103 DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Module I- Educational technology concept, approaches and scope

1.1 Educational Technology

Educational Technology is a combination of two terms education and technology.
Education refers to the process of bringing up or leading out the inherent potentialities from the
pupil. It is the process by which the knowledge, skills and attitude are transmitted to the members
of the community.
Technology refers to the techniques as well as technical contrivances which enhance a
process. It is a systematic way of applying the techniques to achieve an objective. Therefore
Educational Technology can be defined as the systematic application of technology in the field of
education. Like any other term, Educational Technology has been defined variously. According to
G.O.M. Leith ‘Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning
and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and
learning’.
Concept of Educational Technology

Educational Technology is a wider term which is more than the sum of its parts.
Educational Technology is not a simple combination of these two words as shown below
o Technology in Education
o Technology of Education
Early developments referred to the role of technology in education which signifies the use of
audio-visual equipment that is hardware in educational process. Later development recognises the
concept of technology of education that is techniques and methodologies of teaching and learning.
This is indeed the software aspect of educational technology. Educational technology is also
different from audio-visual aids. Educational Technology is a vast subject concerned with the
application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning in order to improve
the effectiveness of teaching, learning and evaluation.
Audio –visual aids are merely the aids or resources, i.e., materials which are employed to
improve the quality of the message. Audio-visual aids are only a part of educational technology.

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Meaning of Educational Technology

Educational Technology is a system of 5M’s in education in which machines, material

,men, media and methods are interrelated and work together for the fulfilment of specific
educational objectives. Technology explosion has yielded several new machines, materials and
media which have great potential for use in the educational enterprise. An adequate knowledge of
theory and practice of educational technology and their proper use would enable the teacher to
understand and effectively discharge his new roles in the educational system in the age of
‘information explosion’, ‘knowledge explosion’ and ‘expectation explosion’.
Educational technology is branch of study in which the results of engineering techniques,
information science, natural science, behavioural science and human technology are to be used to
promote the efficiency of education.
Broadly speaking educational Technology connotes three meanings. The first view which
may call educational technology I (ET 1) refers to the application of Physical Science and
engineering technology to provide mechanical or electro-mechanical tools, instruction or hardware
which can be used for instructional purposes. In this sense ,the reference is generally to the use of
equipment for presenting instructional material such as still and motion pictures, projectors, tape
recorders, television, teaching machine and computer based technology.
The second view which may call educational technology 2 (ET 2) refers to the application
of scientific principles to instruction. Here psychological principles of learning are stressed. The
third and modern view of educational technology 3(ET3) incorporates both ET1 and ET2 through
the application of a system approach to education. According to this view education should be
considered as a system in which machines, materials, media, men and methods are incorporated
parts and are organised in such a way as they work together for the fulfilment specific educational
objectives.

Nature and Characteristics of Educational Technology

Educational Technology is the application of scientific principles to education

It lays stress on the development of methods and techniques for effective teaching-learning
It emphasis the designing of measuring instruments for testing learning outcomes
It involves input, output and process aspect of education

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 Educational Technology is not to be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids in education
Educational Technology is a comprehensive term and is not to be viewed in terms of its parts or
processes. It includes instructional technology, teaching technology, programmed learning, micro
teaching and system etc..

Significance of Educational Technology

The growing use of educational technology helps to release the teacher from the routine role
of ‘information giving’ so that he can devote his time and effort to the more important tasks of
planning, arranging and evaluating learning experiences and outcomes. Another noticeable trend
is the creation of multi-media learning environments in classrooms which involve the use of a
variety of interrelated learning experiences.
The US Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) has listed the following important
benefits of educational technology.
Technology can make education more individual
Technology can make education more effective
With the use of technology instructions can have more scientific base
Technology makes instruction more powerful
Technology provides immediate and equal access to information
In spite of these the use of technology has the following benefits also.
Involvement of maximum senses
Utilise maxims of teaching
o Proceed from known to unknown
o Proceed from simple to complex
o Proceed from easy to difficult
o Proceed from concrete to abstract
o Proceed from particular to general
Attention compellers
Motivating force
Reduce verbalism and monotonous teaching
Helps in clarifying concepts
Substitute for direct experience

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 Meets inadequate resources
Develops scientific attitude
Helps in better learning and retention
Makes teaching-learning attractive inspirational and effective
Cater to individual differences of students

Scope of Educational Technology

The scope of Educational Technology is as wide as education itself. The scope includes
the use of hardware and software and system analysis in various educational operations. The
possibility of using ET in almost all areas of education has been and is being explored. As such
the scope of ET encompasses educational objectives, media and their characteristics, criteria for
selection of media and resources, management of resources, as well as their evaluation. ET
increases the output of the entire system of education.
➢ ET tries to study the phases of teaching, skills of teaching and learning, principles of
teaching, maxims of teaching etc.
➢ ET as a discipline strives for the formulation of objectives and goals of education based on
individual and social needs.
➢ ET includes planning of curricular and non-curricular inputs on the basis of goals and
objectives of education. It also highlights the ways and means of content selection,
transaction and sequencing of teaching learning activities.
➢ ET develops tools of evaluation to provide feedback and based on this modifications are
incorporated in the process.
➢ ET has its scope for the development of the course content, curriculum, the development
of teaching learning materials etc.
➢ Training of teachers, teacher-training programme, development of suitable strategies and
techniques of teaching.
➢ Selection and use of appropriate audio-visual aids for making the teaching-learning
process more meaningful and realistic.
➢ Effective use of hardware, software and mass media
➢ Individualized instructional technology
➢ Programmed learning

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 ➢ Models of teaching
➢ Multimedia approach to teaching
➢ Communication technology
➢ Task-analysis, preparation of modules
➢ Computer, internet, E-mail, teleconferencing, virtual classrooms, satellite instruction etc.
➢ Micro teaching, simulation, and other training techniques
Multi-sensory learning
The idea that learning experienced through all the senses is helpful in reinforcing memory
has a long history in pedagogy. From the earliest teaching guides (Montessori 1912), educators
have embraced a range of multi-sensory techniques in order to make learning richer and more
motivating for learners. The term is used to refer to any learning activity that combines two or
more sensory strategies to take in or express information. Multisensory approaches have been
particularly valuable in literacy and language learning, for example, in relationships between
sound and symbol, word recognition, and the use of tactile methods such as tracing on rough or
soft surfaces. The Department for Education and Skills (DES, 2004) defines multi-sensory as:
‘using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic modalities, sometimes at the same time’. Kinaesthetic
refers to perceiving through touch and an awareness of body movements. Teachers working with
dyslexic learners have found multi-sensory approaches particularly valuable, as they help learners
to make sense of information in a range of ways. Activities that harness all the senses are also an
excellent way to include learners with disabilities.
What is a multisensory approach?
A multisensory approach, "also known as VAKT (visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile)
implies that students learn best when information is presented in different modalities (Mercer &
Mercer, 1993). The belief is that students learn a new concept best when it is taught using the four
modalities. A multisensory approach is one that integrates sensory activities. The students see,
hear, and touch. "Activities such as tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing represent the four
modalities". This gives multiple pathways for the information to reach the brain. It is diagnostic as
it involves constant testing and reflection on the knowledge of the student.
For example, to teach spelling Graham and Freeman (1986) use a strategy that incorporates
the four modalities. Students say the word, write the word, check the word, trace the word, write
the word from memory and check, and then repeat the entire process. Thus it treats sound-symbol

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knowledge, oral language (grammer & pronunciation), written language conventions and hand
writing in an organized and integrated fashion. In essence, a multisensory approach incorporates
the learning styles for visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile learners. This approach doesn't
single out a specific learning style for a specific student. A multisensory approach is an eclectic
approach that teaches all children regardless of their preferred learning style.
Multisensory teaching is effective for all students. In general, it means presenting all
information to students via three sensory modalities: visual, auditory, and tactile. Visual
presentation techniques include graphic organizers for structuring writing and pictures for
reinforcing instruction; auditory presentation techniques include conducting thorough discussions
and reading aloud; tactile presentation techniques include manipulating blocks and creating
paragraphs about objects students can hold in their hands. Overall, implementing a multisensory
approach to teaching is not difficult; in fact, many teachers use such an approach. It is important,
however, to be aware of the three sensory modes and to plan to integrate them every day. Effective
teachers select and use the most appropriate approach for the learning task and the learners’
situation. In particular, multimedia resources can promote inclusive learning if accessibility
features are built in. This can enable learners with hearing or visual impairments to use the same
resources as others.

Multimedia provides a complex multi-sensory experience in exploring our world through

the presentation of information through text, graphics, images, audio and video, and there is
evidence to suggest that a mixture of words and pictures increases the likelihood that people can
integrate a large amount of information (Mayer, 2001).

Multisensory techniques are frequently used for children with learning differences.
Multisensory teaching techniques and strategies stimulate learning by engaging students on
multiple levels. They encourage students to use some or all their senses to:

• Gather information about a task

• Link information to ideas they already know and understand
• Perceive the logic involved in solving problems
• Learn problem solving tasks
• Tap into nonverbal reasoning skills

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• Understand relationships between concepts
• Store information and store it for later recall
Using a multisensory teaching technique means helping a child to learn through more than
one sense. Most teaching techniques are done using either sight or hearing (visual or auditory).
The child’s sight is used in reading information, looking at text, pictures or reading information
based from the board. The hearing sense is used to listen to what the teacher says. The child’s
vision may be affected by difficulties with tracking or visual processing. Sometimes the child’s
auditory processing may be weak. The solution for these difficulties is to involve the use of more
of the child’s senses, especially the use of touch (tactile) and movement (kinetic). This will help
the child’s brain to develop tactile and kinetic memories to hang on to, as well as the auditory and
visual ones.

Multimedia Approach
What is Multimedia?
Multimedia is one of the important innovations in the field of educational technology to
improve the process and product of teaching – learning. The multimedia approach consisting of
the use of many appropriate and carefully selected devices, techniques and media in such a
combination as to yield in the most effective realization of the teaching- learning objectives in a
best possible way . In other words, multimedia is the combination of various digital media, into an
integrated multi-sensory interactive application or presentation to convey information to an
audience.

Multimedia approach
The term multimedia approach to teaching – learning may be referred to the use of
appropriate and carefully selected varieties of learning experiences which when presented to the
learner through selected teaching strategies will reinforce and strengthen one another in such a
way that the learner will achieve predetermined objectives in an effective way. Multimedia
approach to teaching – learning can be classified in different ways. These media are so selected
and planned as to yield in best possible results in a most appropriate economical combination.
Multimedia helps students to construct knowledge actively, work in group and use multi-senses at
a time. Multimedia is very effective and advanced approach in higher education.

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Definitions
The term multimedia by definition means ‘more than one media’. According to Hofstetter
(2001), multimedia is the use of computer to present and combine text, graphics, audio and video
with links and tools that let the user navigate, interact, create and communicate.
Multimedia is characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video;
some or all of which are organized into some coherent program (Phillips, 1997).
Multimedia approach is an approach of teaching in which different mediums are
incorporated to make the teaching-learning more effective, enthusiastic, inspirational, meaningful
& interesting.
Nature of Multimedia Approach
Multi - Many
Media - Techniques /methods.
➢ Multimedia approach uses a number of media, devices, techniques, in the teaching learning
process.
➢ Multimedia approach has come out of researches and experiments in educational
technology that have been undertaken in order to improve the process of teaching learning.
➢ Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful learning experiences via a mix of
media in order to achieve predetermined objectives.
➢ The choice of the media has to be done carefully so that one does not hamper or reduce the
effect of the other i.e. each media must complement the after.
➢ The media have to used sequentially and judiciously. Only necessary ones are to be used.
Then it would be possible to make optimum use of them in a most economical manner. In
multimedia approach, several media and techniques are used as powerful means of
communication.
Characteristics of Multimedia
✓ Multimedia calls for the use of a number of media, devices and techniques for teaching-
learning.
✓ Multimedia approach is the contribution and net result of the researches and experiments
going on in the subject of education technology for improving the process and products of
the act of teaching- learning.

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 ✓ The variety of media are carefully selected as to prove quite effective in providing learning
experiences to the learners foe achieving the pre-determined teaching- learning objectives.
✓ These media are so selected and planned as to yield in best possible results in a most
appropriate, economical combination.
✓ While selecting different media for adopting multimedia approach it is cared that the
presence of one must increase the effect of others.
✓ Multimedia approach asks for the judicious and planned use of the hardware and software
available in the field of educational technology.
✓ In multimedia approach the several media and techniques can be effectively used as
appropriate vehicles for the needed communication of ideas in the process of teaching-
learning.
Interactive Multimedia Components
Interactive multimedia is a tool which has had a great impact in the field of education. This
tool uses five elements and combines them into a single powerful tools.
The five media are –
i) Text ii) Animation iii) Video iv) Graphics v) Sound.

Role of teacher in Multimedia approach

The teacher has to make a lot of modifications and adjustment if he has to adopt multimedia
approach. His role would have a different connotation compared to the traditional role. He would
have to make these changes.
i) The teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques; he cannot be satisfied with the
lecture or the chalk talk method.
ii) The teacher has to be aware of the different available media and their availability the teacher
should be physically competent to use and demonstrate the use of different media.
iii) The teacher should be skilful enough to make a judicious choice of media and be competent
enough to mix them sequentially and in an orderly manner.
iv) The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator or manager of activities. He has to lead his students for
independent, individualized learning.
v) The teacher should provide experience such that the students can link practice and theory &
integrate them.
vi) The teacher has to make learning a living and co-operative process by giving group activities
like seminar, symposium, workshops and interacting with the people in real work situation.
vii) The lecturer has to play a very constructive role in making his students learn the things in a
quite practical way by giving through concrete and living experiences.

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Educational Implications of Multimedia/Advantages of Multimedia Approach
• Multimedia enables students to represent information using several different media.
Hypermedia links allow students to organize information in meaningful ways.
• Multimedia can take into account different learning styles. Some students learn by
interpreting text, while others require more graphical or aural representations.
• Multimedia allows for self-pacing and discovery, students can take the time they need and
choose the path of learning making learning meaningful and pleasurable.
• Multimedia can arouse the curiosity among the learner and provide them vivid impressions.
• Multimedia can develop a positive attitude among the learners towards the teaching-
learning process.
• Technique of simulation can be effectively applied through the multimedia approach.
• Multimedia helps in development of higher order thinking skills. Interactive multimedia
encourages student.
• Multimedia provided the students the flexibility of anywhere, ‘any time’ learning.
• Multimedia helps in developing group and interpersonal skills. Better communication
between students via e-mail, chat sessions etc., can encourage collaborative learning and
enhance student-teacher interaction.
• Multimedia helps students to learn the content in a given discipline. It helps students to
think effectively, practice problem solving and decision making.
• Effective remediation programmes can be implemented through the multimedia approach.
• Multimedia approach can bridge language barriers since audio is not the only means of
communication.
Disadvantages

• Requires highly sophisticated infrastructure facilities, which may lead to heavy financial
burden.
• Expertise and skill are required to operate the multimedia devices, which will lead to the
problem of non-availability of human resources.

1.2 Audio-Visual Aids

Sense organs are the gateways of knowledge. Sensory experiences form the foundation for
any intellectual activity. These experiences are transacted in the classroom using a number of
teaching aids. These teaching aids reinforce the spoken or written word with concrete image, which
form a strong base for learning.

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 Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the
learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual
material and teaching learning process.

Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of
educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and
stimulation. A.V. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It
makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant
gains in thinking and reasoning.

Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These
are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning
facilities for clear understanding.

Definitions:

1. Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning
experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

2. Burton: Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and
reinforce learning.

3. Carter V. Good: Audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process
of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.

4. Good’s dictionary of education: audio visual aids are anything by means of which learning
process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.

5. Edger Dale: Audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas
between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also
termed as multi sensory materials.

6. McKean and Roberts: Audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher,
through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate
concepts, interpretations and appreciations.

Significance of Audio- Visual Aids

Audio- Visual aids are added devices that help teacher to clarify, establish, correlate and
coordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations and enable him to make learning
more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid. They provide significant

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gains in informational learning, retention and recall, thinking and reasoning, activity, interest,
imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and development.

According to Kothari Commission (1964-1966), Audio Visual aids will bring about an
‘educational revolution, in the country. It further stated that the supply of teaching aids to every
school was essential for the improvement of the quality of teaching.

Educational Significance

• Best motivators: The students work with more interest and zeal and are more attentive.
• Clear images: Clear images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste and smell, as our
experiences are direct, concrete and more or less permanent.
• Vicarious experience: Substituted experience can be provided when it is not possible to
give firsthand experience
• Freedom: There is great scope for children to move about, talk, laugh and comment upon,
and in such a situation they work because they want to work.
• Variety: Audio Visual aids give variety and provide different tools in the hands of the
teacher.
• Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to
students to handle and manipulate things.
• Retentivity: They contribute to increased retentivity as they stimulate response of the
whole organism to the situation in which learning takes place.
• Based on maxims of learning: It enables the follow the maxims of learning like ‘concrete
to abstract’, ‘known to unknown’ and ‘learning by doing’.
• Promotion of scientific temper: In place of listening facts students observe
demonstrations and phenomena and thus cultivate scientific temper.
• Development of higher faculties: Use of A-V aids stirs the imagination, thinking process
and reasoning power of the students and calls for creativity and higher mental activities.
• Helpful in attracting attention
• Helpful in fixing up new learning
• Meeting individual differences
• Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction
• Reinforcement to learners
• Positive transfer of learning and training
• Positive environment for creative discipline
Advantages of Audio visual aids
1. It helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.
2. It is helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.
3. It arouses interest and motivates students to learn.
4. It is helpful in new learning.
5. It helps in saving energy and time of both the teacher’s and students.

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 6. It provides near realistic experience.
7. It can meet individual demands.
8. It develops interest of the students.
9. It makes teaching and learning effective
10. It is useful in for education of masses.
11. It is easy and inexpensive to make and update.
Disadvantages
1. It makes the student to heavily depend on the teacher
2. It is unsuitable for large groups

Problems in the Use of Teaching Aids

In spite of the increasing popularity that the audio-visual aids have gained in the
educational system, there are certain problems to be faced and solved. These are:
1. Apathy of the Teacher: It has not yet been possible to convince the teacher that teaching with
words alone is quite tedious, wasteful and ineffective.
2. Indifference of Students: The judicious use of teaching aids arouses interest but when used
without a definite purpose they lose their significance and purpose.
3. Ineffectiveness of the Aids: Because of lack of proper planning and lethargy of teacher as also
without proper preparation, correct presentation, appropriate application and essential follow
up work, the aids have not proved their usefulness.
4. Financial Hurdles: The Boards of audio-visual aids have been set up by central and state
governments for chalking out interesting programmes for the popularisation of teaching aids
but the lack of finances is not enabling them to do their best.
5. Absence of Electricity: Most of the projectors cannot work without electric current and so the
non-availability of electricity is creating a hurdle in the proper use of audio-visual aids.
6. Lack of Facilities for Training: More and more training colleges or specialised agencies
should be opened to train teachers and workers in the use of audio-visual aids.
7. Lack of Coordination between Center and States: Good film libraries, museums of audio-
visual education, fixed and mobile exhibitions and educational 'melas' should be organised
both by center and states.
8. Language Problems: Most of the education films available are in English and we need such
films in Hindi and other Indian Languages.
9. Not catering to the Local Needs: Most of the audio-visual aids being produced do not cater
to the local needs and not in accordance with the social, psychological and pedagogical factors.
10. Improper Selection of Films: Films are not selected in accordance with the class-room needs.
In spite of all these problems the future of such aids can be bright if there is proper planning
on the part of the government and coordination between producers, teachers and students.
Useful and effective aids can be produced after getting the reaction of the audience and doing
research work in the field.

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Classification of Audio Visual Aids

I. Projected Aids
A projected aid is one which items to be observed are projected on a screen using
electronic or Mechanical device. They are very effective because movements can be added to
sound and hence a realistic experience can be provided. The major projected aids are;
Film & Film Projector
• Films in the form of motion pictures.
• Films enrich learning by presenting a series of meaningful experience involving motion.
• Can enlarge or reduce the actual size of the object to suit the need.
Film strips & Film strip Projector
• A film strip is piece of non-inflammable safely film, 35 mm wide.
• Length may vary according to requirement and can be up to about one meter.
• One film strip may contain 10 to 50 pictures frames.

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• The pictures in film strip may constitute a connected series of drawings, photographs, diagrams
or combination of these and illustrated a single sequence.
• The pictures may in color or in black or white.
• Some films strips are accompanied by commentary recorded separately, such film strips is
called sound film strip.
Slides & Slide Projector
• The pictures or diagrams which are drawn in suitable medium is called slide. (Glass or
Transparency)
• Slide can be enlarged by projecting it on a screen with a slide projector.
• Slide projector is an instrument equipped with a powerful light source and a carrier for holding
slides of suitable size.
• Some slide projectors uses drums in which many slides can be loaded in proper sequence in
advance.
• It is also possible to record the narration in a tape recorder that could be hooked up to the
projector in such a way as to give the necessary commentary without the help of the teacher.
Episcope & Epidiascope
• Episcope is used for the projection of opaque objects.
• Pictures, photographs, drawings or an opaque material within the size of the platform of the
episcope can be projected using Episcope.
• Episcope used to enlarge book diagrams and illustrate complex pictures.
• During Epi-projection the class room should be totally darkened in order to get a clear and
bright image.
• Epidiascope can project opaque as well as transparent objects.

OHP
• This is called Over Head Projector because it projects the image behind and over the head of
the teacher.
• The transparent visual is placed on a horizontal platform at the top of the light source.
• The teacher can place the transparent plate on the platform and write or draw on it anything
that is to be visualized using suitable pen.

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Television
• TV is very exciting and efficient means of mass communication.
• Educational Television programmes aims at education rather than entertainment.
• One teacher or specialist can render teaching session and pass information to millions of
viewers all over the world.
LCD Projector
• LCD (Liquid Cristal Display) is the most advanced and sophisticated projected aid.
• In the area of educational technology, we can replace all other projected and non projected aids
with only a single LCD projector and computer system.
• Can present a topic by using computer made slide, graphs, pictures, video clips, movies and
special effect.
II. Non-Projected Aids
II(a). Graphic Aids
• Graphic Aids are visual aids such as graphs, diagrams, charts etc.
• They can be conveying the message by a combination of written and pictorial visuals that could
be made meaningful by suitable captions.
• The criteria for good graphics are that they should be simple, legible and brief.
Graphs
• Normally used to represent the nature of the relation of two dependent variables.
• Different types of graphs are line graph, bar graph and pie graph
Diagrams
• Used to explain many factors at the same time, by using a variety of symbol and labels
• Diagrams can explain facts more vividly than charts

Posters
• Posters are bold and attractive representation of an idea or concept and usually given in color.
• Poster catches the eye and conveys the desired message.
Maps
• A map is an accurate representation of the boundaries and other details of continents, countries
etc. on a plane, in the form of a diagram drawn to scale.

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• A variety of geographical details like location of mountains and rivers, altitude of places,
important cities and other places etc. can be represented accurately with reference to a convenient
scale and following suitable color scheme.
Different types of maps that are used in classroom: Geographical Maps, Historical Maps,
Industrial Maps and Political Maps.
Cartoons
• A cartoon is a metaphorical, humorous and exaggerated caricature of a person or situation in the
form of a picture or sketch.
Comics
• A comic strip is a form of cartoon depicting a story in sequence.
• The events are arranged in the proper order in a attractive pictorial form that is normally appealing
to lower age groups.
Flash cards
• Flash cards are an aid used in language lesson, especially in the lower class.
• The card containing the reading material is exhibited for a few seconds only. Then it is removed
and the feedback attempted.
Pictures and Photographs
• Pictures and photographs play a significant role in making ideas clear and comprehensive.
Charts
• A chart may be defined as a combination of graphics and pictorial media designed for the orderly
and logical visualizing of relationship between key fact and ideas.
• Different types of charts are: Display chart, Flow chart, Tabular chart, Tree chart and Time chart.
II (b). Display Boards
The stereotype atmosphere of the traditional classrooms, libraries and corridors of schools
is recently giving way to attractive and educative surroundings with a wealth of display materials.
Displays may be categorised into three main types according to the functions they perform, namely
motivational, developmental and summary.
Displays that attract and appeal pupils and stimulate their curiosity are called motivational
displays. Displays that add information and ensure active involvement of pupils in the
development of a lesson are termed developmental displays. Displays that are used for review and
consolidation of a lesson are called summary displays.
Black Board
• Most basic, widely used tool for display

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• Teaching cannot be successful without proper use of a Black Board.
• Black Board planning is a precious skill to be developed by a teacher.
Roll-Up-Board
• Roll-Up-Board is that which can be conveniently rolled up.
• These are usually made of thick rexin cloth.
• The charts and pictures can be drawn on it advance and presents as and when required.
Peg Board
• To display flat and three dimensional materials
• Use hooks and clips to display materials.
Hook and Loop Board
• Intended to suspend heavy 3-D objects as well as flat materials.
• Objects can be easily fixed and removed.
Flannel Board
• Flannel cloth used to make this board.
Magnetic Board
• A sheet of iron that attracts a piece of magnet can be used for magnetic board.
Bulletin Board
• Used to display bulletin, News items, announcement etc.
Marker Board
• Large plastic board suitable for writing or drawing with markers.
• This can be used the same way as chalk boards.
• It can be sometimes used as a projection screen also.

