the media
• Portability of the media
• Available technical know-how or expertise
email: asareamoahy@yahoo.com
 BASIC STEPS IN USING
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• Proper selection
• Preparation before use
• Presentation
• Immediate follow-up
• Evaluation

email: asareamoahy@yahoo.com
 TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUES
•Imitative production
technique
•Adaptive production
technique
•Creative invention

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 IMITATIVE PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUE
• This involves the teacher producing
instructional media adopting and
using models and techniques which
other producers have used for
producing and testing of their own
products.

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 ADAPTIVE
PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUE
• It requires the creation of new forms of
products from already produced
product.

• The producer works out the objectives

and uses his initiative to change the
already existing product to suit his own
new purpose and operations.
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 CREATIVE INVENTION
• The ability to define and solve problems
in original ways without too much
dependence on the other people’s
guidelines or products.

• It is the use of creativity, initiative and

originality to develop new products with
new functions, which no one else has
ever produced.
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INSTRUCTIONAL &
VISUAL DESIGN
 WHAT IS VISUAL DESIGN?
• Visual design is “rhetorical”
• reflect on how different audiences may
“read” design in different contexts of time,
media, or situations.
• Visual design is the use of imagery, colour,
shapes, typography, and form to enhance
usability and improve the user experience.
• Visual design as a field has grown out of
both User Interface (UI) design and graphic
design.
• Visuals can be used to enhance
teaching/instruction and learning.

• A successful visual design does not take away

from the content on the page or function.

• Instead, it enhances it by engaging users and

helping to build trust and interest in the brand.

• The most important question is how do we design

visuals to enhance learning?
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF
VISUAL DESIGN
• Lines connect two points and can be used to help
define shapes, make divisions, and create textures.
• Shapes are self-contained areas. Every object is
composed of shapes.
• Colour choices and combinations are used to
differentiate items, create depth, add emphasis,
and/or help organize information
• Colour theory examines how various choices
psychologically impact users
• Texture refers to how a surface feels or is perceived
to feel.
• Typography refers to which fonts are chosen, their
size, alignment, colour and spacing
Form and Shape
Color
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
GOOD VISUALS
• In improving communication between the source
(teacher) and the receiver (learner), a picture/visual
should exhibit certain characteristics. These
characteristics make visuals good quality to enhance
learning.

• Grouped under three alphabets: “The ABC of a good

illustration”:
 A
• Accurate: Information should be without
mistakes

• Appropriate: should be relevant to the topic

taught

• Artistic: should be attractive to focus

attention on the most important
parts of the message
 B
• Bold: should be bold enough to read by
students at the back of the class

• Brief: ideas presented should just be simple

enough to be interpreted at a glance

• Bright: colour should be bright to attract

attention
 C
• Clear: message should be clear for easy
reading

• Clean: soiled surfaces should be avoided

• Careful: arrangement of elements should be

carefully planned to reduce the effort
required to interpret the message
 PRINCIPLES FOR CREATING
A VISUAL DESIGN
• Can be thought of as what we do to the elements of
design
• A successful visual design applies the principles to
effectively brings them together to make sense. For
instance:
• Unity has to do with all elements on a page visually or
conceptually appearing to belong together.
• Gestalt, in visual design, helps users perceive the overall
design as opposed to individual elements
• Space is “defined when something is placed in it”,
• Hierarchy shows the difference in significance between
items.

• NB: How we apply the Principles of Design determines how

successful we are in creating a work of art
 ROLE OF VISUALS IN
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
❑Allows the student to look at problems differently
in a way they will understand.
❑Increases student memory of important
information.
❑Builds the students understanding of the “big
picture”.
❑Inspire students
❑Help students learn more effectively
❑Increase the student’s interest in the subject
matter.
 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
MODELS
• An instructional design model provides guidelines to
organize appropriate pedagogical scenarios to
achieve instructional goals.
• Instructional design can be defined as the practice of
creating instructional experiences to help facilitate
learning most effectively.
• There are numerous instructional design models. These
are commonly accepted design models:
• Assure
• ADDIE
• Dick and Carey
• Kemp Design Model
• Backward Design (Understanding by Design)
 ASSURE: INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN MODEL

• An instructional design model that has the goal of

producing more effective teaching and learning.

• “ASSURE” is an acronym that stands for the various

steps in the model.
 A – ANALYZE LEARNERS
• The first step in the process is that the teacher should
analyze the attributes of his/her learners.