II (c). Three Dimensional Aids

Models
Models are concrete representations of objects, their size being adjusted to make it handy
and conveniently observable. They can clearly exhibit the structure or functions of the original.
There are two types of models. Working model and Static (still) model. Working model is more
effective than static model.
Objects

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Objects may be defined as the real things from their natural settings.
Eg.Rock, Coin, stamp etc.
Specimen
A specimen may be defined as a typical objects or part of an object which has been removed for
convenient observation. It may be a representative of a class or group of similar objects.
Mock-ups
A mock-up is an operating model usually of a process, designed to be worked with directly by the
learner for specific training or analysis. When direct firsthand experience is either impractical or
impossible, mock-up can be used. Mock-ups is an imitation of the real process. Eg. Mock
Parliament
Diorama
A diorama is a three dimensional scene in depth, incorporating a group of modelled objects and
figures in a natural settings. A diorama scene is set up on a small stage with a group of modelled
objects that are kept on the foreground and blended into a painted realistic background. For
representation of depth, object kept at the background are made considerably smaller to create
illusion.
Puppets
A puppet is a manipulative doll dressed as a character and the performer is a person. E.g : shadow
puppet, finger/ glove puppet, string puppet. Puppet actions should be accompanied by short
dialogues.
II (d). Audio Aids
Radio: The most common form of public education and entertainment. Effective for mass
education and distant education
Tape Recorder: A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce. This device
can be used without much fuss by erase and re-record sound.
Public Address System: An electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a
microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public.
III. Activity Aids
Field Trip and Excursions
• Excursions usually involve a tour by a person or a group of person to some selected lace.
• An excursion undertaken for gathering objective based learning experience is study tour.
• The tour made by a group is often known as Field Trip
• Provides direct experience leading to effective understanding.

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Exhibition
• In exhibition variety of items exhibits related to teaching and learning.
• Exhibitions are effective modes of mass communication and instruction.
• Special talents of the pupil get revealed and creativity can be fostered.
• Helps to communicate novel ideas to children, their parents and the general public.
Demonstration
• It is a technique which is often used by all teachers.
• Ideas, skills, attitudes and process can be demonstrated.
• Demonstration should be purposeful, simple, specific and effective.
• Demonstration should be planned and rehearsed well in advance.
• If demonstration designed by the co-operative activity of pupil and teaches, it will be more
effective.
Dramatization
• Dramatization gives a reality and concreteness to learning experience.
• Gives opportunity for self expression
• Very useful for the subject like social science and languages.
• Since emotional content is strong, it help in the development of interest, attitude and values.
Museum
• Museum is powerful medium for public education.
• Museums are repositories with an array of educational materials including rare specimens a
variety of objects arranged in a logical order.
Planetarium
• A planetarium consist of essentially of a dome usually mounted on the ceiling of a hall to
represents the sky.
• A special projector is used to display images of the celestial bodies on the dome.
• The viewers who are seated below can see the projected images that can be appear to be realistic.
• The projector consists of various individual units for projecting the sun, the moon, the planets
and the stars.
• Taped narration and sound effects adds to the effectiveness of the presentation.
Aquarium
• Aquarium consists of glass tanks filled with water in which aquatic creatures are kept in naturally.

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• Pupils can observe the natural behavior of the creatures.
• If a school aquarium is constructed and maintained by the pupils they get very valuable learning
experience related to various aspects of life science.
Terrarium
• Terrarium is an arrangement for presenting the creatures living on the surface and below the
surface of the earth for study purpose.
• It is an enclosure, usually a tank. Used for rearing plants or animals under natural conditions.
Programmed Learning
Programmed Learning is a carefully specified, systematically planned, empirically
established, skillfully arranged and effectively controlled self- instructional technique for
providing individualized instruction or learning experience to the learner. Programmed learning is
available in the form of Books, Cards, Machine etc.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

• A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with
programmed instructional materials.
• “It is the use of computer to assist in the presentation of instructional material to a student to
monitor learning process or to select additional instructional material in accordance with the needs
of individual learners”
• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer
is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.
• CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process.

Teaching Machines
• Developed by S.L. Pressy
• It’s a piece of device designed to be operated by an individual student for self learning.
• The student is presented with a question by some form of display on the machine.
• The student is required to respond, either to write answer or put a button to indicate the correct
response.
• The student will inform the correctness of the answer.
• An account is kept of the responses made by the student

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Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

The Cone of Experience is a visual model meant to summarise Dale’s classification

system for the varied types of mediated learning experiences. Edgar Dale the chief exponent of
audio-visual aids in teaching is the originator of the ‘Cone of Experiences’. The diagram appears
in his book ‘Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching’ (1946).

There is a popular saying on Audio- Visual aids, “ I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I
understand”. It is said that, People remember: 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30%
of what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say and write and 90% of what
they say and do.

All the learning experiences which can be utilized for classroom teaching are shown by
Edgar Dale in a pictorial device-‘pinnacle form’- which he called the ‘cone of experiences’. The
one considered by Dale as the most effective are placed at the bottom of the cone and those
considered least effective at the top. This arrangement is based on increasing abstractness.

It was merely designed as a visual aid to explain the relationships of the various types of
audio-visual materials as well as their individual positions in the learning process. Dale points out

22
that it would be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on the cone as rigid, inflexible
divisions.
The original labels for Dale’s ten categories in the Cone of Experience were:
1. Direct, Purposeful Experiences
2. Contrived Experiences
3. Dramatic Participation
4. Demonstrations
5. Field Trips
6. Exhibits
7. Television
8. Motion Pictures
9. Radio, Recordings, Still Pictures
10. Visual Symbols and
11. Verbal Symbols
He said “The cone device is a visual metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various
types of audio-visual materials are arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds
from direct experiences”

Direct purposeful experiences: These are the experiences that are gained through senses. These
are not only direct but also purposeful. Purposeful means that the experiences are active with a
purpose. Hence they are preferred in teaching as they provide as they provide the means to
establish correct initial concepts in the minds of the pupil.

Contrived experience: It is an imitation of reality. It is like a working model which is an editing

of reality and differs the original either in size or n complexity. The simplification of the real
objects becomes necessary when the real thing cannot be perceived directly.

Dramatic participation: In dramatization certain real events of the past are represented so that
we can get as close as possible. The experience is more meaningful when one actively participates
in the dramatization.

23
Demonstration: Demonstration is a technique designed to show or illustrate a procedure, process
or phenomenon. Demonstrations are concrete experiences that can be used for structuring future
information to the students.

Field Trip: Field trip is the connecting link between school and the community. This technique is
unique in that the pupil gain first hand experiences with the things and phenomena which cannot
be brought into the classroom.

Exhibitions: When it is not feasible to go out into community, it comes exceedingly important
that we bring the outside world into the classroom by means of exhibits and concrete representation
of things.

Television: Television is one step ahead of motion pictures since it can bring the real event as it
actually happens.

Motion pictures: Motion pictures present an abstract version of the real event. Motion pictures
with sound system would yield good results in teaching all the subjects in the school curriculum.

Radio, Recordings and Still pictures: Educational telecast of radio are also considered as a
powerful teaching aid. Still pictures or photographs can be either projected or given for individual
study.

Visual symbols: This will include black boards, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams and cartoons.
When properly employed they tend to promote a keener interest and better understanding of
concepts.

Verbal symbols: Here the experiences occur at the conceptual level. The teacher codes the original
item into symbols and passes it on to the pupil. Pupil decodes the symbols back into the original
image. These are considered as the least effective method in teaching.

Interpretation of Dale’s Cone of Experience

• Lower levels of the cone involve the student as a participant and encourage active learning.
• Higher levels compress information and provide data faster.
• Upper levels of cone need more instructional support than lower levels.

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 • As we go up to the cone, abstractness increases and is highest at the pinnacle.ie. verbal
symbols.
• As we go down the cone, concreteness increases and is maximum at the base.
The various bands are not perfect. E.g. Field trips, which are placed high in the
cone, are sometimes sources of experiences nearly equal to direct experiences.
How can Instructors Use the Cone of Experience?
• According to Dale’s research, the least effective method at the top, involves learning from
information presented through verbal symbols, i.e., listening to spoken words.
• The most effective methods at the bottom, involves direct, purposeful learning experiences,
such as hands-on or field experience.
• Direct purposeful experiences represent reality or the closest to real, everyday life.
• The chart rates the average retention rate for various methods of teaching. The further ones
progresses down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is likely to be
retained.
• It also suggests that when choosing an instructional method it is important to remember
that involving students in the process strengthens knowledge retention.
• It reveals that “action learning” techniques result in up to 90% retention. People learn best
when they use perceptual learning styles. Perceptual learning styles are sensory based. The
more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better chance that many
students can learn from it.
• According to Dale, instructors should design instructional activities that build upon more
real-life experiences.
• Dale’s cone of experience is a tool to help instructors make decisions about resources and
activities.

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26
HARDWARE APPROACH:

The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing
electro-mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders,
television, teaching machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching machines, computers are called
educational hardware.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

▪ Preservation,
▪ Transmission and
▪ Development.

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines
started. The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved
in the libraries, tape recorders and films. The second aspect of human knowledge is
its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to his pupils. Now a days, transmission
of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and television. With these, thousands
of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made
for research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of
data. For this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence,
all the three aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. all the three aspects of knowledge
allow the use of machines.
The mass media movement the result of this approach is now contributing a lot to reach
the educational benefit to masses with great ease and in a cost-effective manner. In this way
hardware approach to education has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational means and
reducing the cost of education. Almost all materials and equipment of hardware approach
originally belongs to areas other than education and are being borrowed and utilized for
educational purposes.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a
complex repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural
sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning
provides solid technology for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves
the cause of education of laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and
behaviour modification devices. The pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner
and other behaviourists. The programmes which such a technology produces are often called
software. Software Approach is also termed as Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology
or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards may
also form part of software. Software approach is characterised by task analysis, writing precise
objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses and
constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms,

principles of teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback,
reviews and evaluation. Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of
technology, i.e. Input, Process and Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology Software Technology

1. Software technology has its origin in

behavioural sciences and their applied
1. Hardware technology has its origin in aspects concerning psychology of
physical sciences and applied engineering. learning

2. Here we try to make use of psychology

2. Here we are more concerned with the
production and utilization of audio visual
aid material and sophisticated instruments
and mass media for helping teacher and
learners in their task.
of learning for the production and
utilization of software techniques and
materials in terms of learning material,
teaching-learning strategies and other
devices for smoothening the task of
teaching learning.

3. It tries to adopt product-oriented 3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented

approach. What is produced through
software technology in the shape of
teaching-learning material and strategy in
being utilized by the hardware instruments
and gadgets for effective teaching learning.
technique or approach for the production
of teaching-learning material and
strategies. The material produced here is
made available for being used by the
hardware application.
4. It is based on the concept of service
meaning hereby that it provides services in
the field of education much in the same way
as provided by telephone, electric heater,
bulb etc. in the sphere of our day to day life.
In this sense hardware technology clearly
stands for making use of technology in
education.
5. As examples of the appliances and
gadgets being used in hardware technology
service we can name radio, television, tape
recorder, video, slides and film projectors,
teaching machines and computer etc.
6. Hardware technology needs the services
of software technology for its use and
functioning. It can’t go without the aid of
software technology e.g. computer
hardware in the shape of a machine like
device is of no use if it does not make use of
software services both for its operation as a
machine and its multi-dimensional utilities.
The use of application and utility software
is in fact must for taking any service from
the hardware technology of the computer.
7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal
and utilization. It can contribute a lot in
handing over the educational benefits to
masses with greater case and economy.
4. Software technology does not provide
direct services to its users as provided by
hardware technology and applied
engineering. It helps in the production of
software material being used by the
hardware applications and gadgets for
delivering their service to the users i.e.
teachers and learners.
5. As examples of the material produced
through software technology we can
name, programmed learning material
teaching learning strategy on psychology
of learning (put into practice in the shape
of charts, pictures, models, slides
filmstrips, audio and video cassettes,
software packages etc.)
6. Software technology proves most
useful and productive in the case if it is
assisted and made into use by the
hardware applications and gadgets.
However, it can go alone for delivering
its services to the users without calling
aid from the hardware technology i.e. you
can make use of programmed learning
material a graph a text, etc. directly for
the individualized as well as group
instructions.
7. Software technology has no such wide
application and appeal to masses as found
in the case of hardware appliances like
radio, telephone, computer application,
etc.
 8. Hardware technology has resulted in
improving the efficiency of educational,
means and reducing the cost of education. A
teacher may handle a big class with the help
of hardware appliances like microphone,
slide and film projectors etc.
8. Software technology also works for
increasing the efficiency of the teachers
as well as learning. However, it lags
behind in the task of improving efficiency
and reducing the cost of education.

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards

specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or
independent group of items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be
explained with the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as
components of digestive system. Every component of the digestive system contributes to as
supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.

In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and
parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The
teaching-learning process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the
components of a system. In this case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a
programme of instruction, all in a particular pattern of interaction.

The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning
experiences and effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within
itself the capability of providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with
all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to
ensure that the components of the organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics
at the proper time to contribute to the total system fulfilling the objectives.

In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of
selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall
view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual
differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves
continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of
results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives

Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and defining instructional
goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’ learning.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the
specific goal.
ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and
people for attaining the defined goal.
iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities,
time and other factors.
iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems
success in terms of student learning.
v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial
changes to be made.

LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new
method or approach.
ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of
school personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.
iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems
approach. Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make
headway in education.

CONCLUSION. From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic
attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means
planned and organised use of all available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to
achieve the desirable learning objectives by the most efficient means possible.
Today we experience the importance of technology in education. During the lock down we
were not able to conduct the classes as before .But we used maximum technical elements
to conduct classes. Education technology has the potential to provide equal opportunities
in several ways Access to educational technology at school can give students from low
income homes, where there is little or no access to technology, “a needed edge to compete
with children from more affluent homes where technology is common place in other words
we can say that guaranteeing access for all classrooms to affordable educational technology
in order to achieve curricular goals makes it possible to begin to address the inequities that
exist among schools. Grabe and grabe note that technology in the form of
telecommunications allows access to people access to interactive services through online
discussion groups, interactive conference and interactive tutorials and access to files
through online databases, library holdings texts and graphic files on the internet.

CENTERAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (CIET)

The center Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) was established in 1984 by the
ministry of Human Resources Development of Government of India, under the umbrella of
the NCERT. The institute is located at NIE campus NCERT in New Delhi, India.

The aim of CIET is to provide value-based education to its students and to develop the
overall personality of the students by enhancing their creativity, self-confidence,
communication and leadership skills.

Functions of CIET

 Designing alternative learning system to deal with problems of education.

 Orientation of educational planners, administrators to the concept of educational
technology
 Training in specialized areas, radio, audio, television and video production and low-
cost teaching aids.
 Production of audio-visual educational materials and other low- cost aids.

EDUSAT
GSAT-3, known as EDUSAT is meant for distant class room education from school level to
higher education. This was the first dedicated "Educational Satellite" that provide the
country with satellite based two way communication to class room for delivering
educational materials. ISRO conceived the EDUSAT project in October 2002. It is specially
configured for the audio- visual medium, employing digital interactive classroom and
multimedia multi centric systems. EDUSAT is primarily meant for providing connectivity to
school, college and higher levels of education and also to support non-formal education
including development communication. EDUSAT can be used for • Conventional Radio and
Television broadcasting. • Interactive Radio and Television (phone-in, video on demand.) •
Exchange of data. • Teleconferencing both one way and two way, Audio conferencing & •
Computer conferencing. • Web based education.

IT@SCHOOL
IT@SCHOOL is an information technology project under the Department of General and
Higher Education, Government of Kerala in India. It launched in 2001 to foster IT education
in schools. IT@School project is termed as the Single largest simultaneously deployment of
FOSS based ICT education. The project remodeled teaching methodologies in classrooms
through the use of IT.

IMPLIMENTATIONS

 It is being implemented in 12,000 schools in Kerala which follows the state syllabus.
 The project provides ICT enabled education to 1.6 million students and 20,000
teachers per year in the state of Kerala.
 It endeavours to enhance the intellectual productivity of teacher and curricular
comprehension of students.
 The project enhance the role of IT as a teaching aid for learning all subject.
 The project is a nodal agency for all e-Governance activities under General Education
Department.
 Also nodal agency for implementing EDUSAT network in the state and runs an
exclusive channel for education called VICTERS, was the first complete Education
Channel in India.
 The first breakthrough of IT@School came in 2005 when Information Technology
was made a compulsory subject in class 10.
 ‘Hi School Kuttikootam’ programme launched by IT@School under which over 1 lakh
students are provided with trainings in 5 different areas such as Animation, Cyber
Safety, Hardware, Electronics and Malayalam computing.
  The project also conducts specialized training for visually challenged teachers in the
state.

SIET

 The State Institute of Educational Technology, SIET was constituted by Government

of India in all the state with an intention to promote the level of learning and also to
educate the students with the help of radio and television. SIET works as an agency
under the Department of Education, Government of India. The institution has
adapted itself to play a catalytic role in fostering as well as supporting and
supplementing the educational movement in the state particularly in the arena of
primary education. It’s area of operation covers the preparation of video /audio
programs for the children of 5 to 17 years of age (class 1 to 12) and the teachers in
the regional language in the form of supportive factor for the conventional
classroom teaching.
 Under the INSAT for Education project, launched in 1872, SIET s are being set up in
the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and
Kerala. SIET Kerala is the latest in the array of 7 SIET in the country.
 SIET Kerala was constituted under the Travancore Literary Scientific and Charitable
Society Act 1951 on 08-09-1999 as an autonomous society. SIET Kerala, the state
institute of educational technology is responsible for the planning, research
production and evaluation of educational software like video, audio programs and
computer multimedia.

AUDIO VISUAL RESEARCH CENTRE

In 1984 UGC has launched Country Wide Class Room (CWCR) and production facilities at 6
universities in India through establishing media centers in the name of Audio-Visual
Research Centers (AVRC). Later these centers have been renamed as Educational
Multimedia Research Centers. The AVRC aims to provide high-quality audio-visual support
and learning opportunities to the faculty, students and staff for curricular, co-curricular and
extracurricular activities. AVRC provides valuable resource material for higher education and
mass communication through the use of electronic devices such as slide projector, scanners,
printers, overhead projectors etc.

OBJECTIVES

 To assess the usefulness of multimedia inputs in the topics.

 To examine the feedback about the programs in terms of quality, content,
presentation, language, usefulness towards their course
 To examine whether it helps the teachers in higher education by enabling them to
teach more effectively.
 EDUCATIONAL MULTIMEDIA RESEARCH CENTRES

EMRC
In 1984 University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi has launched Country Wide Class
Room(CWCR) and production facilities at 6 universities in India through establishing media
centres in the name of Audio Visual Research Centres(AVRC). Later these centres have been
renamed as EDUCATIONAL MULTIMEDIA RESEARCH CENTRES. EMMRC was mainly to use
electronic media for the quality enrichment of higher education. UGC began its transmission
of Country Wide Class Room (CWCR) programme from 15th August 1984 through
Doordarshan National Network. Initially the coordination with these centres was done from
UGC office with the support of a consultant. Subsequently, an inter- University Centre
named as ‘Consortium for Educational Communication’ (CEC) was set up in the year 1993 to
coordinate with media centres (AVRC and EMMRC) and to make CWCR mission most
effective and successful. The Educational Multimedia Research Centre(EMMRC) was
established as Audio Visual Research Centre (AVRC) by the UGC – CEC under the Country
Wide Class Room (CWCR) project, with the following objectives:

1. Production of educational programmes (especially video and audio) and related support
material and setting up of appropriate facilities for this

2. Research related to optimizing the effectiveness of the programmes.

3. Providing a forum for the active involvement of academic and other scholars in the
creation of appropriate educational programme.

4. Studying, promoting and experimenting with new techniques/technology that will

increase the reach and effectiveness of educational communication.

THE SOCIETY FOR INFORMATIN TECHNOLOGY AND TEACHER EDUCATION

The Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education (SITE) promotes the
development and dissemination of theoretical knowledge, conceptual research, and
professional practice knowledge through the SITE conference, books, collaborative projects
with other organizations, and the Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. SITE
(founded in 1990) is a society of AACE–Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education. AACE (founded in 1981) is an international, educational, and professional
organization dedicated to the advancement of the knowledge, theory and quality of learning
and teaching at all levels with information technology.
The Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education is an international
association of individual teacher educators, and affiliated organizations of teacher educators
in all disciplines, who are interested in the creation and dissemination of knowledge about
the use of information technology in teacher education and faculty/staff development. The
Society seeks to promote research, scholarship, collaboration, exchange, and support
among its membership, and to actively foster the development of new national
organizations where a need emerges. SITE is the only organization that has as its sole focus
the integration of instructional technologies into teacher education programs.

CONSORTIUM FOR EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION

The Consortium for Educational Communication, popularly known as CEC, is one of the Inter
University Centres set up by the University Grants Commission of India. It has been
established with the goal of addressing the needs of Higher Education through the powerful
medium of Television along with appropriate use of emerging Information Communication
Technology (ICT).
Realizing the potential and power of television to act as a means of educational knowledge
dissemination, UGC started the Countrywide Classroom Programmes in the year 1984. For
production of such programmes, Media Centres were set up at 6 Universities. Subsequently
CEC emerged in 1993 as a nodal agency to coordinate, guide & facilitate such Educational
production at the National level. Today 21 Media Centres work towards achieving this goal
under the umbrella of CEC.

Objectives of CEC:

Close Coordination, facilitation, overall guidance and direction towards the activities of the
Media Centres set up by the UGC in various Universities throughout the country.
Dissemination of Educational programmes through broadcast as well as non-broadcast
modes. Production of Educational programmes (Audio/Visual and Web Based) and related
support material further setting up of appropriate facilities for such production. Research
activities related to optimizing the effectiveness of such programmes .Providing a forum for
the active involvement of academic and other scholars in the creation of appropriate
educational programmes. Studying, promoting & experimenting with new technology that
will increase the reach and / or effectiveness of educational communication.

The ultimate goal of any plan for educational technology should reflect two
intentions, equitable access to technology for all students and educators and comparable
levels of educational technology for all schools. In setting up on educational technology
resources centre tree aspects have to be addressed. Determination of the equipment
required hardware and software, securing require founds so as to cover initial costs such as
maintenance and technical assistance providing professional development for
educators. So that technology is utilized and implemented meaningfully. Thus Technology
can become the force that equalizes educational opportunities of all children regardless of
location and social and economical factors.
Individualized Instruction
Learners today are very diverse in their academic needs, backgrounds and abilities. Individualized
learning, or individualized instruction, is a method of teaching in which content, instructional
technology, and pace of learning are based upon the abilities and interest of each learner.
Individualized instruction strategy refers to those classroom practices of teaching which recognize
the uniqueness of each student and thus provide adequate tutorial guidance and other support services
suited to bring about a wholesome development in the person.

Individualised instruction involves different tasks for each learner and support at the individual
level. It is based on the idea that all learners have different needs, and that therefore an approach that
is personally tailored — particularly in terms of the activities that pupils undertake and the pace at
which they progress through the curriculum — will be more effective. Various models of
individualised instruction have been tried over the years in education, particularly in subjects like
mathematics where pupils can have individual sets of activities which they complete, often largely
independently. More recently, digital technologies have been employed to facilitate individual
activities and feedback.
Methods of Individualized Instruction

Each approach to individualizing instruction is different, but they all seek to manipulate the three
following fundamental variables:
• Pace: the amount of time given to a student to learn the content
• Method: the way that the instruction is structured and managed
• Content: the material to be learned
There are many examples of instructional approaches that have modified some or all of these three
components. In all of these examples, the goal was to improve the instructional experience for the
individual learner. Some of the most historically notable approaches are:
❖ Programmed Learning
❖ Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
❖ Modular Instruction
Personalized System of Instruction
Introduced in 1964 by Fred Keller, the Personalized System of Instruction, or the Keller Plan, is
perhaps one of the first comprehensive systems of individualized instruction. It is an individualized
instructional method developed for college level instruction during early 1960’s. Killer seems to have
imagined that the teacher has no place in his plan as he called his first exposition of his ideas in a
book titled ‘Good Bye Teacher’.

In Keller plan the course policy is explained to the students in the beginning and he is given
the study guide. The basis of Keller plan is study guide prepared for each unit of study along with a
text box, a copy of which every pupil should have. The study guide introduces the lesson, list the
behavioral objectives and self-study methods most appropriate for each objective, items of practical
and questions to be discussed with the teacher after study.
The student is expected to master unit by unit at his own pace. The student first gets the unit
1 along with the study guide. The study guide is prepared by the teacher. When the student has
achieved the objectives, he will take the unit test. The unit test is intended to test the varied objectives
of information, concepts, skills, application etc. Such tests are given in three or four equivalent forms
and each need about 10 to 20 minutes for self assessment by the pupil.

The concept of learning to learn is emphasized. The service of bright students who have
mastered several units ahead of others may be utilized by teachers by appointing them as ‘proctors’
to guide a few other pupil still attempting to master earlier units. In any classroom under the Keller
Plan of instruction, different activities may be going on at the same time and some may be in quite
study, tutorial help, self testing, teacher evaluation etc..and a progress chart is prepared for each pupil.
There will be some enrichment activities, which carry credit or motivational value. These enrichment
activities include extension lectures, work visits or experimental work.

Keller based his system on ten accepted educational principles:

1. Active responding
2. Positive conditions and consequences
3. Specification of objectives
4. Organization of material
 5. Mastery before advancement
6. Evaluation/objectives congruence
7. Frequent evaluation
8. Immediate feedback
9. Self-pacing
10. Personalization

Proponents of the Keller Plan cite many benefits, including better retention and increased
motivation for further learning. At the same time, there are others with criticisms of the Keller Plan
such as the following: limited instructional methods, high dropout rates, and decreased human
interaction.
The debate over the effectiveness of Keller's Personalized System of Instruction, with its
advantages and disadvantages, raises fundamental questions about the nature of self-contained, self-
paced learning. There are indeed opportunities for designing instruction that lend themselves to the
Personalized System of Instruction approach. This would apply especially to cases where enrollment
is high, course material is standardized and stable, and faculty resources are scarce. On the other
hand, when there is not a shortage of faculty, or the class size is not large, the course would be better
taught with more conventional methods, yet still based on sound educational principles. Where the
line is drawn on the continuum between these two extremes is a matter of opinion, and should be
based on the context in which the instruction is to take place. It would be inappropriate to claim that
one of the extremes is completely right, and the other wrong, given the vast number of studies and
evaluations that support either side.
Modular Instruction (Modular Approach)

Modular instruction is an alternative instructional design that uses developed

instructional materials which are based on the needs of the students. Students are encouraged to
work on various activities that are interesting and challenging to maintain focus and attention
thereby encouraging independent study.
These instructional materials are called modules. A module can be defined as ‘a self
contained, independent units of a planned series of learning activities designed to help the students
to accomplish certain well-defined objectives. Module stands for a sub system or sub part of the
instructional programme. However, as a sub-system irrespective of its size, module is complete
in itself providing desirable learning experiences to the students.

A module represents a way of planning in which the whole curriculum or the classroom
programmes are divided into some meaningful units. Different form of modules can be prepared.
They can be in the form of simple text book or in the form of slides, pictures etc. The simple book
format module includes instructional objectives, the broad outline of the content, the presentation
 scheme of the pattern and the programme assessment. Modules can be designed for individual or
group work or for both.

A module consist of a pre-test which allows student to determine if they are ready to study
the material or they have already mastered the content, a set of learning objectives, variety of
instructional activities such as reading text book, participating in project etc. and a post test to
determine if the student has mastered the material.

Testing procedure is not necessary. The resource person can be called for assistance when
required. The provision of pre-test aids in diagnosing the remedial study and can be used to direct
students to appropriate remedial sequence in the form of modules.
Desirable Features of Modules

1. It should be focused on distinctive identifiable skill

2. It should be self-teaching that enable self learning
3. May not demand the help of an instructor
4. Module should not be too lengthy
5. It should include alternatives which students may choose
6. It should include specific instruction for students
7. It should blend theory and practice
8. Should be reality oriented
9. It should not be dull
10. Should include evaluation procedure and proper references

Language Laboratory
The most important innovation
in the field of language teaching is
Language lab. Though originated in
USA, in 1960’s it rapidly gained
ground in UK and many countries
around the world
It’s a place or classroom
designed to teach language skills in
which each student’s place is fitted
with monitor and headset consisting of a micro phone and earphone connected to a central
‘console’. Language laboratory concentrates on listening and speaking, it aims at the development
of correct pronunciation, intonation and accent. It also develops the ability to use the words,
idioms and phrases in the language in the correct way. Finally it helps the learner to communicate
his ideas effectively in language. A language laboratory allows much time for oral and auditory
experiences.
 Specially designed lessons (audio signals) are broadcast from a tape recorder and students can
work upon it in isolation from each other. The tape recorder has two simultaneous but independent
recording and play back channels. The student can only hear the master tape. When the learner
speaks into his microphone his voice is recorded in the bottom channel. It can provide for a well
designed and carefully produced pattern of drill and thus relieves the teacher of endless repetition
of patterns.

Main Parts of Language Laboratory

The language laboratory has three sections
• The software
• The student booth
• The teacher console
Today so many software are available for language laboratory. Some examples are iTell, orell,
mythware.
A language laboratory has usually sixteen or twenty hearing booths. Each booth is fitted with
a monitor, a headset with micro phone and earphone. These are connected to the central console.
The teacher console is fitted with a control unit which help to monitor the progress of students.
This is the control unit. It has a master tape and special equipments to monitor students. The
teacher console has the following switches.
• Monitoring switches- enable the teacher to listen to any student as he works at his
tape. This is done for correcting errors in procedure, correcting linguistic errors,
evaluating and grading the students
• Distributing switches- for directing the recoded programme to the students sitting in
different booths
• Intercom switches- permits two way communication with one student without
disturbing others
• Group call switch- common announcement for a particular group who are following a
particular lesson
• All call switches-for making announcement to all students in the laboratory regardless
the programme

Uses of Language laboratory

To begin with, language laboratories were used to give structural drills considering necessary
in language learning. The machine can repeat the message of the master as frequently as necessary
and allow the student to record and compare his speech with the master. No human teacher can
provide such untiring practice to a large number of students.
But then it was realized that language learning is not just a form of verbal behavior depends
on pattern practice. Chomskey and other linguists emphasis the cognitive strategies in language
learning -the meaning, the semantics, the context aspect of language. This emphasis in a way
discredited the use of language labs.
At present many language labs are also fitted with video, which can present a story, a context
to the language lessons on the tape. Here again there are many potentialities of the medium still
untapped. It is now possible to link language laboratory to a personal computer which together
can serve many objectives for higher than the structural drills referred to above.
The most important advance made in language teaching is the language laboratory. It
recognizes the prevalence of widespread individual differences in language aptitude. It is
essentially individualistic in its approach. The language laboratory recognizes that the spoken
form of language is central to effective communication. The spoken form should have a large
share along with written forms in language teaching. The language laboratory implements this
programme by supplements the sound recordings of native speakers with the text book.
The only realistic purpose of the language laboratory is to provide a convenient means of
hearing and responding to audio drills. Well-designed and carefully produced pattern drills can
be easily recorded and used in the laboratory. The language laboratory thereby relieves the teacher
of endless repetition of pattern.

Types of Language Lab

There are mainly four types of language lab. They are:
1. Audio System (A) :- This system consist of a central tape recorder connected to a
number of headsets through which the students can merely listen to the audio
programme when the central tape recorder is played.
2. Audio Active System (AA):- Audio Active System :- it consists of a central tape
recorder connected to a number of headsets fitted with microphones. It therefore
permits a verbal feedback from students.
3. Audio Active Comparative System (AAC) :- This system consist of a tape
recorder, a headset and a microphone for each stydent in addition to the central tape
recorder. The student tape recorder has two tracks. One for the lesson called master
track and other to record his response. He may compare his response with the master
track. He may repeat and re-record his response. The master track cannot be erased.
It stays there for learning ang comparison.
4. Audio Active Comparative with Controls (AACC):- This system has a control
element added to AAC. The teacher uses the control to communicate with any one
student, monitor or correct him without disturbing any other students. In a typical
drill, the student records his response and then compares it with the standard lesson
on the master track, again he listen to the stimulus and respond etc..The AACC
System, therefore enables every student to learn at his own pace and it enables the
teacher to direct and monitor particular student or to address all students by stopping
their tape recorders.
Advantages of Language Laboratory

• Only 15 to 20 pupil learn at a time. Individual attention can be given

• Each student can proceed at his own speed
• The student need not be embarrassed to ask questions to the teacher
• Pupil listens to the perfect native speech rather than the less than perfect speech of the
teacher
• The students’ active speaking time increases considerably
• The student can hear his mistake for himself
• The teacher can give corrections without disturbing the whole class

Disadvantages of Language Laboratory

• Only 15 to 20 can study at a time

• Difficult to get well trained teachers
• Installation and maintenance of a lab is a costly affair
 Programmed Instruction
The concept of programmed instruction emerges in experimental research on operant
conditioning. It is an individualized technique of instruction. It is a method of self-instruction
wherein the learner proceeds through instructional materials in short steps at his own pace,
receiving immediate knowledge of the correctness of his responses. Programmed instruction
involves controlled, carefully specified and skilfully arranged learning experiences. They are
self-instructional and sell corrective
The basic idea of programmed self-instructional material was described in 1921 by
E.L. Thorndike.
Programmed Instruction- Definitions
“Programmed Instruction is a systematic, step by step, self-instructional programme
aimed to ensure the learning of stated behaviour”. Edgar Dale
Programmed Learning refers to the arrangement of instructional materials in
progressive sequences. Harold W. Bernard
Characteristics of Programmed Instruction
• Individualised instructional technique
• Includes logically sequenced, small steps called ‘frames’
• Give due consideration to the initial or entering behaviour of the learner
• Provision for feedback
• Interaction between learner and learning material is important
• Scope for self-pacing to the learner
• Provides continuous evaluation
Significant contributions have been made to the theory of programming by Sydney L.
Pressy, Robert M. Gagne, Robert F Major and B.F. Skinner.
There are three types of programming - Linear, Branching and Mathetics.
Linear or Extrinsic programming
B. F. Skinner and his associates are the originators of the linear type of programme. It
is directly related to the theory of operant conditioning. Subject matter is broken down into
very small steps called Frames and frames are presented in proper sequences. In each frame
a small amount of information will be presented and the learner will be required to make an
active response. Questions are asked directly and the learner is asked to think and writes
down his response. Such a response is referred to a 'constructed response'. The responses of
the learner are immediately reinforced in the succeeding frames.
A liner programme is called a straight-line programme as the learner starts from his
initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a straight line. The learner proceeds
from one frame to the next until he completes the programme. Positive reinforcement or
feedback is given and prompts or cues are provided to enhance the probability of correct
responses and eliminate or diminish errors.

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Linear model

Frame 1 Frame 1 Frame 1 Frame 1

Format of Linear Programme

Frame 1

1. Bit of information
2. Stimulus (question based on the information)
3. Response (space provided for response)
4. Cues or prompts
Frame 2

1. Answer to Frame 1
2. Bit of information
3. Stimulus (question based on the information)
4. Response (space provided for response)
4. Cues or prompts

Features of Linear style of programme

1. Every learner follows the same path.
2. Programme is composed of small steps. Each frame is small and carries a single idea,
example or rule.
3. Only one response is required
4. Prompts or cues are given to minimize errors and are generally withdrawn towards the
end.
5. Every learner works at his own speed.
6. Feedback or reinforcement is quick. Immediate knowledge of results acts as a
reinforcement and maintains motivation
7. Cheating is discouraged by not revaluing the answer until the learner has registered
his response.
When to use Linear Programme
1. When the programmer thinks that the leaner cannot digest a large question of
materials.
2. When the programmer thinks that the concept or skills are important to be completely
mastered.
3. When the learners have more or less the same entering behaviour.
Branching Programme
The branching technique was developed by Norman A. Crowder (1960) and is called
Intrinsic programme. In this type each frame is of relatively bigger size and may contain
two or three ideas of related sequence. A single question, usually of the multiple-choice type
is asked at the end. The learner selects the response and if the learner chooses correctly, he is

2
taken to the next frame in the main teaching sequence. It he is wrong; he is taken to a
remedial frame where his mistakes are explained. After remedial work, he is directed to the
original frame for making another attempt to choose the right answer. Branching programme
anticipates the errors of the learner. The errors are diagnosed and remedial instruction is
provided. Crowder points out that branching programme are like a human tutor and 'talks
back' to the learner.
The Content Frame in a Branching programme includes
• Repeating student response,
• Positive confirmation
• New information
• Question
• Alternative answers-directions to go to relevant page
The Remedial Frame in a Branching programme includes
• Repeating the student response
• Negative confirmation
• Reason as to why he is wrong
• Further explanations
• Directions as to where the learner should go next.
When the frames of a branching programme are presented in a book form, the book is
called 'scrambled book' In this book, the correct frames are not arranged in normal
sequence. The alternative frames subsequent to a given frame are put on widely dispersed
pages throughout the book.
Advantages of Branching Programme
1. The bigness of the size of frame as well as branching reduces unnecessary repetitions
and responding. This saves the amount of learning time and reduces fatigue.
2. Remedial frames not only explain the subject matter further, but also reason out why
same other responses are not correct.
3. When a programmer knows that the learner entering behavour differs from each other,
branching programme is more suitable.
Techniques of branching Programme
There are two techniques in which branching programme can be arranged. They are
called backward branching and forward branching.
Backward Branching
The learner goes from first frame to the second frame only if he makes correct
response. If he makes an error he is lead to a remedial where he is given some more help in
understanding concept in solving the solutions by a better logic. He will then be directed to
the original frame. He reads again, answer correctly in the light of remedial material received
earlier.

3
Forward Branching
In this type whether the learner is making correct response or wrong response he will
always be going to new pages, progressing from page to page. When he makes a wrong
choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his mistakes are fully explained from which
he goes to the next frame in the main stream.

Each technique has its own merits. Forward branching gives an advantage of apparent
progress. Backward branching definitely motivates the learner to see what he missed.
Difference between Linear and Branching Programming

Unit Linear Branching

Step size small large

No. of steps large small

Response style Constructed response Multiple response

Subject matter Factual information Broader concepts

Programme book Linear book Scrambled book

Cost Cheap Expensive

Control of Controlled by the programmer Path is controlled by the learner

response

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 Procedure Proceeds in a straight line Straight line procedure is not
necessary

Advantages of Programmed Instruction

1. The learner is continuously active when he is using a programme
2. It is basically an individualized technique of instruction.
3. Immediate knowledge of results act as a reinforcement.
4. A programme is planned and prepared much more cal Mostly programmes are written
by exports.
5. A programme is not a human tutor and hence it can be used at any time. It never tired
and never loses their temper and patience.
Limitations of Programmed Instruction
1. Programmed instruction do not eliminate competition
2. Once the novelty wears off, later reinforcement do not accelerate learning
3. The teacher-pupil control which is so vital in learning is lost
4. In language learning, there is limited scope for speech component
Programmed Instruction and Teacher
In programmed instruction, the role of teacher changes to guide, counsellor,
motivator, organizer or critical questioner. The work will become more professional. They
will become educational engineers.

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INTRODUCTION

―If we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow” -John Dewey

Education is the process of learning and knowing, which is not restricted to our school
textbooks. It is a holistic process and continues through our life. An educated person has the
ability to change the world. It makes better citizens, ensures a productive future, spreads
awareness, helps in decision making.

The term media is derived from medium, which means carrier or mode. Media denotes an
item specifically designed to reach a large audience or viewers. The term was first used with the
advent of newspapers and magazines. However, with the passage of time the term broadened
with inventions of radio, TV, cinemas and internet. The media has a strong social and cultural
impact upon society. Media, a tool which is used by someone to transmit message to a large
external audience is called mass media.

John Dewey stated that education could not be limited within teacher and taught without
social environment. So mass media is one such potent force in social environment of education.
Through modern electronic techniques ad technologies, mass media prove that education is
really comprehensive not confine within four walls of classroom. Mass media are the educational
medium for the mass and mass education. Irrespective of caste, colour, geographical,
sociological, economic diversities mass media prove as an important means for the education of
all. Mankind gets a great deal of information from the widespread mass media.

The importance of media in classroom:

 Appeal to multiple learning styles: appeal to visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners.
 Creates an authentic learning experience: stimulates real life experience.
 Strengthens critical- thinking skills
 Teaches students to use media

Different types of mass media in education includes,

1. EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION (ETV)

Educational Television (ETV) is a system that presents

learning content in various subjects produced by an agency. It
is a means of providing direct instruction (formal) as well as
continuing education (non-formal). It has the capacity to
bring the world into a class room and a class room into a
home. TV as a mass medium has the potential to play a major

3
role in the educational setup of our country.

Wayne Coy described TV as the “Electronic Black Board”.

ETV CHARACTERISTICS

 ETV combines both sensory and auditory experience.

 It is an extension of radio broadcasting.
 It offers uniformity of communication.
 It is a versatile educational vehicle.
 It stimulates and reinforces ideas.
 It provides live broadcasts if ‗on the spot‘ events.
 It provides a powerful visual medium.
 It is a means for leisure time activities.

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION PROGRAMME

ETV programmes are made available to the students in a variety of modes. Some of the most
important types of ETV programmes are as follows,

Monologue (A narrator narrates the aspects, interlacing it with visuals the illustrations), Dialogue
(Conversation between people), Interviews, Panel Discussion, Phone-in programmes, Quiz,
Dramas, Simulated Classrooms, Virtual Classrooms

MERITS OF ETV

 It permits the use of the best available teacher to teach a subject to a large number of
student viewers.
 It preserves the expert teaching skills on video tape or film for later use.
 It provides a common experience to all students when they all see the same basic ideas or
techniques on television.
 It provides technical advantages not readily available in normal classrooms for
illustration or demonstration.
 It makes quick and lasting visual impressions.
 It saves time, effort and cost of setting classroom projection equipment.
 It brings live demonstration.
 It permits inclusion of up-to-date information.
 It directs the attention of the student to the exact detail of object which he should see by
eliminating distracting surroundings.

LIMITATIONS OF ETV AS AN EDUCATIONAL MEDIUM

 Non interactive nature (one way only).

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  Speed cannot be adjusted.
 Telecasting time/Adjustments with school timetable.
 Affordability.

MAJOR EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION PROJECTS

 Major Educational Television Projects in India

 Secondary School Television Project (1961)
 Delhi Agriculture Television (DATV) Project-Krishi Darshan (1966)
 Satellite Instructional Television Experiment – SITE (1975)
 Post-SITE Project (1977)
 Indian National Satellite Project – INSAT (1982)
 UGC-Higher Education Television Project – HETV (1984)
 IGNOU – Doordarshan Telecast (1991)
 Gyan Darshan Educational Channel (2000)

2. RADIO

Radio is a scientific device that functions as an effective

auditory instrument for communication. It is not only includes
values and virtues, but also creates attitudes, interests and
appreciation of human life. Radio has been used in different
formats for educational purposes the world round. Radio
technology was first developed during the late nineteenth
century and came into popularity as an educational medium
during the early 20th century.

The first edition of radio was patented in 1896 by an Italian inventor, Guglielmo Marconi.
World‘s first commercial radio station KDKA, began broadcasting in Pittsburgh in November 2,
1920. Radio is an effectual system for delivery of education to larger numbers of people.
Illiterate people can also use it. In facilitates information exchange at the community level,
acting as a ―community telephone‖. Radio plays a vital educational role as the sole medium for
formal and non-formal education.

Radio to be more cost-effective and capable of exerting greater learning effects than
textbooks or teacher education. Radio has the advantage of permitting the teaching of subjects in
which classroom teachers are untrained or lacking certain knowledge sets. Another benefit for
multi-grade classroom use is that radio can provide instruction for one group of students, whilst
the teacher is occupied with another. Radio can also bring new or previously unavailable
resources into the classroom, thereby greatly enhancing student learning.

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Educational Functions of Radio are discussed below:

1. Quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education:

Radio has immense values, particularly in a developing country like India where
constraints of finance, efficient teachers, suitable equipment and appliances adversely affect
educational planning and administration. There are some inaccessible areas in our country where
expansion of education has faced difficulties.

2. Fostering the sense of National Integration and International Understanding:

The cultural programmes, debates, talks, through broadcasts involve a strong desire
among the people to know each and other‘s culture and values. In order to promote a sense of
understanding and unity among people it is an inexpensive, but potential communication
medium reaching all levels of people.

3. Entertainment:
Radio is the most popular mass medium through which leisure is carefully utilized
through song, drama and other cultural, programmes. It also provides information about various
popular hobbies and leisure time activities.

4. Vocational Education:
Vocational information about production and consumption practices in industry and agriculture,
use of manures and highbred seed, employment news are broadcast by Radio. Programmes
regarding self-employment and talks by skilled people ensure better understanding among people
for economic prosperity.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of radio for educational purposes are that it inherently lacks interaction; instructor
feedback and clarification are generally unavailable; instruction cannot be interrupted or
reviewed by students (unless it is tape-recorded); the pace of the lesson is fixed; note taking is
difficult for some; and time for reflection is minimal. To overcome these drawbacks, preparation,
supporting materials, and follow-up exercises are recommended when possible.

RADIO FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE IN INDIA

Vyas, Sharma and Kumar (2002) reported some major educational radio projects in India:

1. The School Broadcast Project was commissioned in 1937 to focus on elementary school
students.

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2. Adult education and community development project (Radio Forum: 1956), served
residents of 144 villages in the vicinity of Poona, Maharastra state, which were the main
beneficiaries.

3. Farm and Home Broadcast Project, which commenced operation in 1966, targeted
farmers and those living in rural towns and villages.

4. University broadcast project, launched in 1965, targeted university students.

5. Language Learning Programme, launched in 1979-80, provided instruction in Hindi as a

first language to school aged children.

6. IGNOU-AIR (All India Radio) was launched in January 1992 in collaboration with
IGNOU, AIR stations of Mumbai, Hyderabad and Shillong. IGNOU-AIR broadcasts
IGNOU educational programmes to serve students enrolled in both open and
conventional universities.

7. IGNOU-AIR Interactive Radio Counselling, launched in 1998, targets university students

enrolled in both conventional and open programmes of study.

Gyan-Vani, India‘s first exclusive educational FM radio network, was launched in 2001 to serve
a target audience of university students enrolled in both conventional and open programmes of
study.

3. NEWSPAPER

A newspaper is a periodic publication containing news and information and advertising,

usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. They are larger in size to magazines. They
contain articles that cover the latest national and
international events. The first newspaper published in India
was the Bengal Gazzet in 1780. Rajyasamacharam was the
first newspaper published in Malayalam in 1847. They are
primary mass medium from which people receive news.
They are affordable and thus sustainable. They tend to
inspire a daily reading habit. Reading matter has vast
potentialities. It exerts good influence on the individuals.
Newspapers contribute very largely in education. It is
possible to link certain topics with everyday life by means

7
of newspapers. One must be aware of what is happening in the world around him. Newspaper is
an important service that can render to education by imparting knowledge of current affairs to
children.

The newspaper is the most widely used of the media as a teaching instrument in the classroom. A
wide variety of skills can be taught by teaching with newspapers including:

 Reading and writing for meaning

 Prediction and summarization
 Social skills
 Current event formation etc.

Currently newspapers have transformed from paper copies to more modern forms like e-articles
and e-journals etc.

VALUE FOR STUDENT

 Integrating newspapers helps students learn to read for meaning.

 Student learns to;
 Understand media.
 Inference and sequence of events.
 Sort and classify.
 Read maps and graphs.
 Expands;
 Student vocabulary.
 Understanding of geography.
 Supports;
 Language and literacy development.
 Learning across the curriculums and subjects.
 Keep students up to date about current events.

VALUE FOR TEACHERS

 Newspapers are easily obtainable.

 Can help to integrate content areas.
 Can reuse them.
 Easily readable.
 Easy resource to keep students up to date with current events.
 Easy resource for any subject matter.
 Applicable for every grade level.
 Platform to teach social skills.

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Thozilveedhi and Thozhilvartha newsprints, padippura and vidhya pages etc play a very
important role in education.

ADVANTAGES OF NEWSPAPER

 Easily available.
 Not very expensive.
 Anyone can publish advertisements or other useful information easily in any size
form at or any page of newspaper.
 Can read news anytime, anywhere and able to read information again and again.
 Available in various languages.
 Light weight, easy to carry.
 Almost all the latest news are covered.
 Increase vocabulary and general knowledge.
 Can be kept for future references.
 Weather reports, sports events, business news, local news as well as world news are
available.
 Entertaining things like puzzles, stories, and crosswords are also available.
 Newspapers are ecofriendly and easy to recycle.

DISADVANTAGES OF NEWSPAPER

 In some of the newspaper the advertisement space may be expensive.

 Advertisements may cover a major part of the paper.
 Sometimes the news shown are false, even twisted and distorted.
 Sometimes poor printed image quality is seen.
 Not as much updated as news channel on TV or internet.

4. FILM

Mass media in India has been a major aspect of the

society. It‘s here that media is not consumed for one particular
purpose but it is consumed for all, such as information,
television, controversies, news, gossips, and chats,
psychological or any other. Indian mass media industry has
very well understood the societies mind set and they
accordingly produce the media products. It‘s only here where
the traditional forms of communication still exist and it also
considered being a mass media, example: Folk media.

9
 Folk media today make peoples mind more stereotype and ideological. They do not let
people have their own perception about the world rather they make public perceive what they
think. Media effects can be both positive and negative effects. Media plays a major role in
changing the public opinions because they have major access to people and this eventually gives
a lot of strength to media. This strength can either be used in a positive way as in educating
people or in an unconstructive way by misleading the innocent people. Media has the power to
transform the whole society especially in developing countries it can become a ―weapon of mass
destruction‖.

Cinema or film, a form of Mass Media has become a powerful tool since the day it was
introduced to the world. Film Communication is a process of transferring meanings or
information‘s trough visual receptors‖. It is a man who creates this form of communication.‖
There exists a cognitive relationship between a filmmaker and a viewer. Cinema is perhaps the
mainstreams of all art forms and most accessed and most preferred especially in India. Therefore,
it is very important to understand how the country, its people and its aspirations are represented
in the cinema. Cinemas can be a form of art, entertainment, social document or critique.

Film is a reflection of society for both the present and the past. Film and its innovation
sometimes have to catch up to society but sometimes it leads the society and culture too. Film as
one such form of mass media has a great impact on the societies in many ways. Film industry is
one of the most expensive and discovering industry in mass media. In true sense it is a dream
industry.