• The analysis of your learners should include:

• The general attributes of your learners, such as age,
academic abilities, gender, interests, etc.
• Prior competencies
• Learning styles, such as auditory, visual, and tactile
 S – STATE STANDARDS
AND OBJECTIVES
• After the analysis of the learner attributes, the teacher
must state standards and objectives for the learning
module.
• The mark of a good set of learning objectives is
conformity to the ABCDs of well-stated learning
objectives. They are as follows:
• Audience – For whom is the objective intended?
• Behaviour – What is the behaviour or performance to be
demonstrated?
• Conditions – What are the conditions under which the
behaviour or performance will be observed?
• Degree – To what degree will the knowledge or skill be
mastered?
 S – SELECT STRATEGIES,
TECHNOLOGY, MEDIA, AND
MATERIALS
• Figure out what which delivery method will be best for your
instruction.
• For instance, what proportion of your instruction will be
instructor-centered and what proportion of will be student-
centered?
• The first of these are strategies such as lecture,
demonstration or showing a video.
• The second are strategies such as group discussion or
cooperative group work.
• Figure out which technology, media, and materials best
support the method of teaching that you’re using.

• This ranges from simple tools such as chalk and blackboard

to more sophisticated ones such as power-point
presentations.
 U – UTILIZE TECHNOLOGY,
MEDIA, AND MATERIALS
• You must make sure that your plans contribute towards
producing the objectives that you have laid down

• It’s important to follow the “five p’s” process to achieve

this:
❖Preview the Technology, Media, and Materials
❖Prepare the Technology, Media, and Materials
❖Prepare the Environment
❖Prepare the Learners
❖Provide the Learning Experience
 R – REQUIRE LEARNER
PARTICIPATION
• It requires that you make plans to how you are going to
actively engage your students in the material that you
are teaching.
• This needs to be figured out both at the class level and
the individual level.
• The most basic step that you can take is requiring
participation of the students in class discussions.
• A more sophisticated approach would require that
students prepare questions and comments at home to
bring into the class
 E – EVALUATE AND REVISE
• The final step in the ASSURE process is just as crucial as
all of the others.
• In this step, you evaluate the impact of your teaching
on student learning.
• This includes an evaluation of your teaching strategies
and the technology, media, and materials that you
used.
• It requires asking yourself some questions such as did
the lesson meet the objectives, can the lesson be
improved, was the choice of media appropriate, etc.
THE ADDIE MODEL
• Analysis:
• considered as the “Goal-Setting Stage”. The focus is to
distinguish between what the students already know and
what they have to know after completing the course
• Design
• focus is on the learning objectives, content, subject matter
analysis, exercise, lesson planning, assessment instruments
used and media selection
• Development
• use data from previous state to create a program that will
relay what needs to be taught to participants
• stage is all about putting it into action. Thus involves
creating and testing of learning outcomes
• Implementation
• Focus is on the “actual” work and make sure the design is
continuously being evaluated for further improvement.
• Evaluation
 BACKWARD DESIGN AND
BACKWARD COURSE
DESIGN
• The focus is typically on how the content will be
taught, rather than on what is to be taught.
• “Teaching is a means to an end. Having a clear
goal helps us educators to focus our planning and
guide purposeful action toward the intended
results.”
• Approach consists of three phases:
• identify the desired outcomes;
• determine the acceptable criteria for evaluating
students’ progress; and
• plan the instructional methodologies
 128

COMMUNICATION
 129

WHAT IS
COMMUNICATION?
• The process of transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another (Keyton,
2011).
• Communication is the human cement that glues our
society and all other cultures together.
• It links us emotionally and intellectually to other
individuals, groups, and institutions.
• Communication is often functionally defined as “the
sharing of experiences” or “the transfer of meaning” or
“the transmission of values” but it is more than the sum
of these actions.
 130

VERBAL, NON-VERBAL, AND

UNINTENDED COMMUNICATION
• Verbal Communication is a message or information
expressed in words, either orally or in writing
• Non-verbal Communication is any gesture or behaviour
that conveys information, often simultaneously with
spoken words
• Unintended Communications are the excess meanings
of utterances; they are the messages received by
students without the teacher’s awareness or desire.
• For instance, a teacher may say, “This section of the text
won’t be on the test, but read it anyway for
background.”
• But a student may instead hear the message, “Do not
read this section of the text.”
• What is heard is not what the teacher intended to be
heard.
 131

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION
• Daily routines involve very diverse communication
experiences.
• These activities tend to fall into four relatively discrete
levels of communication. These are Intrapersonal,
Interpersonal, Group, and Mass communication.
 132

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
• The four levels of the process of communication can be
visualized along a V-shaped continuum.