Today movies are created by one group, funded by the second group, sold by the third
group and showed by the fourth group. The first group consists of producers, directors, second
group are investors, third are distributors and the final group the exhibitors. Today‘s generation
films have handled a lot of controversial topic has a main plot in this movies such as religion,
terror attacks, transgender, homosexuality, child labor, poverty etc. Movies have actually brought
to the world an idea about all the above through their stories and concepts. But at the same time
they idealize or generalize few things for the profit sake and public believes it and it finally
becomes a stereotype process. This majorly happens in Indian cinemas as most of the stories
relate to the audience, if not the story at least segment of it will. Indian movies have a better
impact on the audience compared to other movies because it is only in this country people go to
the theatre as a practice, habit, sometimes even for information.

Movies have a great impact on not only youth but also on children. Impact mainly
depends on us. People watching too much movies get very much attracted to the roles that
involved. Any kind of good behavior of a character can affect a mind of a person and influence
him. Sometimes even sad movies help us to be thankful for what we have. It might make us feel
lucky and leave a positive impression on our lives. If there is any kind of educational value or a
great person‘s life in the movie, people might try to do the same for a happy ending in their lives
just like movies.

10
 Along with positive impacts, movies also have a negative side. Movies make child to
accept ideas like violence and suicide. Some children are fascinated by fiction movies and are
unable to differentiate between real and fiction life. People may have trouble sleeping or toss
fitfully all night due to the residual fear and anxiety from watching scary movies

5. JOURNALS

 A journal is a scholarly article containing articles written by

researchers, professors and other experts. Journals focus on a
specific discipline or field of study.
 Journal articles are the final output of most research, and a
researcher‘s performance and productivity are judged largely on the
number of publications as well as where they appears.
 The importance of journals in academic life goes beyond providing
a means of communication and a permanent record.
 Journals are published on a regular basis [monthly, quarterly etc.]
and are sequentially numbered.
 Journals are also known as periodicals or serials.
 Each copy is an issue and a set of issues makes a volume.
 Most of the articles in a journal are peer reviewed, have original research, focus on
current developments, cite other works and have bibliographies, can be in print, online or
both.

FIVE TYPES OF EDUCTIONAL JOURNALS

1. Question Journal: This type of journal is focused on inquiry–the asking and refinement of
questions.

2. Metacognitive Journal: A journal focused on thinking about thinking. In a Metacognitive

Journal, students are writing about their thinking–their tendencies, changes in their thinking over
time, cognitive blind spots, etc.

3. Visualization Journal: A type of learning journal that promoted acute and specific
visualization of learning, knowledge, etc.

4. Concept/Example Journal: A type of learning journal that promotes thinking through

concepts (abstract) or thinking through examples (concrete).

5. Digital Journal: Any type of journals which is stored digitally is known as digital journals. It
is beneficial in many ways especially in equally providing vast knowledge within short period

11
IMPORTANCE OF JOURNALS IN EDUCATION

 The educational journals are important in making teachers and students aware about the
new trends, discoveries, inventions and updated knowledge about the subjects.
 Journals suggests new methods of teaching that is adaptable to new generation of
students.
 Journals are helpful in facilitating better learning to students.
 It helps students to acquire new knowledge within or outside the subject.

Some examples are: scientific journals such as Nature, physical Review Letters, Science,
Screen, American journal of education etc…

6. INTERNET

The Internet is a global system of interconnected

computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is
a network of networks that consists of millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of
information resources and services, such as mobile apps including social media apps, the inter-
linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail,
multiplayer online games, telephony, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing. Email is an
important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic
text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the
creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents and other files are sent as email attachments.

The Internet is already an integral element of education in all the nations, and we can be
certain that its worldwide educational significance will continue to increase throughout this
decade. The educational impact of the Internet is not straightforward. At a rudimentary level, it is
important to remember that well over half the world‘s population has no direct experience of
using the Internet at all. While this is likely to change with the global expansion of mobile
telephony, the issue of unequal access to the most enabling and empowering forms of Internet
use remains a major concern. Moreover—as the continued dominance of traditional forms of
classroom instruction and paper-and-pencil examinations suggest—the educational changes
being experienced in the Internet age are complex and often compromised.

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IMPLICATIONS OF THE INTERNET IN EDUCATION

The implications of the Internet for education and learning can be understood in at least four
distinct ways.

i. The potential of the Internet to offer individual learners increased freedom from the
physical limitations of the real world. This is often expressed in terms of reducing
constraints of place, space, time, and geography, with individuals able to access high-
quality learning opportunities and educational provision regardless of local
circumstances.
ii. Internet is seen to support a new culture of learning—i.e., learning that is based around
bottom-up principles of collective exploration, play, and innovation rather than top-down
individualized instruction. The Internet allows learning to take place on a many-to-many
rather than one-to-many basis, thereby supporting socio-constructivist modes of learning
and cognitive development that are profoundly social and cultural in nature.
iii. The capacity of the Internet to support a mass connectivity between people and
information is felt to have radically altered the relationship between individuals and
knowledge. It is sometimes argued that the Internet supports forms of knowledge creation
and knowledge consumption that differ greatly from the epistemological presumptions of
formal schooling and mass instruction.
iv. Internet is seen to have dramatically personalized the ways in which people learn—
thereby making education a far more individually determined process than was
previously the case. The Internet is associated with an enhanced social autonomy and
control, offering individuals increased choice over the nature and form of what they
learn, as well as where, when, and how they learn it.

PROMINENT FORMS OF INTERNET-BASED EDUCATION

One of the most familiar forms of Internet-based education is the collective open creation
of information and knowledge, as exemplified by the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Despite
ongoing debates over its accuracy and coverage, the educational significance of Wikipedia is
considerable. As well as being a vast information resource, the ability of users to contribute and
refine content is seen to make wiki tools such as Wikipedia a significant educational tool. Other
forms of online content sharing involve the open distribution of educational content that has been
created by individuals as well as institutions. For example, the YouTube EDU service offers
access to millions of educational videos produced by individual educators and learners. Another
notable open example of Internet-based education has been the development of MOOCs
(Massively Open Online Courses) over the past five years or so. Now, most notably through
successful large-scale ventures such as Coursera and Ed-X, MOOCs involve the online delivery
of courses on a free-at-the-point-of-contact basis to mass audiences.

13
7. SOCIAL MEDIA

According to the Dictionary definition, ―Social Media

is websites and applications that enable users to create and
share content or to participate in social networking.‖ It is not
just limited to posting pictures about holidays online. Social
media are becoming the most important tools for
interaction among people, where everybody can share,
exchange, comment, discuss and create information and
knowledge in a collaborative way. The influence of social
media on teaching and learning environment is growing
every year and its applications can reinforce class
materials, positively influenced discussions, collaborative work, etc.
Social media tools are rapidly changing the communication landscape, their emergence has
impacted significantly how students learn and the way instructors teach. In today‘s higher
education settings, instructors, students and others collaborate on the tasks of knowledge
construction. Another definition of social media is ―the relationships that exist between networks
of people.‖
These systems are referred to as social, simply because they allow communication with buddies
and co-workers so easily and effectively. The favorites in the realm of internet sites are
Facebook, Twitter, blogs, YouTube, Instagram, Google doc and others. These websites and
social forums are way of communication directly with other people socially and in the media.
Popular social media sites:
1. Facebook: It creates a space for students to ask and answer questions. When students
get home and begin working on their homework, they can post a question to the groups so as to
get it answered by the group member. It is also ideal for teachers using in flipped classroom.
They can post videos, photos, documents, and other resources on the group's wall and student
can access before class or when they work on their assignments. Instructors can also
create Facebook Groups for each of their classes—both public and private—and stream
Facebook Live lectures, post discussion questions, assign homework and make class
announcements.
2. Twitter: Twitter offers a quick way to post class announcements and reminders as well
as real time information on class field trips. It also helps classes track information on any topic.
For instance, for a class discussing on a current event or a topic on career, twitter can provide up
to date information, eliminating the need for extensive research. Many organizations offer twitter
chat sessions with which students can interact.
3. Blogs: Instead of traditional writing projects, blogs creates opportunities for students
to write and display their writings on a large scale. There are many different platforms available,

14
such as Word Press, Square Space, Wix, Blogger, Tumblr or Medium, where teachers can create
a class blog.
4. Youtube: It is like a Facebook, YouTube is an excellent option of flipping classroom
in that students can watch lectures and resources before entering the classroom. Again, like
blogging, since the material will be seen by a wider audience, students will be more apt to do
their very best in creating a video, and they will enjoy being able to express their creativity as
they connect more deeply with the course material.
5. Instagram: ―A picture is worth thousand words‖. In a visual heavy class, students can
use Instagram to present a series of photos or graphics in a visually appealing manner
6. Google Doc: It is a popular technology with teachers and students. Students and
teachers can use these tools to collaborate on assignments, projects, newsletters among other
things. It allows more than one person to work on a particular document at the same time.
Google docs can promote the team work.
7. Class-specific Pinterest Board: Pinterest is a great social media platform for teachers
to use to prepare and organize resources, lesson plans and worksheets for their classes in one
place. Create boards according to class or subject, and create sub-topic boards for weekly units
or all worksheets.
Pinterest can also be useful for students to curate a digital bibliography for research
projects, papers or group assignments. Students can pin websites, books or videos to a board on a
single topic and refer back to it when it‘s time to write.

POSITIVE IMPACTS
Social media enable students to easily contact with each other with regard to their
projects and assignments. Students also can work on group assignments from their home. When
social media is used in pedagogy students who have difficulty in expressing their thoughts in the
classroom can get involved in the learning process, it helps to build their confidence level as
well. Any doubts can be clarified by posting a message through the social media. A site like
Facebook, etc. helps teachers to stay in touch with the parents or so to know the progress of their
children. Students are learning the skill sets required for successful social networking. Social
media also brings with it the freedom for learners to connect and collaborate outside of
institutional boundaries as well as to gain practical experience for the workforce. Students are
also being taught new concepts like online privacy.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
Students have become prone to frequent fluctuations in mood and self-control. A recent study
has stated whenever someone uploads a profile picture; it immediately affects the mood of
students. It produces stress, anxiety or fear for them. Students neglect the studies by spending
time on social networking website rather than studying or interacting with the people in person.

15
 Students prefer to chat with their friends for hours and this leads to wastage of time that
could have been used for studying or learning new skills. Students‘ use of social media regularly
may lose their ability to engage in face to face communication. Even though students spend lots
of time in socializing in an effective way, it should not hamper their study and academic
credential. It should be kept in mind that the social networking creates the virtual world, which is
drastically differing from the reality.

CONCLUSION

Mass media influence our daily life more than any other cultural institution. They are our
main sources of news and entertainment. They define our purchase decision, voting behavior,
academic achievement and so on. Because of this all-encompassing impact of mass media,
politicians, businessmen and government agencies depend on media to influence people. During
election time, we witness politicians spending millions of money for political campaign through
mass media. Business firms across the world spend billions of dollars to market their products
with the help of mass media advertisements. Likewise, we also need mass media to express our
needs, complaints, and wishes to the authorities. Thus, mass media have pervasive effects on our
personal and social lives.

REFERENCES

SITES

1. Explorable.com>academic journals
2. http://ajeshpk.blogspot.com
3. http://ajeshpk.blogspot.com/2015/10/media- introduction- media-refers.html
4. https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Educational_Technology_Innovation_and_Impact/Edutain
ment/Radio_Education
5. http://frndzz.com
6. https://minesoft.com/2020/08/12/the- invention-of-radio/
https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/the- internet-and-education/
7. https://www.britannica.com/topic/KDKA
8. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/118/198
9. https://www.preservearticles.com/education/role-of-radio- in-education/4734
10. https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/Jifnahabeeb/newspaper- in-education-56176557

16
 11. Penzu.com>what- is-a-journal
12. www.teach-nology.com>litined> journals www.teachthought.com>literacy
13. www.ukessays.com
14. www.uvic.ca>library>research>tips>journal

BOOKS

1. Chloe West. (2019). Ways to use social media for education. www.sproutsocial.com
2. Dlamini Khanyie. (2017). The Role of Social Media in Education. www.lcibs.co.uk
3. Syamala Devi K, Gouthami E, Vijaya Lakshmi V. (2019). Role of Social Media in
Teaching Learning Process, Volume 6, Issue1. www.researchgate.net

17
 1

Module 3: Communication and Classroom Interaction

3.1 COMMUNICATION – CONCEPT

Communication is sharing our feelings, ideas and opinions with others. This can be
intellectual, personal, spoken or written in nature. We live in groups and man is invariably a social
animal. As the social needs insist that we share our thoughts with others. This can be called
communication. It is a two-way process. Communication motivates, informs, suggests, warns,
orders, changes behaviour, and establishes better relationships, to make interaction meaningful and
make oneself understood. Communication is effective when a communicator is effective enough
to communicate competently, simply, clearly, sincerely and dynamically. Ones communication
can be termed as successful, if the receiver acknowledges it, i.e., when a listener or reader
understands, reacts, responds to this communication and shapes his/her learning behaviour. The
word communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communis’, which means ‘common’, i.e., to
share, exchange, send, transmit, write, relate and communicate. The other etymological source
mentions that ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin term ‘communicare’, which means to
impart or participate. This word often denotes and means different things to different people. In
short, we can define communication as sharing ideas and feelings mutually. As it involves
interaction, it encourages exchange of ideas until all the experiences become a common profession.
Communication is essential for close, sympathetic relationships in the society and for
transformation of men, material and thoughts from one place to another. In a classroom, the
meaning of communication is related to the messages and counter-messages, which constitute the
teaching-learning process. This involves initiation, reception and response that serve as feedback.

COMMUNICATION CYCLE

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a

continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed
through some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the
recipient in same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,
communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to
the sender on how well the message is understood by him.
 2

The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Sender - Sender is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words
or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. The
views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a
great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in
ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by
the sender.
2. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. Communication
process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that
the main objective of the message is clear.
3. Encoding -Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its
further passing requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc.
Conversion of subject matter into these symbols is the process of encoding.
4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must
choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be
conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication
is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This
choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication.
For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small
 3

group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required
from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Recipient - Recipient is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The
degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors
such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of
encoder on decoder.
6. Decoding - The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator tries
to convert the same in such a way so that he may extract its meaning to his complete
understanding.
7. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the
sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-
verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos,
reports, etc.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.

Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:

1. Verbal Communication
2. Nonverbal Communication

1. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the the form of communication in which message is

transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing.
Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we are trying to
convey. When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying
because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. Usually people bring their
own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier
in delivering the right meaning.

So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table
and think from your receiver’s point of view.

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

o Oral Communication
o Written Communication
 4

i)Oral Communication

In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face

conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over
internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume,
speed and clarity of speaking.

Advantages of Oral communication are:

It brings quick feedback.
In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can
guess whether he/she should trust what’s being said or not.

Disadvantage of oral communication

In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so
this can be counted as a

ii) Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written

message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be
transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is
influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the
language used.

Advantages of written communication includes:

Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for later
study.
A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication includes:

Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback.
It take more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and
number of people struggles for writing ability.

2. Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say

that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture,
tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal
communication is all about the body language of speaker.

Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often,

nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes
 5

nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the effectiveness
of message.

Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:

Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings

Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures

Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication

1. Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.

In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.

2. Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted.
Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures.

Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In

an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

STEPS IN COMMUNICATION
 6

Principles of effective classroom communication

▪ Principle of competency
▪ Principle of suitability of content

▪ Principle of focus
▪ Principle of effective strategies
• Principle of feedback and reinforcement
• Principle of readiness and motivation
▪ Principle of sharing and interaction

▪ Principle of pupil centeredness

• Principle of mutual understanding
FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUNICATION The factors influencing classroom
communication can be listed in various heads such as
Factors related to the sender
• how he perceives his world and himself

• language competency
• voice
• facial expressions
• emotions
• energy level
 7

• age and experiences

• attitude, beliefs, values
Factors related to the message

• accuracy and precision of words

• simplicity and clarity
• appropriateness
• imagination and originality
•choice of medium, length of communication
Factors related to the receiver
• intelligence
• attitude towards the subject or sender
• age and experiences
• self esteem

• motivational level
• beliefs and values
• previous experience
• listening skills
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
The process of communication can be affected by the following barriers:
• Linguistic incompetence
• Lack of clarity
• Lack of motivation
• Socio-economic background
• Improper body language
• Distrust
• Low IQ levels
Along with the above listed barriers, excessive verbalism, verbosity, confusion, daydreaming,
limited perception and physical discomfort too act as barriers in
 8

communication.
Overcoming the barriers of communication
• Simplify Language
• Constrain Emotions
• Listen Actively
• Feedback

3.2 CLASSROOM CLIMATE

Classroom Climate is the classroom environment, the social climate, the emotional and the
physical aspects of the classroom. Classroom climate is defined as the intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical environments in which our students learn. The student’s behavior affects
peer interaction--the responsibility of influencing these behaviors is placed with the Instructor. The
way the instructor organizes the classroom should lead to a positive environment rather than a
destructive and/or an environment that is not conducive to learning.

Purpose of a Positive Classroom Climate

Teachers should learn to guide their students, not to alienate them. The safety of the student’s well-
being is paramount in their development of social ties with peers and their instructor. As education
becomes more inclusive, teachers need to become more aware of how to organize groups of
students and how the students are arranged can lead to a favorable environment. Well-organized
classrooms are an important component to classroom functions as it leads to more dialogue and
formative assessment. Students with special education needs tend to feel more excluded from the
other students in the classroom. These students include those with behavioral problems and those
with learning difficulties. Students who do not have disadvantages are more inclined to participate
as they feel more like they belong and have a higher belief in their academic abilities. Education
becomes less of a chore and more enjoyable when students grow as a group which can lead to the
reduction of students acting out destructively. In order to affect students, a teacher needs to monitor
and modify the influence students have on one another. Teachers are able to help students feel
included by assigning groups and rearranging the seating chart so less cliques are formed in the
classroom. Combating bad behavior is a teachers duty; they need to not only take into consideration
 9

how the classroom is arranged, but also observe students' background, family life, grade, and all
other complex issues surrounding life.

Factors influencing classroom climate

Some factors influencing classroom climate

• Stereotypes cause alienation and marginalization among those who are the target of unfair
generalizations. In fact, just the threat of stereotypes, what Steele & Aronson (1995)
tokened "stereotype threat," can impact learning negatively. Students who have
experienced stereotypes or expect to be viewed or judged in a certain way may encounter
tensions and cognitive disturbances that interfere with learning.
• The tone of a class environment is influenced strongly by the instructor. Studies show that
students approach faculty who express encouragement more so than faculty who come off
as punitive. Tone can be set by instructors through their interactions with students and
through other modes of communication including syllabus.
• Student-student interactions during and outside of class affect the overall climate.
However, the ways in which instructors and those in authority deal with negative
interactions has more of an impact on student learning.
• Faculty-student interactions also play a role. Students who felt that their instructor was
approachable, had concern for minority student issues and treated students as individuals
and with respect reported a better course climate (Astin, 1993).
• Content includes the course materials, examples and metaphors, case studies and project
assignments used to illustrate the ideas being taught. Content that includes a variety of
perspectives or is representative of multiple views is more conducive to a positive climate.

Managing classroom climate

We can maintain the positive environment of the classroom by

• Incorporating diversity into your course and use inclusive teaching practices.
• Using icebreakers and collaborative learning to give students the opportunity to get
to know one another.
 10

• Including diversity and disabilities statements in your syllabus.

• Addressing incivilities right away.
• Establishing ground rules.
• Check in on classroom climate periodically.
• Make efforts to connect with students.
1
Flander’s Interaction Analysis Category System (FIACS)
(NED.S. FLANDER)

Several techniques have been devised to observe and analyse teacher behavior and
interaction analysis in the classroom. The teacher behavior can be defined as the behavior
maintained and demonstrated by the teacher at the time of teaching. One of the most
important technique is that developed by Ned A. Flander. It was used by Flander in the year
1959 at university of Minnesota as a teacher training technique.
The Flander’s system is an observational tool used to classify the verbal behavior of
teachers and pupils as they interact in the classroom. Flander’s instrument was designed for
observing only the verbal communication in the class room and non –verbal gestures are not
taken into account. The basic assumption of the system is that in the classroom the verbal
statement of a teacher are consistent with his non-verbal gestures or with his total behavior.
Ned . S . Flander has categorized the instruction of teachers and pupils in classroom. There
are 10 categories in this system.
In Flanders interaction analysis system, the entire classroom interaction is put into three
main sections
1. Teacher talk
2. Student talk
3. Silence or confusion

Flander’s interaction analysis categories

Category activity
number
Teacher response 1 Accept feeling: accepts and clarifies an
talk attitude or the feeling tone of a pupil in a
non- threatening manner. feeling may be
positive or negative.
2 Praises or encourages: praises or
encourages pupil action or behavior. Jokes
that release tension, but not at the expense
of another individual. Nodding head, or
saying ‘UMHM?’
3 Accepts or uses ideas of pupils: clarifying
or building or developing ideas suggested
by a pupil. Teacher extensions of pupil
ideas are included but as the teacher
brings more of his own ideas into play,
shift to category five.
 4 Ask questions: asking a question about
content or procedure with the intent that a
student may answer.
initiation 5 Lecturing: giving facts or opinions about
content or procedures; expressing his own
ideas; asking rhetorical questions.
6 Giving direction: directions, commands or
orders to which a pupil is expected to
comply.
7 Criticizing or justifying authority:
statements intended to change pupil
behavior from non acceptable to
acceptable pattern; stating why the teacher
is doing what he is doing
Pupil Response 8 Pupil talk in response to teacher: talk by
talk students in response to teacher. Teacher
initiates the contact or solicits student
statement.
Initiation 9 Pupil talk initiated by the pupil; talk by
students which they initiate. It ‘calling on
‘ student is only to indicate who may talk
next, observer must decide whether
student wanted to talk. It he did, use this
category
silence 10 Silence or confusion: pauses, short periods
of confusion in which communication
cannot be understood by the observer.

Indirect influence of teacher behavior

This is defined as the actions taken by the teacher which encourages and supports student
participation. The indirect behavior can be defined operationally by noting the percentage of
teacher statement falling into categories 1,2,3,and 4
Direct influence
This refers to the actions taken by the teacher which restrict student participation. In the direct
influence, the net result is the decreased extent of freedom of action for the students. This can be
defined operationally by noting the percentage of teacher statements falling into categories 5,6
and

OBSERVATION PROCEDURE
 The observer sit in the classroom in the best position to hear and see the participant. At the end
of each three second period he decides the category that best represents the communication of events
just completed. He writes down this category number while simultaneously assessing
communication in the next period. He continues at the rate of 20 to 25 observations per minute.
Flander suggests using a set ground rules to be followed while noting down the observations. Some
of them are given below.
1. When uncertain about placing a statement on one of any two categories , choose a category
on the scale that is farthest from category five, with the exception of category ten.
2. If the teacher’s behavior is either consistently direct or indirect, avoid shifting from
one classification to the other unless such a shift is clearly indicated by the teacher
3. When the teacher repeats student’s answer and if it is a correct answer, this is recorded as a 2.
4. Record an 8 when several students respond to a narrow question.

RECORDING OF OBSERVATIONS IN THE CODING CHART

Let us consider an episode and try to analyse it into various categories , by indicating the
relevant code numbers. The observer writes the proper category numbers in its correct sequence,
in the manner indicated below.
10 10 1
2 3 2
3 3 5
2 7 1
1 5 1
5 7 9
5 9 9
5 4 1
6 9 10
6 9 10
5 4 5
5 9 6
5 7 5

(10,2),(2,3),(3,2),(2,1),(1,5),(5,5),(5,5),(5,6),(6,6),(6,5),(5,5),(5,5),(5,10),(10,3),(3,3),(3,7),(7,5),(
5,7),(7,9),(9,4),(4,9),(9,9),(9,4),(4,9),(9,7),
(7,1),(1,2),(2,5),(5,1),(1,1),(1,9),(9,9),(9,1),(1,10),(10,10),(10,5),(5,6),(6,5),(5,10)

TABULATING MATRIX
 The data given above can be recorded in a 10x10 matrix. The first step is to make sure
that the entire series begins and ends with the same number. For that Flander create certain
groups of pairs from the observations. Each pair overlaps with the next and the total number
of observations.[from the above observation,(10,2), (2,3), (3,2), (2,1),(1,5)….so on] The
numbers are tallied in the matrix one pair at a time. The row is used for the first number in
the pair and the column is used for the second number. The row is used for the first number
in pair and the column is used for the second number.

Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total
1 1 1 1 1 1 5
2 1 1 1 3
3 1 1 1 3
4 11 2
5 1 1 1111 11 1 1 10
6 11 1 3
7 1 1 1 3
8 0
9 1 1 1 11 6
10 1 11 1 4
total 5 3 3 2 10 3 3 0 6 4 39

INTERPRETING THE MATRIX

From the interpretation several interference can be drawn from the matrix.

1. The proportion of teacher talk, pupil talk and silence or confusion.

The proportion of tallies in columns1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7, columns 8,9,

and column 10 to the total tallies indicates how much the teacher talks, the students talks
and the time spent in silence or confusion. After several years of observing, we anticipate
an average of 68 percent teacher talk, 20 percent of pupil talk and 11 or 12 percent silence
of confusion.

Categor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total
y
1 1 1 1 1 1 5
2 1 1 1 3
 3 1 1 1 3
4 11 2
5 1 1 1111 11 1 1 10
6 11 1 3
7 1 1 1 3
8 0
9 1 11 1 11 6
10 1 11 1 4
total 5 3 3 2 10 3 3 0 6 4 39

Teacher talk = 5+3+3+2+9+3+3=28

Teacher talk ratio= X 100

= X 100= 71.79%

Student talk ratio= X 100

Silence or confusion=

2. The ratio between indirect influence and direct

The sum of column 1,2,3,4, divided by the sum of 5, 6, 7 gives this ratio. If the ratio is 1 or
more than 1, the teacher is said to be indirect in his behavior. The ratio therefore , shows whether
a teacher is more direct or indirect in his teaching

3. The ratio between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement

The sum of column 1, 2, 3 divided by the sum of columns 6,7. If the ratio is more than 1 then
the teacher is said to be good.
4. Student’s participation ratio

the sum of columns 8 and 9 is to be divided by total sum. The answer will reveal how much
the students have participated in the teaching learning process.

5. Steady state cells

The following figure shows the study state cells along the diagonal from the upper left to the
lower right. If these cells are heavily loaded it shows that the teacher remains in a particular
category for more than three seconds. The cell with the highest frequency of the entire matrix
is typically the 5-5 cell which lies on this diagonal indicating that the teacher frequently stays
longer than 3 seconds when he provides information through lecture.

category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total
1 l
2
3 l
4
5 lll
6
7
8
9 llll ll
10
total

6. Content cross cells

The cells corresponding to the numbers 4 and 5 in the column and the row are known as
content cross cells. If these cells are overloaded they reflect the teachers emphasis on the
subject matter.

category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total
1 l
2
3 l
4
5 lll
6
7
8
9 llll ll
10
total

7. Constructive integration cells and vicious cells:

Two areas that are most sensitive to the positive and negative aspects of social skill is the
teacher- student relationship. This is shown in following figure.
category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 total
1 l
2
A

3 l
4
5 lll
6
B

7
8
9 llll ll
10
total

Area A might be called ‘constructive integrative cells’ while area B is called the ‘vicious
cells’. The cells corresponding to numbers 1,2 and 3 are known as constructive integration
cells. Cells of numbers 6 and 7 are known as vicious cells. These cells reveal the teacher’s
attention to problems of classroom management and control as distinct from concern with the
subject matter.

Advantages of FIACS
1. It is an objective and reliable technique of observing and analyzing the verbal
behavior of a teacher and class room interaction.
2. It may help in understanding analytically what actually goes on in the classroom.
3. It may help in determining the flow and pattern of teaching behaviors.
4. By providing feedback, it helps in acquiring the desirable patterns of teaching and
modifying one’s teaching behavior.
5. Through the use of this system, student teacher may practice and learn new
desirable teaching behaviours quite unknown to the traditional teaching.
6. It supplements the training techniques like micro teaching and team teaching.
7. It can be used for undertaking research in several areas of teaching, teacher
behavior, pre- service and in-service education of teachers.
8. As the system ‘s rule is to take observer records almost all the behaviors of the
teacher and the students.
9. It helps to determine the classroom climate.
 10. A teacher can control his teaching behavior, so, this system is well suited to be
used as a mechanism of feedback device for the modification of teacher behavior.
11. It is used as an observation technique in teacher education programs.

Limitations
1. The system concentrates on verbal behavior and does not describe the classroom
interaction or teacher behavior in its totality.
2. Out of 10 categories, it devotes as many as seven categories to teacher talk and
just three to student talk.
3. The use of this system envisages highly trained observers and interpreters.
4. There is much scope for subjectivity in the observation of the behavior.
5. It hardly takes into consideration classroom interaction in the form of student-
student interaction.
6. The system does not incorporate various essential steps teaching a particular
subject.
7. The fourth category of asking questions in this system does not classify the type
of questions asked.

8. It does not provide valued judgments about and bad teaching behaviours.
 1

Module 4: Instructional Technology- Principles and

Approaches
4.1 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY- MEANING

Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,

management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Instructional design helps to
plan, develop, evaluate and manage the instructional process effectively to ensure improved
performance by learners. Instructional Technology's goal is to understand how people learn and
how to best design instructional systems and instructional materials to facilitate that learning.
Instructional Technologists are today's problem solvers. They look to understand performance
problems and design solutions to those problems. Sometimes the solution is instructional; other
times the situation requires a non-instructional solution.

At the very basic level, a method or style of delivering information to a student or audience is
devised and then put into action. The delivery technique and audience are then monitored in
some way so as to determine the effectiveness of the delivery process. This feedback data then
gives the designers of the delivery mechanism a way to measure the effectiveness of the process
and a chance to improve upon the process by introducing new elements and/or eliminating
ineffective elements of the delivery method and try again, and again.

THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Humans have always sought ways to improve instruction by using physical and mental
representations (eg, technology) to better explain complex ideas.
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
 Facilitates learning.
 Does not cause or control learning.
 Learning is a process, as is instruction.
 “Learning” means different things to different people.
Instructional technology is the systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from
the behavioural, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems.
 2

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
 Principle of definiteness of goals or objectives
 Principle of planning
 Principle of flexibility and elasticity
 Principle of utilizing past experience
 Principle of child- centeredness
 Principle of linking with actual life
 Principle of correlating with other subjects
 Principle of effective strategies and instructional material
 Principle of active participation and involvement
 Principle of conducive environment

MAXIMS / PRINCIPLE OF TEACHING

Every teacher wants to make maximum involvement and participation of the learners in the
learning process. He sets the classroom in such a way so that it becomes attractive for them. He
uses different methods, rules, principles etc in order to make his lesson effective and purposeful.
He uses general rule or formula and applies it to particular example in order to make teaching –
learning process easy and upto the understandable level of students.
These settled principles, tenets, working rules or general truths through which teaching becomes
interesting, easy and effective are called the maxims of teaching. Maxims are statements of the
way in which teaching and learning go forward. they ensure effective and efficient teaching and
learning. They have universal significance.
The different maxims of teaching are
1. From known to unknown:-
When a child enters into school, he possess some knowledge and it is the duty of teacher to
enlarge his previous knowledge . Whatever he possesses should be linked with the new
knowledge. If we link new knowledge with the old knowledge our teaching becomes clearer and
more definite.
 3

This maxim facilitates the learning process and economizes the efforts of the teacher and the
taught. For example before teaching profit and loss teacher should speak about buying and
selling. Here profit and loss is unknown and buying and selling is known. This way of teaching
helps the learners to understand things fully. This way the teaching becomes definite, clearer and
more fruitful.
2. From simple to complex:-
The main objective of teaching is to teacher and the learners objective is to learn something. In
this process of teaching and learning, simple or easy things should be first presented to the
students and gradually he should proceed towards complex or difficult things. The presentation
of simple material makes the learners interested, confident and feel encouraged. As they will
show interest towards the simple material, they becomes receptive to the complex matter. On the
other hand, if complex matter is presented first, the learner becomes upset, feel bored and finds
himself in a challenging situation. For example in mathematics we first present the idea of +, - , x
and then division.
3. From concrete to abstract:-
Concrete things are solid things and they can be visualized but abstract things are only
imaginative things. The child understands more easily when taught through their senses and
never forget that material. On the other hand if abstract things or ideas are presented, they forget
it soon. As Froebel said, “Our lessons ought to start in the concrete and end in the abstract”. For
example when we teach the solar system, we first visualize the sun through our senses and gives
the concept of eight planets, galaxies, meteorites etc. Through this process, the learners
understand the materials more easily. Some power of imagination also develops in them .But if
we reverse the situation, it will become difficult for learners to understand anything. Another
example, when we teach counting to the students we should first take the help of concrete objects
like beads, stones etc. and then proceed to digits and numbers.
4. From analysis to synthesis:-
When we divide a thing into easy parts or separate elements in order to understand it easily is
called analysis. It is the process which helps in understanding the hidden elements of a thing or
the cause of some incident or behavior. For instance, in order to tell about the structure or
functions of heart, the parts of the heart are shown separately and knowledge of every part is
given. After it the students are made to understand the structure or system of working of the
 4

heart. In this way, even a very difficult thing can be easily understood. Synthesis is just opposite
of analysis. All parts are shown as a whole. The process of analysis is easier than synthesis for
understanding a thing. This process develops the analytical power of the students. It is the best
method of starting the teaching process. For example while teaching digestive system, we should
first analyse the different parts of digestive system one by one and then gives the synthetic view
of it. Hence a good teacher always proceeds from analysis to synthesis.
5. From empirical to rational:-
Empirical knowledge is that which is based on observation and first hand experience about
which no reasoning is needed at all. It is concrete, particular and simple. We can feel and
experience it. On the other hand rational knowledge is based upon arguments and explanations.
For example suppose the students are to be taught that water boils on heating. They should first
be made to heat the water and see it boiling. Then the teacher should explain that when water is
heated, the molecules gain kinetic energy and there is thermal agitation of the molecules which
make the water boil. This maxim is an extension of some of the previous maxims, namely
proceed from simple to complex proceed from concrete to abstract and from particular
to general.
6. From induction to deduction:-
The process of deriving general laws, rules or formulae from particular examples is called
induction. In it if a statement is true in a special situation, it will also be true in other similar
situations. It means drawing a conclusion from set of examples. For example when hydrogen
reacts with boron, it gives Boron hydride, potassium reacts hydrogen, it gives potassium hydride,
we come to the conclusion that all elements when reacts with hydrogen they from hydrides.
While using this process in teaching, a teacher has to present particular examples or experiences
and tell about similarity of their attributes. Deduction is just opposite of induction. In it, we
derive a certain particular conclusion from general laws, rules or principles. For example in
language teaching, before giving the definition of noun, the students are acquainted with the
example of noun like man, chair, Delhi etc and then they are led to general definition of noun. So
a good teacher always proceeds from induction and finishes at deduction.
7. From psychological to logical:-
Modern education gives more emphases on psychology of the child. The child`s psychological
development is of utmost important than any other thing. A teacher while teaching should follow
 5

this maxim viz from psychological to logical. Psychological approach takes into consideration
the pupil his interests, abilities, aptitudes, development level, needs and reactions. The teacher
should keep in mind the psychological selection of the subject matter to be presented before the
pupils. Logical approach considers the arrangement of the choosen content into logical order and
steps. It is child centered maximum. For example a teacher tells the story of a poem to students
when they are not interested in reading, with this a teacher proceeds from psychological to
logical sequence.
8. From Actual to Representative:
First hand experiences makes learning more vivid and efficient than to give them representative
ones. A teacher while selecting the content for presentation should make all efforts possible to
present it through actual, natural or real objects than from their improvised representative one’s
like pictures, models etc. For example to teach about dam, a teacher should try his best to visit
the actual place and that learning will be more vivid and the pupils will retain it for a long time
inspite of teaching through sketches, model or a picture. Representative forms should be used at
the higher classes than in lower classes.
9. From definite to indefinite:
A teacher should always start from definite because definiteness has its limited boundaries and
jurisdiction than indefinite things. We always have confidence on definite and tested things. We
learn easily indefinite things on the basis of definite things. Hence a teacher while teaching any
content should first present definite things, ideas and then he can learn indefinite things easily.
Definite things, definite rules of grammar help the learner to have good knowledge. Gradually he
can be taught about indefinite things.

PHASES OF TEACHING
The operations of teaching are most important because these operation create the
situation for learning. The operation of teaching can be divided into three phases Jackson
analyses the teaching systematically in three phases.
I. Pre active phase
It is the stage of planning for teaching. All that a teacher plans before going to classroom to deal
with students or to teach. In pre-active phase or teaching the following operations are involved.
(a) Formulation of Goals: The teacher formulates in detail the instructional or curricular
 6

objectives of teaching Social Studies. These objectives are based or Psychology of the students
as well as needs of the society.
(b) Arrangements of the ideas: The teacher has to arrange sue contents in a logical sequence, in
such a way that it should function empirically
(c) Decision making about the strategies of Teaching: The teacher has to select appropriate
strategies and tactics of teaching keeping in view nature and structure of the content and
objectives of teaching. This operation is very important in teaches education programme. Such
skills and abilities should be emphasized during the teacher training courses.
(d) Decision making about the subject matter: The teacher decides about the content to be taught
to the students and structure of the content. This decision is based on the following
considerations.
• Demand of the curriculum prescribed for the students.
• The entering behaviour and needs of the students.
• Level of motivation of the learner.
• Teachers preference for assessment relating to the content
(e) Development of teaching strategies: The teacher has to decide before hand or in advance
about strategies or tactics which he has to use during the course of his classroom teaching.
2. Interactive Phase
The interactive phase of teaching includes all those behaviour, activities which a teacher uses
after entering the classroom. The interactive stage involves all activities in presenting the subject
matter. The following are the activities in interactive phase.
a). Sizing up the class: The teacher tries to identify the faces of students size up the class group
before teaching.
b). Diagnosis of the learner: The teacher tries to diagnose the level of their achievements, in his
students in three areas: (i) Ability (ii) Attitude and Interest and (iii) Academic background.
c). Action: Here the teacher initiates the activities in the classroom.
d). Selection of stimuli: A good teacher must know which one is appropriate stimuli or which is
the interaction stimuli in that particular teaching situation.
e). Presentation of stimuli: The teacher must know three thing in presenting he stimuli (i) form
(ii) context (iii) order or sequence.
 7

f) 'Feedback or reinforcement: It is a condition which will increase the probability that

particular response will be repeated in future.
g) Development of strategies: The strategies of reinforcing the students, of controlling their
verbal and non verbal behaviour are used for imparting the subject-content effectively while a
teacher teaches in the classroom.
3. Post Active Phase
This is an evaluation phase of teaching. It includes the teacher tasks which evaluate student's
performance based on classroom teaching. The behavioural changes of students are assessed at
the end of teaching. The oral or written questions are asked at the third stage of teaching. The
following are the main operations of this phase of teaching.
a) Recording the responses of the students: The first task of teacher after the class is to record
the students responses appropriately to different learning activities provided by the teacher.
b) Changing or improving strategies of teaching: Students responses may provide a basis for
improving his teaching strategies by reorganizing and changing the strategies or tactics.
c) Selecting appropriate testing devices: The teacher chooses certain suitable testing techniques
and tools to measure the various desired dimensions of learning material. The test should be
reliable, valid and objective in nature Cognitive and non cognitive outcome require different
testing devices. The phases of teaching can be represented by the following flowchart:

Fixing up the goals and

content

Phase I
Preactive Phase Decision about Strategy

Diagnosis of Learner
Teaching Phase II
Interactive Phase
Actions

Feedback to teaching
Phase III
 8

Postactive Phase
Development of testing
devices
LEVELS OF TEACHING

In the formal classroom setting the task of teaching carried out by the teacher along with his
pupils, according to Bigge (1967), can be performed at various levels ranging from the least
thoughtful to the most thoughtful behaviour or mode of action. Accordingly, psychologists and
educationists have clearly identified three such levels of teaching-learning at memory level,
understanding level and reflective level.
Memory level falls at the bottom depicting the involvement of the least thoughtful behaviour and
the reflective level at the top needing the involvement of higher cognitive abilities and the most
thoughtful behavior. The understanding level falls in between, requiring the involvement of the
thoughtful behaviour in a moderate reasonable amount.

Reflective Level
(Most thoughtful)

Understanding Level (Thoughtful)

Memory Level (Least thoughtful)

Hierarchical order of the levels of teaching.

MEMORY LEVEL OF TEACHING

Teaching-learning act at the memory level represents the involvement of the least thoughtful
behavior. In such type of act memory plays a key role. The teacher presents factual information
before the learner. The learner tries to mug up these facts with the least involvement of his
 9

thinking and reasoning power without any care of the understanding of their meaning and
application.
The classroom task at the memory level of teaching is confined merely to the memorization of
the facts or associations related to the content material of a subject. Here the information, facts
and body of contents are presented before a learner in such a way that they yield better results in
terms of the memorization of the presented material. The learner is supposed to retain this
material as longer as possible and to reproduce it when needed. The whole effort in such
teaching-learning then revolves round the acquisition of the factual information or knowledge
through rote learning. The students then try to mug up the content material, retain them in their
memory and reproduce them at a time when asked to do so.
Objectives
The teaching act performed at the memory level is confined to achieve the knowledge objective
in the following ways:
1. Acquisition of presented facts through rote learning
2. Retention and reproduction of the acquired information as and when needed.
Nature of the subject-matter
Memory level teaching is predominantly subject centered. Its sole objective is effective
memorization of the presented material by the learner.
The role of the teacher
Teacher plays a very dominant and authoritarian role in the memory level of teaching. It is he
who decides about the methodology for the presentation of the subject material before the
learner.
The role of the learner
The leaner has a passive role in the memory level of teaching. His mind is considered as a big
storehouse of information or knowledge regarding various subjects.
The merits of teaching at memory level
1. Such type of teaching-learning may be found to suit the very nature of the small children to a
great extent, as their memory at the younger age is the rote memory. They are capable of
mugging up things without caring to know their meaning & use.
2. The memory level of teaching- learning provides solid base for erecting the higher structure of
teaching-learning
 10

3.The memory level of teaching-learning gives full freedom to the teacher to realise his goal.

Demerits and defects of teaching at memory level

1. It provides no scope for the development of understanding and other essential cognitive
abilities of the students.
2. It very difficult for the students’ taught at the memory level to make any practical use of their
learning.
3. Despite the best efforts in such teaching-learning, there is no guarantee retention and
appropriate reproduction of the memorized material by the learner.
UNDERSTANDING LEVEL OF TEACHING
Understanding level of teaching represents relatively a high level in the teaching process as
compared to memory level. It calls for the use of one's thought processes and cognitive abilities
in the form of reasoning and thinking powers, powers of imagination, analysis, synthesis ,
comparison, application, generalization and drawing inferences, etc.
1. It does not stop with the acquisition of facts or information by the student as done at the
memory level but takes them ahead for generalizing the rules or principles of these acquired
facts.
2. The students can identify the relationship between the individual facts and the principles
generalized out of these facts.
3. It helps the students use the generalized rules or principles as a tool or instrument in the
acquisition of new facts or applying them in their practical life.
Let us illustrate it with an example. When a student memorizes a fact, 7 x 5= 35, the
teaching-learning process is said to be operated at the memory level. In this case, he memorizes
the fact without understanding, i.e., he neither knows the generalization behind this party fact nor
its application. It is only when he is taught at the understanding level he happens to know that:
• 7 x 5 is similar and equal to 5 x 7.
• When seven objects are grouped five times or five objects are grouped seen ti the product is
always thirty five.
• This fact or relationship is true for all objects in all situations.
Objectives
1.Knowledge objective: Acquisition of required factual information or body of facts.
 11

2.Understanding objective: Under this objective the learners are able:

 to see relationship between acquired facts
 to comprehend the meaning of the acquired facts or factual information
 to identify the similarities and dissimilarities between the acquired facts
 to seek generalization out of the specific facts
 to apply the generalized fact, rule or principle for learning new facts in practical life
situations.
Nature of the subject matter
The subject matter for the understanding level teaching is quite structured in terms of planning
sequential and organized presentation and meaningful learning.
The role of the teacher
Like memory level teaching the teacher plays a quite dominant and authoritarian role at the
understanding level of teaching. This type of teaching is also too much subject centred and hence
teacher has to pay his full attention in presenting the subject matter to his students to attain the
desired understanding objective besides the knowledge objective. He has to take care of the fact
that the students gain complete mastery over the subject matter in terms of understanding and
generalized insight rather than its mere memorization, i.e. retention and reproduction of the
memorized facts.
The role of the learner
The learner does not have a passive role here as in the case of memory level teaching. He has to
remain active in acquiring the desired understanding of the learned facts. However, the key of
the teaching-learning process lies well in the hands of the teacher.
The merits of teaching at understanding level.
1.Understanding level teaching helps the students in the acquisition of the facts or information
more effectively than the memory level. Here, the retention is quite long as it is accompanied by
clear understanding of the facts or information.
2. It helps students to learn generalized rules, principles or theories built up on the basis of
individual facts or special examples.
3. Understanding level teaching trains and equips them for acting more intelligently in
proceeding on the path of learning. They get proper opportunity for the development of their
 12

cognitive abilities through various acts like analyzing, synthesizing, compairing, drawing
inferences, making generalizations, applying rules and principles, etc.

Demerits of teaching at understanding level.

1. The teaching at the understanding level is more or less teacher centred and subject
centred rather than being child centred.
2. The motivation is largely extrinsic in nature and the students' ego is hardly involved in
such type of teaching.
3. The results of such teaching are always judged in terms of the fixed specific responses.
Such type of teaching-learning environment and evaluation pattern can't help in the
development of higher cognitive abilities, including creativity and independent problem
solving abilities among students.
REFLECTIVE LEVEL OF TEACHING
The word reflection stands for the act of reflection (turning back), contemplating or
paying serious consideration. Consequently, teaching at reflective level must have its association
with the process of reflecting or turning back the existing idea or knowledge for more careful
consideration or critical examination to derive fresh conclusions.
The reflective level teaching provides opportunity to the learners for the close, careful
and critical examination of the existing facts, ideas, insights and generalizations. The learners try
to test them in the light of the relevant evidence. They are free to set independent hypotheses,
test them and draw their own conclusions for learning new facts or having new insight.
Looking at the above cited nature, it is a must that teaching-learning at the reflective level
should be organized at some advanced level that can provide opportunities for the utilization of
the learners' cognitive abilities. Such opportunities may be best provided if the teaching-learning
situations are turned into problematic ones and the students are made to discover the solutions of
problems in the light of their own thinking and independent pursuit of knowledge. Therefore, in
practical sense, teaching at the reflective level is nothing but a problem solving or discovery
approach towards teaching-learning.
Objectives
1. To make use of the learned facts and acquired understanding or insight for learning
reflectively.
 13

2. To help the learner build up an enlarged store of the tested insights of generalized character.
3. To enhance the learners’ ability to develop and solve problems at their own initiative.

Nature of subject-matter
Here the subject matter is not presented in the highly structured form as done at memory and
understanding levels. It is almost open ended in the form of problem raising and problem
solving.
Role of the teacher
At the reflective level of teaching, the teacher does not play a dominant and authoritarian role
like in memory or understanding level teaching. Here, instead of telling the facts or
generalizations, he has to make students discover them. He is there to help them in such learning
and discovering by raising problems, initiating mutual discussion and interactions; welcoming
critical reactions and engaging them in the discovery of the truth of the matter and solution of the
problem as independently as possible.
Role of the learner
The learner can't remain a passive listener or silent observer in reflective level teaching. He has
to make use of his cognitive abilities and take all initiatives in the process of raising and problem
solving involved at this level of teaching. In addition to the learning and understanding of the
facts and generalized insight, he has to work for the learning of the art and techniques of problem
solving processes.
Merits
 It involves learner centred approach.
 It provides better opportunities for the utilization of one's cognitive abilities to acquire
information,generalized insight and problem solving skills and, in turn, helps in the
proper development of one's intellectual powers.
 Teaching at reflective level is helpful in making the classroom environment quite
democratic, healthy, lively and exciting. There is a free and useful interaction between
the teachers and the pupils. Pupils are allowed to be critical.
Demerits
 In the reflective level with the absence course material, the students are unable to acquire
the systematic knowledge of the subject material pertaining to the school subjects.
 14

 The freedom and flexibility enjoyed by the students in the unstructured learning situation
may drift the students from the learning path. They can waste time and energy in the
discovery of the facts, raising irrelevant questions and pursuing meaningless
investigation.
 Despite the wider claims of its application in the learning of all school levels, its field is
quite limited to practical sense.
 It requires more efforts on the part of the teachers. They have to gain mastery over the
facts and generalized insight often cutting across various subjects and life situations.
4.3 MODELS OF TEACHING – MEANING
A Model of Teaching is an instructional plan or instructional pattern based on a specific learning
theory. For a long time the focus of educational psychology has been only on learning but now
there is a shift of emphasis from learning to teaching leading to effective learning. A model of
teaching description of a learning environment. The descriptions have many uses, ranging from
planning curriculum, courses, units and lessons to design instructional materials. Joyce & Weil
(2003) defined teaching models as "a pattern or plan that we can use to design face to face
teaching in classrooms or tutorial settings and shape instructional materials". Eggen (1979)
defines that "Models are prescriptive teaching strategies which help to realize specific
instructional goals".
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MODEL
A modern teaching model consists of following elements
1) Focus
It is the theme of the teaching model. The objectives of the teaching constitute the focus of
the model
2) Syntax
It describes the model in action. They are the phases of models or sequence of activities. It
includes the sequence of steps involved in the organization of the complete programme of
teaching.
3) Social System
It explains structure of learning environment in the classroom. It is the nature of environment
of the classroom. It describes the students and teachers’ roles and relationships, and kinds of
norms that are emerged. The leadership roles of the teacher vary greatly from model to
 15

model. In some models, the teacher is the centre of activity, the sources of information and
the organizer and pacer of situations (highly structured). Some models distribution of
activity equally between teacher and students (Moderately structured) where as others placed
students as the centre (Low structured).
4) Principles of Reaction
These are the rules to be followed by the teacher in responding to the learner. It tells the
teacher how to regard the learner and how to respond to what the learner does. Principles of
reaction provides the teacher with rules of thumb by which to tune into the student and select
appropriate response to what the student does.
5) Support System
It is the additional requirements for teaching or any support for teaching that may beyond
usual human skills, capacities and technical facilities. Eg: support in terms of books, films,
aids, travel, experts etc
6) Instructional and Nurturant Effects
Instructional effects are those directly achieved by leading the learner in certain direction
(Explicit effects) - cognitive effects. Nurturant effects means indirect effects of the model or
hidden effects (implicit effect) in the learning environment which are affective changes in
the learner.
FAMILIES OF MODELS OF TEACHING
The models of teaching developed by Joyce & Weil (2003) and associates are categorised into
four major families: A family emphasizes number of teaching models having the same basic
theoretical foundation and orientation towards how an individual learn.
1) The Social Family
When we work together we generate a collective energy that we call synergy. The social
models of teaching are constructed to take advantage of this phenomenon by building
learning communities. This family includes the following teaching models.
Partners in learning - David Johnson & Roger Johnson
Group investigation - John Dewey & Herbert Thelen
Role playing - Fannie Shaftel
Jurisprudential inquiry - Donald Oliver & James shaver
2) The Information Processing Family
 16

Information processing models emphasize ways of enhancing human being's innate drive to
make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data, sensing problems and generating
solutions to them, and developing concepts and language conveying them. This model is
generally based upon the idea that learners are coherent information processing systems.
They teach students how to think effectively. Some information processing models are:
Inductive thinking - Hilda Taba
Concept attainment - J.S.Bruner
Advance organisers - Ausubel
Synetics - Bill Gordon
Inquiry training - Richard Suchman
3) The Personal Family
Personal models play great attention to the individual perspective and seeks to encourage
productive independence, so that people become increasingly self aware and responsible for
their own destinies. Development of unique personality and personal consciousness from the
learners' own perspective and experience is the basis of models came under personal family.
This includes the following models of teaching.
Non directive teaching - Carl Rogers
Enhancing self esteem - Abraham Maslow
Awareness Training model - Fritz Pearls
4) The Behavioral Modification Family
Behaviour modification guides the design of the models in this family. These models
concentrate on observable behavioral patterns. They have evolved from the attempts to
develop efficient systems for sequencing learning tasks and shaping the behavior through
management of reinforcers.
Mastery learning - Benjamin S. Bloom
Simulation - Carl Smith & Mary Smith
Social learning - Albert Bandura
Programmed learning -B.F. Skinner.
4.4 TEAM TEACHING

The concept 'Team-Teaching' has its origin from America during the mid 1950. Team teaching is
an arrangement in which two or more teachers co-operatively plan, teach and evaluate one or
 17

more groups to take advantage of the special competencies of the members. In which two or
more teachers are given responsibility of working together for the same group of students.