Intrapersonal interpersonal Group mass

 133

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
• Four major changes occur as we move to the far right
onto the process of mass communication
1. The number of participants increase.
2. The message becomes less personal, less specialized,
and more general.
3. The audience members become physically and
emotionally separated in time and space from other
members and from the communicator.
4. A mass medium must always be involved for mass
communication to occur.
 134

PURPOSES OF
COMMUNICATION
• To inform. That is, making other people to be aware of
happenings in the society. This could be through
instruction, teaching or through the mass media.
• To affect other people, influence them either through
persuasion or argument.
• To entertain. That is, something that amuses or interest
people.
 THE
135

ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS
OF THE COMMUNICATION
• Sender/Source/Encoder
PROCESS
• Message
• Channel/Medium
• Receiver/Destination/Decoder
• Barrier/Noise factor
• Feedback
 136

COMMUNICATION
REDUNDANCY
• The sender can improve his/her chances of getting
attention at the receivers end, by resorting to
communication redundancy. That is, transmitting a
limited amount of information through the process of
repetition. For example, the teacher repeats key words,
write them on the board, asks students to copy them
into their notebooks and then reviews them frequently.
 PERCEPTION 137

• In communication, perception is important.

• That information comes from somewhere.
• The state of nature is one thing, but more
importantly, the information packages which arrive
at the recipient or perceiver depends on how it gets
to the recipient and therefore on both the sender
and on the transmission.
• It refers to the process whereby an individual becomes
aware of events and objects in one’s environments,
through the sensory modalities; hearing, sight, smell,
taste and touch.
• For example, think of the perceptual process that
occurs when meeting someone for the first time.
• Your attention is drawn to the individual’s physical
appearance, mannerisms, actions and reactions to
what you say and do.
 COMPONENTS OF
PERCEPTION
• Includes at least two basic components:
• (1) an “objective” component mediated through the
senses, which provide the brain with information about
the objects surrounding us, their descriptions and
location, and our position in relation to them; and
• (2) a “subjective” component that analyses the
perceived objects through the lens of personal
experiences, previous knowledge, and cultural biases.
• For instance, a person born and raised in New York
City sees snow,
• an Eskimo sees a variety of landscapes and
resources for survival
• a Ghanaian….. (your guess)
 139

PHASES OF PERCEPTION
• A correct perception leads to an effective learning.
There are three phases of perception as it relates to
communication/instruction. These are:
• Diffusion,
• Differentiation and
• Integration.
 DIFFUSION
• This phase is when the individual first experience an
event or object.
• The initial response is characterized by haziness
(not too clear).
 141

DIFFERENTIATION:
• This phase describes a level of understanding and
awareness when an individual attempts to
discriminate between different parts of the events
or objects being experienced.
• When a learner begins to give examples and non-
examples of a given concept.
 142

INTEGRATION:
• This phase is the highest level of awareness when the
individual can not only identify more elements of
events and objects but also sees the relationship
between these parts.
• The events now make sense to the individual and the
event become very clear and meaningful to the
perceiver.

• Perception, communication and learning have things in

common.
 TYPES OF PERCEPTION
• Someone’s perception is his/her reality.
• Perception in communication determines how one will
communicate and how they will receive information
from another person.
• self-perception is the way you perceive yourself.
• The self-perception is based on your self-esteem, self-
concept and self-efficacy.
• Self-esteem is how much you value yourself. Are you
confident or insecure in how you perceive yourself?
• Self-concept is designed by how you think people
perceive you, how you’re perceived in a group setting
and your own perceptions based on past experiences.
• Self-efficacy is the predictions you make about yourself,
such as “No matter what, I’m going to get an “A”
grade in my course.”
• Environmental perceptions are formed based on the
context in which the information is received.
• For example, if a student turned to a teacher and said,
“I hate you,” that would have one obvious perception,
but if you were practicing for a play and you read, “I
hate you” in your script, the perception of the same
words changes.
• Learned perception is formed around personality,
culture and habit.
• Learned perceptions are thoughts, ideas and beliefs
that are formed by a person being taught.
• Physical perception is based on the tangible world. It’s
the way your physical ears and eyes perceive
something and how your mind processes it.
• Example: Red represents danger or romance while blue
represents calm or water. The way a person identifies
with various colours is an example of physical
perception.
COMMUNICATION
MODELS
 146

COMMUNICATION
MODELS
Shannon and Weaver communication models
• The first major model for communication came in
1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for
Bell Laboratories.

• The original model was designed to mirror the

functioning of radio and telephone technologies.
COMMUNICATION
147

MODELS (CONT)
 148

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
• Berlos’ SMCR model breaks up the
communication process into four
components:
• Source,
• Message,
• Channel and
• Receiver
 149

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S
150

CIRCULAR MODEL (1961)

 OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S
151

CIRCULAR MODEL (1961)

• Schramm states that: ‘It is misleading to
think of the communication process as
starting from somewhere and ending
somewhere. It is really endless.

• Osgood and Schramm’s model allows for

the parts of source and receiver to be
interchanged between the two
communicators and thus allows for further
in‐depth communication and
comprehension of the message
transmitted.
THE END