Guiding Principles

 Principal of pooling the resources

 Principal of joint responsibility and cooperation
 Principal of attending the needs of students
 Principal of flexibility in terms of grouping and scheduling
 Principal of appropriate selection of team members
 Principal of willingness and appropriate distribution of the responsibilities
 Principal of appropriate teaching-learning environment
 Principal of supervision and evaluation

Types of Team Teaching

There are various ways to classify the team teaching but a better way is to classify it on the basis
of its organization. Team teaching may be organized mainly in the three types.

a. Intra department team teaching. This type of team teaching can be organized at each level of
education if there are more than two teachers for the same subject in the same department.

b. Inter department team teaching. This type of team teaching can be organized effectively in
education and training department. The experts of psycho- sociology and philosophy
departments may be invited to teach the students of education along with the department
personals. The approach can be utilized to encourage interdisciplinary approach in teaching.

c. Inter institution team teaching. This type of team teaching can be organised at every level of
education. The experts of the subject from other institution may be invited to take classes co-
operatively with the department personals.

Steps in Team Teaching

The team teaching has the following three steps.

 18

1. Planning. Planning is the first step in team teaching in which the objectives of team teaching
are formulated. In this step, plan the topic to be taught and prepare a time schedule. Assigning
duties to teacher is an important aspect in planning. Selection of teaching aids and devising
evaluation tools are also comes under the purview of planning stage.

2. Execution. It is the actual classroom teaching phase. The selection of appropriate

communication strategy presentation of lecture and supervision of follow-up work, providing
motivation to students and supervising students activities are some of the procedure in the
execution phase.

3. Evaluation. Evaluation is helpful to measure the performance of learners which determines

about the objectives whether they can be achieved or not. It also provides the reinforcements to
team of the teachers and the learners. It will help to take decision about the level of performance
and realization of objectives. It also helps to diagnose students difficulties.

Advantages

• It utilizes the competencies of teachers

• It creates the learning environment to the mastery over the content.

• It provides an opportunity for free discussion in the classroom teaching.

• It provides teachers to improve their professional status.

• It exposes the learners to be more specialist of the subject and they are benefited by the special
knowledge of various teachers.

• It consider the difficulties of pupils.

• It utilizes the teaching aids and equipments of teaching in an appropriate manner.

• It is an economical teaching device.

• It is highly flexible method of teaching.

Limitations
 19

• It is very difficult to seek co-operation among teachers and enables them to work jointly.

• It is not feasible in practice to assign power and responsibilities to a group of teachers.

• There is no mutual regard and respect among t the teachers.

• The teachers do not have time to deviate from the routine method of teaching and they do not
prefer change in the system of education.

DIFFERENTIAL TEACHING-CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW

Just as everyone has a unique fingerprint, each student has an individual style of learning. Not all
students in a classroom learn a subject in the same way or share the same level of ability.
Differentiated instruction is a method of designing and delivering instruction to best reach each
student. It is teaching the same material to all students using a variety of instructional strategies,
or it may require the teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty based on the ability
of each student.

Teachers can differentiate instruction through four ways: 1) content, 2) process, 3) product, and
4) learning environment.

1. Content

Fundamental lesson content should cover the standards of learning set by the school district or
state educational standards. Some students in a class may be completely unfamiliar with the
concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery, and some students may already be
familiar with the content before the lesson begins.The teacher may differentiate the content by
designing activities for groups of students that cover various levels.

Students who are unfamiliar with a lesson may be required to complete tasks on the lower levels:
remembering and understanding. Students with some mastery may be asked to apply and analyze
the content, and students who have high levels of mastery may be asked to complete tasks in the
areas of evaluating and creating.

Examples of differentiating activities:

 20

 Match vocabulary words to definitions.

 Read a passage of text and answer related questions.
 Identify an author’s position and provide evidence to support this viewpoint.
 Create a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the lesson.

2. Process

Each student has a preferred learning style, and successful differentiation includes delivering the
material to each style: visual, auditory and kinesthetic and through words. Not all students
require the same amount of support from the teacher, and students could choose to work in pairs,
small groups or individually. While some students may benefit from one-on-one interaction with
a teacher or classroom aide, others may be able to progress by themselves. Teachers can enhance
student learning by offering support based on individual needs.

Examples of differentiating the process:

 Provide textbooks for visual and word learners.

 Allow auditory learners to listen to audio books.
 Give kinesthetic learners the opportunity to complete an interactive assignment online.

3. Product

The product is what the student creates at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the
content. This can be in the form of tests, projects, reports or other activities. Teachers may assign
students to complete activities that show mastery of an educational concept in a way the student
prefers, based on learning style.

Examples of differentiating the end product:

 Read and write learners write a book report.

 Visual learners create a graphic organizer of the story.
 Auditory learners give an oral report.
 Kinesthetic learners build a diorama illustrating the story.
 21

4. Learning environment

The conditions for optimal learning include both physical and psychological elements. A
flexible classroom layout is key, incorporating various types of furniture and arrangements to
support both individual and group work. Psychologically speaking, teachers should use
classroom management techniques that support a safe and supportive learning environment.

Examples of differentiating the environment:

 Break some students into reading groups to discuss the assignment.

 Allow students to read individually if preferred.

Merits

 Research shows differentiated instruction is effective for high-ability students as well as

students with mild to severe disabilities.
 When students are given more options on how they can learn material, they take on more
responsibility for their own learning.
 Students appear to be more engaged in learning, and there are reportedly fewer discipline
problems in classrooms where teachers provide differentiated lessons.

Demerits

 Differentiated instruction requires more work during lesson planning, and many teachers
struggle to find the extra time in their schedule.
 Critics argue there isn’t enough research to support the benefits of differentiated
instruction outweighing the added prep time.
 Models of Teaching

Development of Models of Teaching is one of the recent innovations in teaching.

The core of teaching process is the arrangement of environments with in which the
students can interact and study how to learn. A model of teaching is a description of
learning environments. An important purpose of models of teaching is to assist the
teacher to have a wide range of approaches for creating a proper interaction environment
for learning.
A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to
design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.
Basically models of teaching are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish
particular instructional goals. They are prescriptive in the sense that the teacher’s
responsibility during the planning, implementing and evaluating stages are clearly
defined.

Teaching models have long histories behind them; they have been refined
through experiences so that they can be used comfortably and effectively in classroom.
Furthermore, they are adaptable they can be adjusted to the learning styles of students
and to the requirements of the subject matter. Again there is evidence that they work.
Besides being validated by experiences, all are backed by some amount of formal
research that tests their theories and abilities to gain effects.
Definition
Weil and Joyce (1978); A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing
educational activities and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning
that are intended to achieve certain kinds of goals.

Main Characteristics of a Teaching Model

Some common identifiable characteristics of good models are;

1. Specification of Learning Outcome
All models of teaching specify what students should perform after
completing an instructional sequence.
2. Specification of Environment
A teaching model specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions
under which a student’s response should be observed
3. Specification of Criterion of Performance
A model of teaching specifies the criterion of performance which is
expected from the students.
4. Specification of Operations
A model of teaching specifies the mechanism that provides for the
reaction of students and interaction with the environment.
5. Specification of Procedure
A model of teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modify the
behavior of the learner. It is not a haphazard combination of facts.
Fundamental Elements of Models of Teaching

For using a model, the teacher must know the theoretical orientation and practical
implementation of the model. Thus, the fundamental elements of a model of teaching
are,
 Focus of the model
 Syntax
 The social system
 Principles of reaction
 The support system
 Applications of the model
 Instructional and nurturant effect

1. Focus of the Model

Focus describes the goals and objectives of the model, theoretical assumptions,
the principles and major concepts underlying the model. It gives the description of
the environment also. So, the focus constitutes the objectives of teaching and
environmental description.

2. Syntax

Syntax includes the sequence of steps involved in the organization of the complex
program of teaching.

3. The social system

The social system describes students and teacher roles and relationships and the
kind of norms that are encouraged. The leadership roles of teacher vary greatly
from model to model. The teacher may be a reflector or a facilitator of group
activity in some models. In some other models the teacher may be the centre of
activity.

4. Principles of Reaction

This aspect tells the teacher how to regard the learner and how to respond to what
the learner does. Principles of reaction provide the teacher with rules of thumb by
which to tune into the students and select model.

5. Support system

The support system relates to the additional requirements other than the usual
human skills or capacities of the teacher and facilities usually available in the
ordinary class room. These requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge
of the teacher and special audio-visual materials like films, self instructional
material, visit to special places etc.
 6. Application of the model

Several types of teaching models are available. Some models are developed for
some specific purpose, whereas others have very wide general applications. For eg.
some are designed to develop social relationships; some are designed to develop
social development along with academic and personal development.

7. Instructional and Nurturant Effects.

The description of the effects of model can validly be categorized as the direct or
instructional effect and indirect or nurturant effects. The instructional effects are
those directly achieved by leading the learner in certain directions. The nurturant
effects come from experiencing the environment created by the model.

Classification of Models of Teaching OR

Families of Models of Teaching

Joyce and Weil (1992) found that Models of Teaching are in abundance. They
have been developed by educationists, psychologists, sociologists, system analysts,
psychiatrists and many others. Joyce and Weil grouped them into four families.
They are;

1. Information Processing Family

2. Personal Family
3. Social Family
4. Behavioral Family

Information Processing Family

The information processing models emphasis ways of enhancing the human

beings innate drive to make sense of the world by acquiring and organizing data,
sensing problems and generating solutions to them and developing concepts and
language for conveying them. Some models provide the learner with information
and concepts, some emphasis on concept formation and hypothesis testing and
still others generate creative thinking.
A few are designed to enhance general intellectual ability. Many
information processing models are useful for studying the self,, society, and thus
for achieving the personal and social goals of education. The information
processing models help students to learn how to construct knowledge. They focus
directly on intellectual capability.
Some information processing models are given below.
 Models Developers

1 Inductive Thinking Hilda Taba

2 Concept Attainment Jerome Bruner

3 Advance Organizer David Ausubel

4 Inquiry Training Richard Suchman

5 Synetics Bill Gordon

Personal Family

These models focus on the personal development of the individuals and help
them to develop positive relationship with the environment. They help to develop
capacity for self education and the need to develop self awareness and
understanding. They are concerned with human feelings and emotions

Some models belongs to personal families are;

Models Developers

1 Non Directive Teaching Carl Rogers

2 Enhancing Self- Esteem Abraham Maslow

3 Class room Meeting William Glasser

Social Family
Models of social family help students to learn
o How to sharpen their own cognitions through interactions with others
o How to work productively with individuals and
o How to work as a member of a group.

In terms of cognitive and academic growth, the models help students use the
perspectives of other persons, both individual and group perspective to classify
 and expand their own thinking and conceptualization of ideas. Some model
belongs to this family are;

Models Developers

1 Jurisprudential Inquiry
2 Role Playing
3 Structured Inquiry
4 Group Investigation
Behavioral Family
James shaver These models are based on the human’s
Donald Oliver ability to modify behavior in response to
Fannie Shaftel tasks and feed back. These models are used
in a wide variety of applications, from
teaching information, teaching concepts and
Robert Slavin skills, increasing comfort, changing habits
and learning to control one’s behavior. This
family includes the following models
John Dewey

5 Positive Interdependence David Johnson

Roger Johnson
Elizabeth Cohen
Models Developers

1 Social Learning Albert Bandura

2 Mastery Learning Benjamin S. Bloom

3 Programmed Learning B.F. Skinner

4 Simulation Carl Smith

Mary Smith
5 Direct Instruction Tom Good
Jere Brophy
 5.1 ICT IN EDUCATION
Meaning, Scope and Role of ICT in Education
Meaning
ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the
purposes of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate,
and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers,
the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.
In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet
can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in
both formal and non-formal settings. But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older
technologies such as the telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention, have a
longer and richer history as instructional tools.
Moreover, different technologies are typically used in combination rather than as the sole
delivery mechanism. For instance, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines
the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing
technologies.
"ICT" is the Information and Communication Technologies. "ICT in Education" means
"Teaching and Learning with ICT". Educational ICT tools can be divided into 3 categories: Input
source, Output source and others.
Scope
Scope of ICT shows its depth. ICT has a major role to play in the following points.
IT-Professional and Vocational Education in Information Technology: Focus is on the
area of professional and vocational education rather than on specific computing curricula in
primary, secondary or tertiary educational institutions.
Distance Learning: To consider what is necessary to prepare the whole society for living in the
information age, using a distance learning system
Lifelong Learning: All aspects of the interactive role of informatics and resulting technologies in
lifelong learning.
Research on Education Applications of Information Technologies : To provide a forum to
identify issues and priorities for research and to map research policies arising from the differing
cultures in IFIP Member countries.
Information and Communication Technologies in Elementary Education: The role of
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in elementary education (age range from
pre-school to 13 years).

1
Informatics and ICT in Secondary Education: The role of both informatics and resulting
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in secondary education (age range from 11
to 18 years).
Informatics and ICT at the level of Higher Education: The role of both informatics and
resulting Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in higher education.
Information Technology in Educational Management: Focus is on use of Information
technology within the educational management of educational institutions, educational authorities
and educational system networks, to enhance educational effectiveness and development.
Role of ICT in learning
We are living in a constantly evolving digital world. ICT has an impact on nearly every
aspect of our lives - from working to socialising, learning to playing. The digital age has
transformed the way young people communicate, network, seek help, access information and
learn. We must recognise that young people are now an online population and access is through a
variety of means such as computers, TV and mobile phones.
As technology becomes more and more embedded in our culture, we must provide our
learners with relevant and contemporary experiences that allow them to successfully engage with
technology and prepare them for life after school.
It is widely recognised that learners are motivated and purposefully engaged in the
learning process when concepts and skills are underpinned with technology and sound pedagogy.
Learning and Teaching Scotland aims to provide resources for practitioners, parents and pupils to
engage with these technologies in order to inform and enhance the learning experience.
These are the characteristics that make ICT in education a prominent school communication
tool.
• It offers the wide variety of services.
• It is reliable and provides interactive learning experiences.
• It is flexible and provides comfortable learning.
• It motivates students to learn.
• It facilitates communication and promotes creativity.
• It also provides access to the digital library where information can be retrieved and stored
beyond textbooks.

BLENDED LEARNING-ROLE OF TEACHER AND LEARNING

Blended learning is a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part
through delivery of content and instruction via digital and online media with some element of
student control over time, place, path, or pace. While still attending a “brick-and-mortar” school
structure, face-to-face classroom methods are combined with activities.

2
 Graham defined 'blended learning systems' as learning systems that "combine face-to-face
instruction with computer mediated instruction. “Currently, use of the term blended learning
mostly involves "combining Internet and digital media with established classroom forms that
require the physical co-presence of teacher and students.
The definition of blended learning has also changed from a simple blend of classroom
training and e- learning courses to more complex programs that incorporate an array of
synchronous and asynchronous learning modalities.
As more schools adopt blended-learning models, the role of the teacher is shifting. As a result,
teachers need different skills to be successful.
Role of Teacher in Blended Learning
Below is a list of all the roles the teacher takes in the Blended Learning classroom
1. Coach and tutor - A teacher needs to encourage students and celebrate their successes. He
also works with them one-on-one during student conference time.

2. Facilitator of deep learning, discussion, and collaboration - Students need help figuring out
how to make collaborative opportunities productive as well as guidance on using online
collaboration programs.

3. Designer of problem-based opportunities for the extension of learning - For example,

teachers encourage students to generate questions they want to research.

4. Introducing content and providing instruction on foundational skills

5. Analyzer of student data to support instructional decisions - Technology makes it easier to

collect and analyze immediate feedback and scores but only a teacher can determine the next
best step for the class and each student.

6. Cooperative grouping coordinator - An example might be using discussion boards or blogs

for group work opportunities.

7. Manager of effective differentiation of learning – Teachers research and assign various

resources for students to use for learning in a blended learning environment, both traditional and
online, and they tailor levels for each student.

8. Evaluator – Teachers assess and provide students with actionable feedback.

Role of learner in Blended Learning

3
 In the blended learning environment, students must own their learning. Blended learning
give st some freedom to students to work on things that they really enjoy, but also be learning at
the same time and have that assistance from the teacher.
Students must own their data. Reflecting and goal setting are ways that students can own their
data.
Students must become a collaborator. We could use virtual breakout rooms or boards that can
be used for collaboration opportunities.
Other roles of the student in a blended learning classroom are students becoming a
communicator. We can use web-based communication in a classroom.
Students must become a creator. Students have the freedom to explore and create in various
ways using both traditional and online or technology activities.
Students must become a researcher. Time is allowed for research leading to more student-led
learning.

Advantages
Blended instruction is reportedly more effective than purely face-to-face or purely online
classes. Incorporating the "asynchronous Internet communication technology" into higher
education courses serves to "facilitate a simultaneous independent and collaborative learning
experience." The uses of information and communication technologies have been found to
improve student attitudes towards learning. By incorporating information technology into class
projects, communication between lecturers and part-time students has improved, and students were
able to better evaluate their understanding of course material via the use of computer-based
qualitative and quantitative assessment modules. Students with special talents or interests outside
of the available curricula use educational technology to advance their skills or exceed grade
restrictions. Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference
technology to form a digital classroom.
Disadvantages
Blended learning has a strong dependence on the technical resources or tools with which
the blended learning experience is delivered. These tools need to be reliable, easy to use, and up
to date, for them to have a meaningful impact on the learning experience. IT literacy can serve as
a significant barrier for students attempting to get access to the course materials, making the
availability of high-quality technical support paramount.

5.2 EDUCATION THROUGH ICT

COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI)
A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with
programmed instructional materials. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive
4
instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and
monitor the learning that takes place. CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video
in enhancing the learning process. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can
be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum. CAI refers to the use of the computer as
a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice,
simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's
understanding.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) represents a teaching tool that involves the use of a
computer program or programs to facilitate the education of a group of students. Its major goal is
to provide practical instruction through interactive programs that teach effectively. The method
was first introduced in the 1960s. The term CAI generally refers to educational activities, in which
a computer program is used to teach a passive student, or to such courses in which the computer
acts as a platform for the creation of a personalized and interactive learning environment.

CAI can be used alone or in combination with other teaching methods. According to certain
studies, the combination of CAI and teacher-assisted instruction (TAI) is highly effective in
fostering students' achievements. CAI can be applied to all ages and forms of educations, from
preschool to professional school and even in many employment areas. It can be used in a wide
range

The advantage of personalizing information is that it boosts the students' interest in a given
task. It is easier for a person to integrate new information if his or her name or some other familiar
contexts appear in a problem. This is especially true when talking about teaching children and
young people. The animation of objects that are part of the explanation of a concept scales down
the cognitive load on one's memory and thus facilitates learning. This feature of CAI is especially
helpful when dealing with natural sciences such as physics. It allows the student to perform search
and recognition processes and to make more informational relationships.

Typical CAI provide

1. Text or multimedia content

2. Multiple-choice questions

3. Problems

5
4. Immediate feedback

5. Notes on incorrect responses

6. Summarizes students' performance

7. Exercises for practice

8. Worksheets and tests.

Types of Computer Assisted Instruction

1. Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities for students to repeatedly practice
the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.

2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into
different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.

3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others
or beat the computer.

4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require
the expense of real life or its risks.

5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or

content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.

6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and
strategies.

Advantages of CAI

• One-to-one interaction

• Great motivator

• Freedom to experiment with different options

• Instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited

• Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace

• Helps teacher can devote more time to individual students

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• Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns

• Individual attention

• learn more and more rapidly

• Multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach

• Self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn

Limitations of CAI

• May feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available

• Over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content

• Learning becomes too mechanical

• Non availability of good CAI packages

• Lack of infrastructure

PowerPoint – presentation

PowerPoint is a presentation program developed by Microsoft. It is included in the standard

Office suite along with Microsoft Word and Excel. The software allows users to create anything
from basic slide shows to complex presentations.

PowerPoint is often used to create business presentations, but can also be used for
educational or informal purposes. The presentations are comprised of slides, which may contain
text, images, and other media, such as audio clips and movies. Sound effects and animated
transitions can also be included to add extra appeal to the presentation. Most PowerPoint
presentations are created from a template, which includes a background color or image, a
standard font, and a choice of several slide layouts. Changes to the template can be saved to a
"master slide," which stores the main slide theme used in the presentation. When changes are made
to the master slide, such as choosing a new background image, the changes are propagated to all
the other slides. This keeps a uniform look among all the slides in the presentation.

When presenting a PowerPoint presentation, the presenter may choose to have the slides
change at preset intervals or may decide to control the flow manually. This can be done using
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the mouse, keyboard, or a remote control. The flow of the presentation can be further customized
by having slides load completely or one bullet at a time. For example, if the presenter has several
bullet points on a page, he might have individual points appear when he clicks the mouse. This
allows more interactivity with the audience and brings greater focus to each point.

Power point is a just like the name says a powerful tool for learning. It is basically
electronic slides where a person can embed files such as texts, music, pictures; diagram etc. The
benefit is that you are engaging students not just through words, but also through visuals. Some
students learn better by hearing, but other students learn better by seeing. So, immediately you can
see the benefits of engaging students through the visual means. Also, it provides for some
excitement in that it breaks down the daily routine of lectures.

Advantages of using Power Point Presentation in Classroom

a. Quickly create legible presentation materials

b. “Democratizes” the communication process (anyone can do it)
c. Displays a logically organized flow of ideas or processes
i. Chronologically
ii. Order of importance or priority
iii. Item Inclusions in or Exclusions from larger sets
d. Acknowledges only a limited amount of information can be remembered
e. Creates entertaining attention grabbers
f. Allows inclusion of quotes, video, sound, animation, graphics, photos etc.
g. Easy to embed webpage links into slides
h. May better engage visual learners
i. Ultimately an “art form?”
j. May help overcome presentational jitters
k. Helps presenter keep focus
l. May help audience see what’s coming next
m. Helps to convey authority of presenter
n. Software is readily available for faculty and students alike
i. Easy to share materials back and forth via PowerPoint
o. Software represents “one-stop” shopping for several tools (chalk board, flip charts,
slide projectors, overhead projectors, audio/video players, and the internet)
p. Student presentations with PowerPoint can be easily saved for portfolio or other later
assessment
q. Allows for reinforcing, multi-channeled communication (see and hear, words and
pictures)
B. Disadvantages of Power Point Presentation

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 i.
Original purpose was to market products not educate
ii.
Why not view original sources and resources
iii.
Difficult to show more conceptual interrelationships
iv.Presenter-focused rather than student-focused
v.May be difficult to obtain student feedback
vi.May omit several types of educational exercises
1. Class discussions
2. Reasoning
3. Investigation
4. Questioning authority and/or evidence
vii. Low resolution makes some data displays problematic
viii. PowerPoint “bells and whistles” may distract from communication not
enhance it
ix. Students confuse the tool and its logistics with critical thinking and
communication
x. May cause students to “stop taking notes”
b. PowerPoint doesn’t really add anything that can’t already be done with other
applications – glorified chalkboard
c. May cause us to edit our information and ideas to conform to the tool.

Prezi presentation and its educational implications

On the educational scene, Prezi is fast becoming the new kid on the block. Prezi’s unique
slick “zooming” function offers an increasingly popular alternative to the traditional PowerPoint
presentations in education and business alike. Prezi is an online, Flash-based presentation creator
who shares similar functionalities with other information presentation programmes such as
Microsoft PowerPoint and Apple Keynotes. It is a visual learning tool which allows you to create
maps of texts, images, videos, graphics, etc… and present them in a nonlinear way. The menu for
adding elements has a very unique navigational approach and is easy to master.
Prezi’s most noticeable feature is its zoom in and out function which really brings your
message to life. Instead of “flicking” from one slide to the next – as you would do in your good
old PowerPoint presentation – Prezi gives you a chance to explore a canvas of ideas by focussing
on minute detail as well as allowing you to see the big picture. Instead of a slide show which offers
information in accumulation, Prezi favours visual learning and works very much like a graphic
organiser or a mind map. Therefore, it highlights the way concepts are interconnected.

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 In many classrooms these days it is fair to say that PowerPoint has become the default
setting for information to be communicated. As effective as it may be in presenting ideas to
students, overuse of PowerPoint tends to lead to disengagement, to that “not another PowerPoint”
feeling your learners (and yourself!) may experience at times... Prezi on the other hand has the
WOW factor.

Why prezi in education

Prezi creates stunning visual impact. Import pictures, maps and PDFs and use them as a canvas.
With the cinematic experience of the zooming function, your students will feel like they are
transported into a “world” that you have designed yourself.
Prezi is interactive whiteboard friendly. It allows you to create exciting and interactive
presentations with touch navigation.
Prezi offers more freedom of navigation. Your Prezi can be kept in the public domain and
therefore accessed by your students on the Internet. At home, they can navigate the Prezi
themselves, observe connections of ideas and visualise concepts.
Prezi is a great tool for interactive classroom sessions or group projects. Students can cooperate
in real time with up to ten others, in the classroom or at home, to brainstorm and build a
presentation on one shared virtual whiteboard.
If you already have all your notes in PowerPoint, you don’t need to start all over again. Use the
PowerPoint Import feature to transfer your existing content directly into your Prezi.
In addition to the benefits listed above, Prezi offers a free educational subscription (simply use an
email address that clearly belongs to your educational institution). The tutorials on the website
(www.prezi.com/learn) are clear and easy to follow.
5.3 Free and open source software

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified as both free
software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and
change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged
to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where
the software is under restrictive copyright licensing and the source code is usually hidden from the
users.
FOSS maintains the software user's civil liberty rights. Other benefits of using FOSS can
include decreased software costs, increased security and stability, protecting privacy, education,
and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free and open-source operating systems

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such as Linux and descendants of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions
of servers, desktops, smartphones (e.g. Android), and other devices. Free-software
licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. The free-software
movement and the open-source software movement are online social movements behind
widespread production and adoption of FOSS.
What is Free Software?
The word "Free" in "Free software" is related with liberty, not price. The free software movement
was started by Richard M. Stallman and GNU in 1984, later the Free Software Foundation was
founded.
Free software is defined by the offering of 4 basic freedoms:
• The freedom to run the program, for any purpose (freedom 0).
• The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your
needs (freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
• The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor
(freedom 2).
• The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements
to the public, so that the whole community benefits (freedom 3). Access to the source
code is a precondition for thi
What is Open Source?
The open source movement was started in the late 90s, and originated as part of a marketing
campaign for Free Software. It emphasize the technical and economical benefits of open source
code and open development, and care little or nothing at all about the ethical aspects. However
there is very little software acknowledged by the Open Source Initiative that is not also Free
Software, hence the term FOSS (Free and Open Source Software) is often used.

Open-source software is also called as OSS, which is a computer software program

designed and deployed with its source code made available and licensed with a free license in
which the copyright holder provides the rights to an anonymous entity for any purpose. People
using OSS can distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose because Open-source
software is very often developed in a public, collaborative manner. Open-source software is the
most prominent example of open-source development and often compared to (technically defined)
user-generated content or (legally defined) open-content movements.

The top Five reasons why individuals or organizations choose open source software are:
1) Lower cost,
2) Security,
3) No vendor ‘lock in’, and
4) Better quality
5) Transparency

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Benefits of Free and Open Source Software
These freedoms benefit users in many ways. Without access to the code and the right to
modify it and distribute it a distribution like open SUSE would not be possible at all.
Fix the software
These freedoms mean that you can fix bugs, which exist in all software, or you can change
the software to do what you need it to do, or even fix security issues. In the case of proprietary
software you can ask the provider to add functionality and fix bugs, and maybe they'll do it when
it suits them, maybe not.
Share
Free software enables you to share software and thus help your friends and neighbours
without you having to breach licenses.
Know and control what is going on
With proprietary software you can't know what a given program really does. Some very
well known proprietary software has been caught spying on users and sending information about
their behaviour and such. Proprietary software also has a tendency to include various digital
restrictions on what the user can do, when, for how long, etc. With free software it is possible to
access to the source code and can study what the program does and change it if one don't like it.
Technical benefits
Open source code makes it possible for more people to see the code and fix it; it can develop
faster and become better. This system of "peer review" can be compared to the way scientific
research works. In comparison proprietary code is kept secret and rarely seen by anybody outside
the company behind it.
Economic benefits
It's also a way in which companies can share development costs. For example Novell and
Red Hat are competitors yet they develop many of the same programs and thus help each other.
IBM and HP could also be seen as competitors yet they both contribute to the Linux kernel, etc.,
thus sharing development costs.
Free software makes a competitive market for support possible, potentially heightening the
quality of support. With proprietary software only the provider who has access to the source code
can realistically offer decent support, and thus has a kind of monopoly.
Two important free and open source software are GNU/Linux and Ubuntu.
(1) GNU/Linux
Just like Windows, iOS, and Mac OS, Linux is an operating system. In fact, one of the most
popular platforms on the planet, Android, is powered by the Linux operating system. An
operating system is software that manages all of the hardware resources associated with your

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 desktop or laptop. To put it simply, the operating system manages the communication between
your software and your hardware. Without the operating system (OS), the software wouldn’t
function.
• In Linux, Everything is treated as a file
• Availability many small commands for System Administration
• Ability to chain programs
• System configuration data is stored in text.
Properties of Linux
• Linux is free:
As in free beer, they say. If you want to spend absolutely nothing, you don't even have to pay
the price of a CD. Linux can be downloaded in its entirety from the Internet completely for free.
No registration fees, no costs per user, free updates, and freely available source code in case you
want to change the behavior of your system. .
• Linux is portable to any hardware platform
A vendor who wants to sell a new type of computer and who doesn't know what kind of OS
his new machine will run (say the CPU in your car or washing machine), can take a Linux kernel
and make it.
• Linux was made to keep on running
As with UNIX, a Linux system expects to run without rebooting all the time. That is why a lot
of tasks are being executed at night or scheduled automatically for other calm moments, resulting
in higher availability during busier periods and a more balanced use of the hardware. This property
allows for Linux to be applicable also in environments where people don't have the time or the
possibility to control their systems night and day.
• Linux is secure and versatile:
The security model used in Linux is based on the UNIX idea of security, which is known to be
robust and of proven quality. But Linux is not only fit for use as a fort against enemy attacks from
the Internet: it will adapt equally to other situations, utilizing the same high standards for security.
Your development machine or control station will be as secure as your firewall.
• Linux is scalable:
From a Palmtop with 2 MB of memory to a peta byte storage cluster with hundreds of nodes:
add or remove the appropriate packages and Linux fits all.
(2) Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a Debian- based Linux operating system and distribution, with unity as its default
desktop environment for personal computers including smart phones in later versions. Ubuntu is
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one of the most powerful Linux operating system which is popular for its security. Recently its
latest version of Ubuntu operating system was launched that provides better user friendliness good
user experiences as compared to other operating systems. It does not require too much of technical
skills to work on it as the previous versions of Linux OS. Ubuntu can easily installed with some
other operating systems too. Ubuntu also runs network servers. It is based on free software and
named after the South African Philosophy of Ubuntu which is often translated as “humanity
towards others” or “the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity”. Ubuntu
is built on Debians architecture and infrastructure to provide Linux server, Desktop, phone, Tablet
and TV operating systems. Ubuntu releases updated versions predictably- every six months- and
each release receives free support for nine months with security fixes, high impact bug fixes and
conservative substantially beneficial low risk bug fixes. The first release was in October 2004.
Ubuntu divides most software into four domains to reflect differences in licensing and the
degree of support available. Some unsupported applications receive updates from community
members, but not from canonical Ltd. Free software includes software that has met the Ubuntu
licensing requirements, which roughly correspond to the Debian Free software guidelines. Non
free software is usually unsupported, but some exceptions are made for important non free
software. Supported non free software includes device drivers that can be used to run Ubuntu on
some current hardware, such as binary- only graphics card drivers. The level of support in the
restricted category is more limited than that of main, because the developers may not have access
to the source code. It is intended that Main and restricted should contain all software needed for a
complete desktop environment.
Features
A default installation of Ubuntu contains a wide range of software that includes LibreOffice,
Firefox, Thunderbird, Transmission, and several lightweight games such as Sudoku and chess.
Many additional software packages , including titles no longer in the default installation such as
Evolution, GIMP, Pidgin, and synaptic are accessible from the built in Ubuntu software centre as
well as any other APT based package management tool. Execution of Microsoft office and other
Microsoft windows applications can be facilitated via the wine compatibility package or through
the use of a virtual machine such as virtual BOX or VMware workstation.
Advantages of using Ubuntu operating system
• Ubuntu is one of the most secured operating system and defines the highest level of security
as compared other operating system.
• Ubuntu is an open source OS.
• Ubuntu is most popular Linux OS.
• Most of the softwares in Ubuntu are pre-installed to enhance user experience.
• It is available free of cost.
• 1GHz x 86 processor.
• 512 MB Ram.

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 • 5 GB space must be free on hard drive.
• Graphic card with 800 x 600 resolution.
• USB port or DVD drives for media installation.
Disadvantages of Ubuntu OS
Though the operating system is powerful and had improved the user experience, but still it
carry strong lags that must be taken into consideration before using this OS.
• Ubuntu is very conventional to new technologies.
• It is very perspective to faults in hardware which make it less steady as compared to other
operating systems.
• There is a little Hardware support for Ubuntu OS. Some of the users complain that it
becomes difficult to configure modem to start work on internet.
• Ubuntu is not capable of playing MP3 files by default.
• The forum support for Ubuntu is really very poor.
• The installation of Ubuntu is one of the major problems. It does not come installed in
modern PCs.
Educational Softwares
Educational software is computer software, the primary purpose of which is teaching or
self learning. Educational software refers to software that can be used by teachers and students to
support teaching and learning. Educational software is essential in any learning environment to
allow teachers and students maximize the power of the computer. There are hundreds of
educational software titles available on the market but not all are suitable for use in school.
This software can also enable students to gather information that otherwise would have
been impossible, time-consuming or costly. For instance, data from outer space can now be
utilized. Students can also experiment with the changing aspects of a model like increasing or
lowering interest rates in order to see how this affects the economy. All of this can be very
motivational for students and these are just some of the numerous advantages of educational
software.
Main advantages
• Interactive software for preschool children who aren’t ready to use a mouse or keyboard
quite yet.
• Educational software for teaching academic skills such as math.
• Programs that will teach children basic keyboarding skills.
• Software that teaches children how to think logically and to solve problems.
• Artistic software that your child can use to create and color 3D pictures. These can usually
be printed out
• Children control their own learning experience, the pace at which they learn and how
challenged they are.

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 • Computers help children to use all of their senses to extract information.
• Children learn through creating and utilizing hands-on knowledge.
• Computers help children develop a positive attitude towards technology.
• Computers are beneficial in developing children’s fundamental skills (i.e. letters, numbers,
colors, shapes, rhythm, cause and effect, problem solving, procedural thinking, creativity).
• Computers are really beneficial to children who have speech, audio or motor limitations
because they act as a patient tutor allowing the child to learn at his own pace.
• Computers can teach self-confidence and self-esteem.
• Computers can teach social skills.
Main Disadvantages
• Software needs to be carefully chosen in order to ensure that what is holding your child’s
attention is also educating them at the same time.
• Some software doesn’t make it obvious that it has no educational value.
• It is rare to find a school that has enough computers for every student, thus scheduling
can become problematic.
• It is difficult to get a student’s attention whenever they are on the computer.
• Muscular-skeletal injuries and vision problems can arise whenever students spend too
much time using the computer.
List of Some educational softwares
• Geogebra
• Amiglobe
• Stellarium
• Math Blaster
• Wikipedia
• Celestia
• NASA world wind

5.4 E-Learning
I. Concept, Nature and Definition
E-Learning is learning utilizing electronic technologies to access educational curriculum
outside of a traditional classroom. It refers to the use of internet or wireless technologies to deliver
a broad array of training solutions. E-learners access the learning from a computer via the internet
or an intranet, or through a handled device like a palm pilot. In 2001, Marc Rosenberg suggested
the following definition of e-learning: “the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of
solutions that enhance knowledge and performance”. In less than two short years this definition

16
 has expanded to include wireless as well as internet technologies with the two technologies often
working together to delivery focused learning to the job-site.
A learning system based on formalised teaching but with the help of electronic resources
is known as E-learning. While teaching can be based in or out of the classrooms, the use of
computers and the Internet forms the major component of E-learning. E-learning can also be
termed as a network enabled transfer of skills and knowledge, and the delivery of education is
made to a large number of recipients at the same or different times. Earlier, it was not accepted
wholeheartedly as it was assumed that this system lacked the human element required in learning.

E-learning can be asynchronous (meaning learners are experiencing the learning at

different times) or synchronous (meaning learners are experiencing the learning are experiencing
the learning at the same time) or it can incorporate both drawing on the strengths of each.
Independent learning is, by definition, asynchronous. Facilitated and collaborative can be either
asynchronous or synchronous.
Modes of e-learning
• Web-based learning.
• Computer-based Learning
• CD-ROM based learning
• Webinars
• Virtual Classroom
• Mobile Learning
• Video-based Learning
• Custom E-Learning
• On-line Learning
• Simulation
Characteristics of E-Learning
• E-learning is learning primarily based on the Internet.
• Information is disseminated in the form of courses available on the network.
• It is possible a worldwide distribution and sharing of learning resources.
• It created a virtual learning environment.
• E-learning is one of the methods of study
• Learning is flexible (anytime, anywhere).
Benefits of E-learning
✓ A student can take credit-bearing courses without ever entering a classroom. The course
can be taken and followed by a test via Internet .
✓ News groups allows teachers and students to ask questions , request advice and share
information .

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 ✓ E-learning provides access to any digital library .
✓ Greater variety of information.
✓ Immediate access to different content.
✓ Facility for repetition.
✓ Any member of students can enroll.
✓ No need for buildings, classrooms, hostels etc.
✓ No delays in examination and results.
✓ Flexibility to add new subjects.
✓ No restriction of time and place of learning.
✓ No bar on caste and creed.
E-resources
E-resources are short term for Electronic Resources or electronic information resources.
These are collections of information in electronic or digital format that are accessed on an
electronic device, such as a mobile phone, computer, etc. These are published resources in
electronic versions/format such as encyclopedias, pamphlets, e-books, e-journals, databases etc.
Advantages of using e-resources
• Easy information retrieval.
• Ability to do full text search across a huge number of resources in one go
• Ability to download, print, or send the desired document instantly (easily manipulate data
to suit your need as long as you acknowledge source. i.e. can cut/paste/undo/redo)
• Ease to skim and search through.
• Currency, quality and timeliness of the information
• Convenience of accessing articles any time from your own computer/Home/anywhere
• Ability to link directly to additional resources or related content
• Ability to create personal collections i.e. favorites, bookmark, etc
• Comprehensive (wider range and organized access to high quality information),
convenient, diverse, current, time saving and accessible to many users concurrently from
anywhere, anytime, whether or not the physical library is open.
• Because they provide a wider range and organized access to high quality information they
have brought about innovations in teaching, learning, and research at all levels of
education in universities i.e. from undergraduate through postgraduate and beyond.
E- resources
E-materials are materials to aid in the acquisition and development of knowledge by using
electronic technologies. E-materials consist of journals, books, dictionaries, reference books,

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 reference databases of articles, digital library, e-governance. E-materials are portable. We can carry a
whole library of hundreds of books with you, on CD, in a laptop, notebook or any e-book reader,
without worrying about their weight. With today's technology you can use e-materials everywhere, on
the bus, train, airplane, and while standing in line.
E-textbook
A digital textbook is a digital book or e-book intended to serve as the text for a class. Digital
textbooks may also be known as e-textbooks or e-texts. Digital textbooks are a major component of
technology-based education reform.
Advantages:
➢ E-books are portable
➢ E-books take up less space
➢ E-books are searchable.
➢ E-books can be printable,
➢ Fonts in e-books can be resized,
➢ E-books are very easy to sell and distribute.
➢ E-books promote reading
➢ E-books are good for the environment.
➢ E-books, faster to produce than paper books
➢ E-books are cheaper to produce.
E-books normally include dictionaries, and additional language dictionaries may be added.

Disadvantages:
• E-Book Readers can cost money.
• Programs need to be compatible with the computer or device.
• Not all book formats are compatible with the reader.
• E-Book Readers require power.
• E-Books can cause eyestrain
• E-books do not have a defined life.
• E-Books can be hacked.

Electronic journals
Electronic journals, also known as e-journals, and electronic serials, are scholarly journals
or intellectual magazines that can be accessed via electronic transmission. An electronic journal is a
periodical publication which is published in electronic format, usually on the Internet.

Electronic journals have several advantages over traditional printed journals:

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 1. You can search the contents pages and/or the full text of journals to find articles on a certain
subject.
2. You can read journal articles on your desktop, you don't have to be in the Library.
3. You can e-mail articles to yourself or download them for printing.
4. The article that you want to read will always be available, even when the Library is closed.
5. Hypertext links allow you to move to different sections within individual journals or
articles and can link you to related resources on the Internet.
6. Journals can include more images and audio-visual materials
7. Journals can be interactive - you can e-mail the author or editor with your comments.
Digital library
Digital libraries are a set of electronic resources and associated technical capabilities for
creating, searching and using information. In this sense they are an extension and enhancement of
information storage and retrieval systems that manipulate digital data in any medium (text, images,
sounds; static or dynamic images) and exist in distributed networks.
A Digital Library is a special library with a focused collection of digital objects that
can include text visual material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats
(as opposed to print, microform, or other media), along with means for organizing, storing, and
retrieving the files and media contained in the library collection.
Electronic libraries are the storehouse of knowledge as they maintain the book and other
knowledge resource available - mostly in printed form. However, with the advent of digital
technology and Internet connectivity, the library scenario is changing fast. Digital technology,
Internet connectivity and physical content can be dovetailed resulting in Digital Library. Data
available in physical form has been preserved digitally in Digital Library. Digital Libraries have
the ability to enhance access to information and knowledge. They also Bridge barriers of time and
space.
e-content
e-content means electronic content. It is also known as digital content.
Digital content can be transmitted over a computer network such as the Internet. Over the last decade, e-
learning has grown into a significant component of educational pedagogy worldwide. E-learning has
been promoted as being more cost effective and convenient, while increasing opportunities for life-long
learning.
In this knowledge explosion trend, production of creative contents and incorporating innovative
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for effective dissemination of such contents play a
vital role. To develop a knowledge society, integrating ICT at all levels of education is essential.
5.5 Web-based learning
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 Web-based learning is one way to learn, using web-based technologies or tools in a learning
process. In other words, learner uses mainly computers to interact with the teacher, other students
and learning material. Web-based learning consists of technology that supports traditional
classroom training and online learning environments.
Web-based learning can be also formal or informal. Formal web-based learning is
purposed and learning activities are organised by teachers. Informal learning takes place while you
are searching material from the Internet. It is self-paced, depending on your goals and ambition to
learn.
E-learning, Web-based learning, online learning, and distance learning are widely used as
interchangeable term.
Assessments are carried out mainly by tutors or computer. In web-based learning also self-
and peer assessment have become popular ways of evaluating students' progress.
Web-based learning assumes different learning tools compared to classroom learning.
Modern technology (computers, CD, audio, video, PDA, mobile) is used to create suitable learning
environments, disseminate information and carry out various learning activities.
Motivated and independent learners will handle web-based learning better. Knowledge and
skills related to the use of computers and their devices are also prerequisites for successful web-
based learning.
Merits and Demerits
As same as e-learning
Online learning
Online learning is an education in which instruction and content are delivered primarily
over the internet. The term does not include printed-based correspondence education, broadcast
television or radio, videos, and stand-alone educational software programs that do not have a
significant internet-based instructional component.
Approaches to online learning
Two approaches to online learning have emerged. Synchronous and asynchronous learning .
Synchronous learning is instruction and collaboration in “real time” via the internet. It typically
involves tools, such as:
• Live chat
• Audio and video conferencing
• Data and application sharing
• Shared whiteboard
• Virtual “hand raising”
• Joint viewing of multimedia presentations and online slide shows

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Asynchronous learning methods use the time delayed capabilities of the internet. It typically
involves tools such as:
• E-mail
• Threaded discussions
• Newsgroups and bulletin boards
• File attachments
Asynchronous courses are still instructor-facilitated but are not conducted in real time. Which
means that students and teacher can engage in course-related activities at their convenience rather
than during specifically coordinated class sessions .in asynchronous courses , learning does not
need to be scheduled in the same way as synchronous learning , allowing students and instructors
the benefits of anytime, anywhere.
There are several distinct advantages and disadvantages of designing, developing, and
delivering web based training. By carefully weighing your audience and training content against
this list of advantages and disadvantages, you should be able to better judge if what you have in
mind is right for web dissemination
Advantages
1. Extendibility, accessibility, and suitability- users can proceed through a training
program at their own pace and their own place.
2. Collaborative and exploratory learning environments.
3. Easy and affordable training delivery
4. In expensive worldwide distribution- No separate or distinct distribution
mechanism is needed.
5. Ease of content update
6. Travel cost and time
Disadvantages
Bandwidth /browser limitations may restrict instructional methodologies
Time required for downloading application
Student assessment and feedback limited
Web-based training has high-fixed costs
Are computers replacing human contact...?
Virtual learning
A virtual classroom is a teaching and learning environment where participants can
interact, communicate, view and discuss presentations, and engage with learning resources while
working in groups, all in an online setting. The medium is often through a video conferencing
application that allows multiple users to be connected at the same time through the Internet,
which allows users from virtually anywhere to participate.

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 A virtual classroom is an online classroom that allows participants to communicate with
one another, view presentations or videos, interact with other participants, and engage with
resources in work groups.

A virtual classroom is also known as a virtual learning environment (VLE)

Characteristics of virtual learning

Mobile Accessibility
Even a few years ago, having a mobile-optimized virtual classroom wouldn’t have been a
requirement. But times have changed, and if your learners can’t access your course from their
mobile devices, both of you are missing out. Mobile accessibility allows your learners greater
flexibility in where and how they learn—and that benefits you as much as them, because it
means they have more opportunities to engage with your materials.
Collaborative
Virtual learners are working with each other more than ever before. They’re chatting in forums,
teaming up on group projects, and competing for high scores on leaderboard. In some cases,
these experiences are the new defining feature of online courses. Learners have come to view
them less as digital transpositions of physical classrooms, and more as places where they build
relationships with fellow learners over shared interests.
Interactive
One of the defining characteristics distinguishing virtual learning environments from typical
classrooms is the flexibility of the way lessons are delivered. In traditional learning, learners sit
in a classroom, listening to a lecture and taking notes. But online classrooms give learners
greater freedom to engage with the material creatively—and for the course content to adapt and
respond based on their inputs.
Omni-synchronous
In the past, we’ve talked about both synchronous (real-time) and asynchronous learning.
Traditional learning tends to by synchronous, meaning the learners and instructors need to be in
the same place (such as a classroom) for the lesson to take place. Asynchronous communication
means the instructor can post a lesson at one time, and learners can complete it whenever it is
most convenient for their schedule.
Experimental
Virtual classrooms offer new ways for educators to deliver inspiring, engrossing, and effective
learning content. In turn, learners interact with lessons in new ways, showing what works and
what doesn’t in the field of online education.
Non-Restricting

A virtual classroom allows both learners and instructors around the world to participate in live
classes to collaborate and interact. MOOC programs like Coursera are a great example of this
concept in action.
Affordable

The low costs of virtual classrooms are considered to be a major advantage. Learners can save
money by not having to worry about travel expenses. Participants also save time since all that is
needed is an internet connection.

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Flexible Learning

Online classes also allow for the ability to record class as it happens, including any presentation
audio and visuals. This means that the content is accessible even after being delivered, an added
benefit for those who want a quick refresher, or perhaps did not fully understand the first time.
Practical and Proven

Synchronous learning is a learning environment where everyone takes part in the learning at the
same time. A traditional lecture is an example of this type of learning, and has been used for
hundreds of years. Online learning enables this same type of experience, but with far more
conveniences and tools.
Accessible

Virtual classrooms can be used to deliver lectures, or even tutorials online. They are also great
options for impromptu meetings and group projects where members need to check-in on progress
and bounce ideas of one-another. With the virtual environment, ideas and collaborators are never
far away.
Online Labs/ Virtual Labs

The Virtual Laboratory is an interactive environment for creating and conducting simulated
experiments: a playground for experimentation. It consists of domain-dependent simulation
programs, experimental units called objects that encompass data files, tools that operate on these
objects.

Salient Features
1. Anytime anywhere lab
2. Virtual lab is free to use
3. Free of expenses and risk
4. Accessible through internet
5. Accessible through mobile phone
6. Developed in self learning mode
7. Innovative experimentation
Objectives of Online Labs
1. To provide remote access labs in various disciplines of science and
engineering
2. To cater the needs of students at various levels and from different places.
3. To enable the students to learn at their own pace and to arouse their curiosity
4. To provide a complete learning management system that includes web
resources, video lectures, animated demonstrations and self evaluation

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MOOC
Technology and globalization have increased accessibility to higher education. However,
with the increased number of opportunities come uncertainties. In recent years, the concept of
online or distance learning has expanded to include a growing number of Massive Online Open
Courses (MOOCs), free higher education courses open for enrolment for any Internet user.
MOOCs are a recent trend in distance learning promoted by several prestigious universities.
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are free and open online courses offered by some
of the country’s leading universities and institutions including Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), and Stanford. In recent years, there have been a growing number of MOOCs
on the Internet. Accessibility, student engagement, and experiences for lifelong learning are
recognized as the advantages of MOOCs. Additionally, challenges are discussed regarding
individual instruction, student performance assessment, and long-term administration and
oversight.
MOOCs are built on the characteristics of massiveness, openness, and a connectivist
philosophy. McAuley, Stewart, Siemens, and Cormier (2010) explained that MOOCs use
strategies similar to social networking to connect the masses but with the added benefits of subject
matter experts to facilitate the content and to coordinate a vast array of free, online materials.
Students also have the opportunity to engage with others throughout the world with some
organizing sub-groups specific to their learning goals and interests. MOOCs easily accommodate
large numbers of students.
The software used, the curriculum, the sources of information, the assessment processes,
the learners are open to a range of different learning environments and registration is also open to
anyone. Some of the areas in which MOOCs have been the most beneficial include increased
options for accessibility, increased potential for student engagement, and expanded lifelong
learning opportunities. MOOCs bring a new perspective to traditional education but are still in the
infancy stage. It seems that institutions, as a whole, might be apprehensive about MOOCs as they
relate to access, affordability, and student success.
SWAYAM
SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active–Learning for Young Aspiring Minds) is a programme
initiated by Government of India and designed to achieve the three cardinal principles of Education
Policy viz., access, equity and quality. The objective of this effort is to take the best teaching
learning resources to all, including the most disadvantaged. SWAYAM seeks to bridge the digital
divide for students who have remained untouched by the digital revolution and have not been able
to join the mainstream of the knowledge economy. This is done through an indigenous developed
IT platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses taught in classrooms to be accessed by anyone,
anywhere at any time. All the courses are interactive, prepared by the best teachers in the country
and are available, free of cost to the residents in India.

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 SWAYAM platform is developed by Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD)
and NPTEL, IIT Madras with the help of Google Inc. and Persistent Systems Ltd. It would be
ultimately capable of hosting 2000 courses and 80000 hours of learning: covering school, under-
graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law and other professional courses.
SWAYAM offers…

• Courses that are taught in classrooms from 9th class till post-graduation.
• The courses hosted on SWAYAM is in 4 quadrants
➢ video lecture
➢ specially prepared reading material that can be downloaded/printed
➢ self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes and
➢ an online discussion forum for clearing the doubts.
• Categories of courses include - Engineering, Science, Humanities, Management, Language,
Mathematics, Arts and Recreation, Commerce, General, Library, Education.
• Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners.
• Students wanting certifications need to register and shall be offered a certificate on successful
completion of the course, with a little fee.
• At the end of each course, there will be an assessment of the student through proctored
examination and the marks/grades secured in this exam could be transferred to the academic
record of the students.

E- Communication
Communication using electronic media is known as electronic communication. Such
communication allows transmission of message or information using computer systems, fax
machine, e-mail, tele or video conferencing and satellite network. People can easily share
conversation, picture, image, sound, graphics, maps, interactive software and thousands of things
for the development of electronic communication. Due to electronic technology, jobs, working
locations and cultures are changing and therefore people can easily access to worldwide
communication without any physical movement.
According to L.C. Bovee “Electronic communication is the transmission of information
using advanced techniques such as computer moderns, facsimile machines, voice mail, electronic
mail, teleconferencing, video cassettes, and private television”
Advantages of Electronic Communication
1. Speedy transmission: It requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media
because it supports quick transmission.
2. Wide coverage: World has become a global village and communication around the globe
requires a second only.

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3. Low cost: Electronic communication saves time and money. For example Text sms is cheaper
than traditional letter.
4. Exchange of feedback: Electronic communication allows instant exchange of feedback. So
communication becomes perfect using electronic media.
5. Managing global operation: Due to advancement of electronic media, business managers can
easily control operation across the globe. Video or teleconferencing e-mail and mobile
communication are helping managers in this regard.
Disadvantages of Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is not free from the below limitations:
1. Volume of data: The volume of telecommunication information is increasing in such a fast
rate that business people are unable to absorb it within relevant time limit.
2. Cost of development: Electronic communication requires huge investment for infrastructural
development. Frequent change in technology also demands for further investment.
3. Legal status: Data or information, if faxed, may be distorted and will cause zero value in the
eye of law.
4. Undelivered data: Data may not be retrieved due to system error or fault with the technology.
Hence required service will be delayed

5. Dependency: Technology is changing everyday and therefore poor countries face problem as
they cannot afford new or advanced technology. Therefore poor countries need to be dependent
towards developed countries for sharing global network.
I: Forum/Discussion forum
It is a shared area where users post messages called "posts" to be viewed by others. It's similar to
an email mailing list except the posts do not come into your email inbox they are stored in one
location and you typically need to go to the forum/board to read or contribute. Some tools allow
you to subscribe to a forum in order to receive copies of new messages by email.
Discussion forums provide an online message board that can be used for a variety of purposes:
• Online discussions - either started online or continuing from face-to-face discussions
• Announcements and news
• Support - either from the tutor or from peers
II: Blogs
A blog (a truncation of the expression weblog) is a discussion or informational site
published on the World Wide Web and consisting of discrete entries ("posts") typically displayed
in reverse chronological order (the most recent post appears first). Until 2009 blogs were usually
the work of a single individual, occasionally of a small group, and often covered a single subject.
More recently "multi-author blogs" (MABs) have developed, with posts written by large numbers
of authors and professionally edited. MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities,
think tanks, advocacy groups and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog

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traffic. The rise of Twitter and other "micro blogging" systems helps integrate MABs and single-
author blogs into societal new streams. Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or
add content to a blog. The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the
advent of web publishing tools that facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users.
(Previously, knowledge of such technologies as HTML and FTP had been required to publish
content on the Web.)
A majority is interactive; allowing visitors to leave comments and even message each other
via GUI widgets on the blogs, and it is this interactivity that distinguishes them from other static
websites. In that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of social networking service. Indeed,
bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, but also build social relations with
their readers and other bloggers. However, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow
comments, such as Daring Fireball.
Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject; others function as more personal
online diaries; others function more as online brand advertising of a particular individual or
company. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other
media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an
important contribution to the popularity of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although
some focus on art (art blogs), photographs (photo blogs), videos (video blogs or "vlogs"), music
(MP3 blogs), and audio (podcasts). Micro blogging is another type of blogging, featuring very
short posts. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources. These blogs are referred to
as edu blogs.
On 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20
February 2014, there were around 172 million Tumblr and 75.8 million Word Press blogs in
existence worldwide. According to critics and other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging
service used today, however Blogger does not offer public statistics. Technorati has 1.3 million
blogs as of February 22, 2014
Advantages of blog
• They are a free way for you to write and express your knowledge and thought about areas
of interest.
• Are dynamic. They can be updated at any time with corrections and the latest updates.
• It’s a two-way communication tool (for most blogs). Readers are able to add comments to
individual posts (this is up to the blog host – comments can also be turned off or
moderated).
• You can get it in many different ways—e-mail, RSS feed and other social networks. The
method is up to the reader, not the writer.
• Anyone can read the content on the blog. It’s searchable in search engines.

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 • No content is lost when you view on an Internet-capable phone. Since receiving e-mail on
a smart phone requires an Internet connection, you’ll be able to view the blog (a webpage,
essentially) from your mobile browser.
• There’s no permanent deletion. All of the past content is still viewable (in case you missed
it, or if you want to read it again).
• You can search for other relevant content by clicking on categories and tags, or using the
search bar.
Disadvantages of blog
• Blogging infringes privacy
• Undermines communication between people
• Brings a negative effect on our studies
• Reduces the amount of time spent with our family and friends
• Sometimes this lead to big frustration
III. Bulletin boards/ Electronic Bulletin Boards
Electronic bulletin boards (also known as message boards) are online communication
systems where one can share, request, or discuss information on just about any subject. E-mail is
a way to converse privately with one or more people over the Internet; electronic bulletin boards
are public. Any visitor to a message board can read and respond to any message found there,
although registration of some kind is usually required before "posting" privileges are granted. A
large collection of electronic bulletin boards is known as a newsgroup. Thousands of newsgroups
populate the Internet, each dedicated to a single topic.
Participation in bulletin boards messaging is simple. Any person can start a discussion on
a topic and then wait for replies. The initial message alone—and others responding to it, if any—
constitute a "thread." Some threads continue on for days or weeks or months. Sometimes a poster
with a question or a statement, however, is completely ignored. The longer threads tend to find
people responding not only to the original post but to subsequent replies as well. The latecomer
who happens to hit on one of the items in a long thread may have to "unwind" the thread a long
ways back to learn what the initial impetus was all about.
Bulletin boards provide a genuine service to the public in that they create an open forum
for the discussion of issues and problems of the most diverse nature—but these discussions are
easily accessible because search engines will ultimately pinpoint threads of interest to the searcher.
Experts are similarly drawn to the BBs. Problems posed on a message board will draw answers
from knowledgeable individuals pleased to enlighten the puzzled. To be sure, the answers may not
always be correct—or, more likely, complete—but any flaw in a thread will tend to be corrected
by others eventually. The initial poster may, indeed, request more detail. The ultimate judge of the
received information, however, must be the individual asking the question or posing the problem.

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 On the downside, the accessibility of bulletin boards also attracts those merely seeking
stimulation and attention. Troublemakers delight in stirring up controversy, badmouthing everyone
and everything in "virtual" sight—and they do so from behind the handy "mask" of user names
(handles) which hide their actual identity. In response to such invasions by less-than-helpful
visitors, many BBs use editorial functions, some automated, to filter out unwanted material.
Spamming is also a bulletin board problem. Very active bulletin boards require massive computer
memory resources; for this reason older messages may be scrubbed from the system. BBs therefore
do not always serve archival reference purposes well.

Webinar
Webinar is the short form for Web- based seminar. It is a presentation, lecture,
workshop or seminar that is transmitted over the web using video conferencing software. A
webinar is a virtual lecture or training session presented live on the Internet. The session includes
PowerPoint presentation, handouts, video, interactive questions and answers. A key feature of a
Webinar is its interactive elements- the ability to give, receive and discuss information. Contrast
with Webcast, in which the data transmission is one way and does not allow interaction between
the presenter and the audience. Merriam-Webster defines Webinar as: “a live online educational
presentation during which participating viewers can submit questions and comments”.
Webinars are events which are completely online. This enables you to reach a large and
specific audience. Members of the target group participate live via a PC, Mac, tablet or smart
phone, wherever they are. And if they are unable to join the webinar live, they can watch the
recorded broadcast afterwards instead. Since webinar is a live meeting it can be a presentation,
discussion, demonstration, or instructional session. Participants can view documents and
applications via their computers, while shared audio allows for presentation and discussion.
Minitex webinars are typically limited to small groups and generally range between 30-90
minutes. Webinars are an efficient way to transmit and share information. Nonprofits use
webinars for a variety of purposes, including software training, sharing information about a new
product or service, or promoting a program. Moreover, new online tools are making it easy for
any organization or charity to host a webinar, even with limited technology expertise.
In general, there are three main players in a webinar: the organizer/facilitator, the
presenter or presenters, and assistants.
• Organizer/facilitator- The organizer is the person responsible for developing the
webinar topic, locating a speaker, marketing the event, setting up the registration, and
communicating with participants.
• Presenter(s) (also known as subject matter experts)- Ideally, presenters should
concentrate their efforts on preparing their demonstration and their PowerPoint slides.

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 • Assistants- Assistants can help by answering questions that the organizer and the
presenter don't have time for.
Webinar viewers are actively engaged; they ask questions and give feedback. Webinar
participants don't know the size of the audience or whether their colleagues, customers or
competitors are among the online listeners. Since webinars can be watched after the live
broadcast, time to time this enables one to increase the reach and impact of our message. Alive
seminar can be dynamic and interactive experience.
During a webinar, in which the audience views an audiovisual presentation on their
computers, opportunities for technical problems are virtually limitless. Body language is missing
from virtually every webinar. In a typical webinar, the viewer never sees the presenter. The
presenter provides voiceover while a facilitator transmits his deck of slides onto the viewer's
computer screen. The audience misses important nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, gestures
and facial expressions that add context and interest to the experience.
Learning management systems (LMS)
A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration,
documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of electronic educational technology (also
called e-learning) education courses or training programs.
LMS is the infrastructure that delivers and manages instructional content, identifies and
assesses individual and organizational learning or training goals, tracks the progress towards
meeting those goals, collects and presents data for supervising the learning process of the
organization as a whole. A Learning Management System delivers content but also handles
registering for courses, course administration, skills gap analysis, tracking, and reporting.
LMSs range from systems for managing training and educational records to software for
distributing online or blended/hybrid college courses over the Internet with features for online
collaboration. Colleges, universities, school districts, and schools use LMSs to deliver online
courses and augment on-campus courses. LMSs also act to augment the lessons the teacher is
giving in a brick and mortar environment not just replace them. Corporate training departments
use LMSs to deliver online training, as well as to automate record-keeping and employee
registration.
Advantages of an LMS
Like many information technology innovations from the past few decades, LMS software
is able to add a level of efficiency to companies’ learning systems, with a number of other benefits
emerging as well, such as:
• Easily adapting and reusing materials over time.
• More choices for creators of curriculum, such as method of delivery, design of materials,
and techniques for evaluation.

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 • Creating economies of scale that make it less costly for organizations to develop and
maintain content for which they used to rely on third parties.
• Improvements in professional development and evaluation, allowing companies to get
more value from human resources while empowering individuals with additional tools for
self-improvement.

Moodle
Moodle is a free and open- source software learning management system written in PHP
and distributed under the GNU General Public License. Developed on pedagogical principles,
Moodle is used for blended learning, distance education, flipped classroom and other e-learning
projects in schools, universities, workplaces and other sectors.
With customizable management features, it is used to create private websites with online courses
for educators and trainers to achieve learning goals. Moodle (acronym for modular object-
oriented dynamic learning environment) allows for extending and tailoring learning environments
using community sourced plugins.
Moodle was originally developed by Martin Dougiamas to help educators to create online
courses with a focus on interaction and collaborative construction of content, and it is in continual
evolution. The first version of Moodle was released on 20 August 2002. Nowadays the Moodle
Project is led and coordinated by Moodle HQ, an Australian company of 30 developers which is
financially supported by a network of sixty Moodle Partner service companies worldwide.
Moodle's development has also been assisted by the work of open-source programmers.
Moodle as a learning platform can enhance existing learning environments. As an E-
learning tool, Moodle has a wide range of standard and innovative featuressuch as calendar and
Grade book. Moodle is a leading virtual learning environment and can be used in many types of
environments such as education, training and development and in business settings.
Features of Moodle
Moodle was designed to support a collaborative and participative teaching and learning
environment. Because Moodle is an open-source system, local technologists have some ability to
customize it to meet new teaching and learning challenges. In addition to the tools/features
described in the introduction, Moodle allows instructors to:
• Extend capabilities for student collaboration, including student self- and peer- evaluation.
• Have greater flexibility due to Moodle being open source new features/feature requests can be
implemented more quickly
• Use Feedback Manager to efficiently provide feedback to essay-style questions in large classes
• Create activities based on a course wiki
• Use specialized features supporting foreign languages and symbolic mathematics

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 5.7 Flipped classroom
Flipped classroom
Flipped classroom is an instructional strategy and a type of blended learning that reverses
the traditional educational arrangement by delivering instructional content, often online, outside
of the classroom and moves activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered
homework, into the classroom. In a flipped classroom model, students watch online lectures,
collaborate in online discussions, or carry out research at home and engage in concepts in the
classroom with the guidance of the instructor
Traditional and Flipped teaching
In the traditional model of classroom instruction, the teacher is typically the central focus
of a lesson and the primary disseminator of information during the class period. The teacher
responds to questions while students defer directly to the teacher for guidance and feedback. In a
classroom with a radically traditional style of instruction, individual lessons may be didactic and
entirely content oriented. Student engagement in the traditional model may be limited to activities
in which students work independently or in small groups on an application task designed by the
teacher. Class discussions are typically centered on the teacher who controls the flow of the
conversation. Typically, this pattern of teaching also involves giving students the task of reading
from a textbook or practicing a concept by working on a problem set, for example, outside school.
The flipped classroom intentionally shifts instruction to a learner-centered model in which
class time is dedicated to exploring topics in greater depth and creating meaningful learning
opportunities, while educational technology such as online videos are employed to deliver content
outside of the classroom. In a flipped classroom content delivery may take a variety of forms.
Oftentimes video lessons prepared by the teacher or third parties are used as a content delivery
mechanism, though online collaborative discussions, digital research, or text readings may be
utilized as well.
Flipped classrooms also redefine in-class activities. In-class lessons accompanying flipped
classroom may include activity learning or more traditional homework problems, among other
practices, to engage students in the content. Class activities vary but may include: using math
manipulative and emerging mathematical technologies, in-depth laboratory experiments, original
document analysis, debate or speech presentation, current event discussions, peer reviewing,
project-based learning, and skill development or concept practice Because these types of active
learning allow for highly differentiated instruction, more time can be spent in class on higher-order
thinking skills such as problem-finding, collaboration, design and problem solving as students
tackle difficult problems, work in groups, research, and construct knowledge with the help of their
teacher and peers. Flipped classrooms have been implemented in both schools and colleges and
been found to have varying differences in the method of implementation.

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 As a result of this method, a teacher's interaction with students in a flipped classroom can
be more personalized and less didactic and students are actively involved in knowledge acquisition
and construction as they participate in and evaluate their learning.
History
Harvard professor Eric Mazur played a significant role in the development of concepts
influencing flipped teaching through the development of an instructional strategy.
In practice
Woodland Park High School chemistry teachers Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams
became driving forces in flipped teaching at the high school level when, in 2007, they recorded
their lectures and posted them online in order to accommodate students who missed their classes.
Bergmann and Sams note that one person cannot be credited with having invented the inverted or
flipped classroom. Furthermore they assert that there is no one 'right' way to flip a classroom as
approaches and teaching styles are diverse, as are needs of schools.
Flipped Mastery
In traditional schools, each topic in class receives a fixed amount of time for all students.
Flipped mastery classrooms apply a mastery learning model that requires each student to master a
topic before moving to the next one.
In a flipped mastery classroom, students view each lecture and work on each exercise or
project when they have mastered the precursors.
Flipped mastery eliminates two other out-of-class routines: daily lesson planning and
grading papers. The latter happens in class and in person. Replacing lectures with group and
individual activities increases in-class activity. Every student has something to do throughout the
class. In some classes, students choose how to demonstrate mastery - testing, writing, speaking,
debating and even designing a related game. It creates a different test for each student from a pool
of questions. Advocates claim that its efficiency allows most students to do a year’s work in much
less time. Advanced students work on independent projects while slower learners get more
personalized instruction. Some students might not get through the year’s material, but
demonstrated competence on the parts they did complete.
Limitations and Criticisms
Critics argue the flipped classroom model has some drawbacks for both students and
teachers.
For students there exists a ‘digital divide.’ Not all families are from the same socio-
economic background and thus access to computers or video-viewing technology outside of the
school environment is not possible for all students. This model of instruction may put undue
pressure on some families as they attempt to gain access to videos outside of school hours.

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 Additionally some students may struggle due to their developing personal responsibility.
In self-directed, home learning environment students who are not at the developmental stage
required to keep on-task with independent learning may fall rapidly behind their peers.
Others argue that the flipped classroom leads to increased computer time in an era where
adolescents already spend too much time in front of computer screens. Inverted models that rely
on computerized videos do contribute to this challenge, particularly if videos are long.
Additionally, flipped classrooms that rely on videos to deliver instruction suffer some of
the same challenges as traditional classrooms. Students may not learn best by listening to a lecture
and watching instructional videos at home is still representative of a more traditional form of
teaching. Critics argue a constructivist approach would be more beneficial.
Teachers may find challenges with this model as well. Increased preparation time is
initially likely as creating high quality videos requires teachers to contribute significant time and
effort outside of regular teaching responsibilities. Additional funding may also be required to
procure training for teachers to navigate computer technologies involved in the successful
implementation the inverted model.

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Cyber Ethics and Cyber Crime

According to Wikipedia Cyber ethics is the philosophic study of ethics pertaining to

computers encompassing user behavior and what computers are programmed to do, and how this
affects individuals and society. For years, various governments have enacted regulations while
organizations have defined policies about cyber ethics. But it is more than this. The explosion of
social networking and the universal sharing and posting of so much information online have
changed the way we communicate. We must ensure that users understand their responsibilities
for conducting themselves online. An important component of that is Cyber Ethics. Cyber Ethics
refers to the code of responsible behavior on the Internet.
There are many reasons behind cyber ethics. They become the warning issues for modern
universe. The most important issues are
1) Copyright.
2) Hacking.
3) Cyber bulling.
Copyright
Fundamentally, copyright is a law that gives ownership over the things one creates. Be it a
painting, a photograph, a poem or a novel, ie you created it, you own it and it’s the copyright law
itself that assures that ownership.
Hacking
While this term originally referred to a clever or expert programmer, it is now more
commonly used to refer to someone who can gain unauthorized access to other computers. A
hacker can "hack" his or her way through the security levels of a computer system or network.
Hacking is the one of the most dangerous cyber-crime. Its very common. By hacking anybody’s
account others can get their personal information. It hampered their privacy. Bad peoples use
others personal information for doing crime and harass someone. Facebook id hacking is very
common
Cyber Bullying
Cyber harassment is also known as online bullying. It has become increasingly common,
especially among teenagers. It’s the most sensitive cyber-crime. The warning thing is that this
type of crime increasing day by day. Specially the teenagers are suffering because they use
internet more and they and not enough couscous.

"Cyber ethics" refers to the code of responsible behavior on the Internet. Just as we are
taught to act responsibly in everyday life with lessons such as "Don't take what doesn't belong to
you" and "Do not harm others," we must act responsibly in the cyber world as well. The basic
rule is "Do not do something in cyberspace that you would consider wrong or illegal in everyday
life."
• Do not use rude or offensive language.
• Do not cyberbully.
• Do not plagiarize.
• Do not break into someone else's computer.
• Do not use someone else's password.
• Do not attempt to infect or in any way try to make someone else's unusable.
• Adhere to copyright restrictions when downloading material from the Internet, including
software, games, movies, or music.
• Don’t use rude or hateful language.
• Don’t call people names, lie about them, send dirty pictures.
• Don’t present out your email or IM address to people you don’t know either online or in person.
• Don’t copy or download pictures, video without permission.
• Don’t give personal information to others.
• Don’t log in your account at any public device.
• Don’t use third party apps.

Ethics for Technology Use in the Classroom

Technology brings ethical issues to the forefront long before students learn how to handle
real-life situations from an ethical standpoint. Children do not have much preparation for
cyberbullying and copyright issues.

1. Education and awareness about malware and virus

2. Explore appropriate and safe sites for learning and research
3. Be aware of copyright law, fair use act
4. Prevent cyberbullying
5. Careful use of personal information
6. Always give credit to original source
7. Try to avoid copy and paste from sites
8. Aware of plagiarism
9. Think before sharing uploading and downloading something

What is cybercrime?

Cyber-crime is criminal activity done using computers and the internet. It is considered to
be one of the fastest growing areas in crime. The speed convenience and anonymity that
technology offers now, has been of a benefit to criminals to commit a diverse range of criminal
activities.

In the past cyber-crime has been done by one person or a group of individuals, but an emerging
trend has changed that. Now organized crime syndicates and technology professionals
are working together using their resources and expertise to commit cyber-crimes. One of the most
prominent forms of cyber-crime is identity theft, where the internet is used to steal a person’s
personal information.

Cyber-crime includes downloading illegal music files to stealing millions of dollars from
online bank accounts. It also includes non-monetary offenses, such as creating and distributing
viruses on other computers or posting confidential information online. Some examples of cyber-
crimes are attacks against data & systems, distribution of inappropriate images of children and
email scams. The most serious threat to national and international security is the internet use by
terrorists. The FBI helps prevent cyber-crime and investigate crimes that have already been
committed. Using antivirus and spyware that blocks certain software helps prevent some cyber-
crimes, as well as being careful when entering your personal information online.

How to protect against cybercrime

Anyone using the internet should exercise some basic precautions. Here are some tips which help
to protect cybercrimes

1. Use a full-service internet security suite

2. Use strong passwords
3. Keep the software updated
4. Keep personal and private information locked down.
5. Keep up to date on major security measures
6. Take measures to help protect against identity theft
7. Know what to do if you become a victim