Biology

Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.

Niamh Gray-Wilson

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AUTHORS
Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other
Niamh Gray-Wilson
interactive content, visit www.ck12.org
CONTRIBUTOR
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.

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Contents www.ck12.org

Contents

1 Cell 1
1.1 The Cell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Discovery of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Cell Size and Shape - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Common Parts of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Cell Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7 Two Types of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 The Nucleus - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9 The Mitochondria - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Ribosomes - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.11 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.12 The Golgi Apparatus - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13 Vesicles and Vacuoles - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.14 Other Structures of Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15 Plant Cells - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.16 The Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2 Cell Cycle 58
2.1 Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2 Mitosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.3 Genetic Variation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.4 Meiosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.5 Significance of Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.6 Significance of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.7 Genetic Disorders - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3 Transport Mechanisms 90
3.1 The Cell Membrane: A Semi-Permeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2 Cell Transport - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Diffusion - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.4 Facilitated Diffusion - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 Osmosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.6 Active Transport - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.7 Exocytosis and Endocytosis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4 Biological Molecules 115

4.1 Biological Molecules (organic compounds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2 Carbohydrates - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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4.3 Lipids - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

4.4 Proteins - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.5 Enzymes and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.6 Nucleic Acids - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7 Chemical Reactions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.8 Solutions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.9 How Enzymes Speed Up the Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5 Energy Transformation 160

5.1 Energy Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2 Energy Carrying Molecules - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.3 Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Photosynthesis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5 The Photosynthesis Reaction - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.6 The Chloroplast - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.7 The Light Reactions - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.8 The Calvin Cycle - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.9 Chemosynthesis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.10 Cellular Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.11 Cellular Respiration Overview - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.12 Glycolysis - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.13 The Mitochondria in Cellular Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.14 The Krebs Cycle - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.15 The Electron Transport Chain - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.16 Anaerobic Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.17 Lactic Acid Fermentation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.18 Alcoholic Fermentation - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.19 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration - Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.20 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

C HAPTER
1 Cell
Chapter Outline
1.1 T HE C ELL T HEORY
1.2 C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.3 D ISCOVERY OF C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.4 C ELL S IZE AND S HAPE - A DVANCED
1.5 C OMMON PARTS OF C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.6 C ELL S TRUCTURES
1.7 T WO T YPES OF C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.8 T HE N UCLEUS - A DVANCED
1.9 T HE M ITOCHONDRIA - A DVANCED
1.10 R IBOSOMES - A DVANCED
1.11 E NDOPLASMIC R ETICULUM - A DVANCED
1.12 T HE G OLGI A PPARATUS - A DVANCED
1.13 V ESICLES AND VACUOLES - A DVANCED
1.14 OTHER S TRUCTURES OF C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.15 P LANT C ELLS - A DVANCED
1.16 T HE C YTOPLASM AND C YTOSKELETON - A DVANCED
1.17 R EFERENCES

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1.1. The Cell Theory www.ck12.org

1.1 The Cell Theory

Where do cells come from?

All cells come from other cells. It was the advent of the microscope that allowed this discovery to be made. And it is
one of the three basic points of the Cell Theory. This picture represents cell division, the process of one cell dividing
into two cells.

The Cell Theory

Over the next two centuries after the discoveries of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, biologists found cells everywhere.
Biologists in the early part of the 19th century suggested that all living things were made of cells, but the role of cells
as the primary building block of life was not discovered until 1839 when two German scientists, Theodor Schwann,
a zoologist, and Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a botanist, suggested that cells were the basic unit of structure and
function of all living things. Later, in 1858, the German doctor Rudolf Virchow observed that cells divide to produce
more cells. He proposed that all cells arise only from other cells. The collective observations of all three scientists
form the Cell Theory, which states that:

• all organisms are made up of one or more cells,

• all the life functions of an organism occur within cells,
• all cells come from preexisting cells.

Though no one point of the Cell Theory is more important than another, the theory clearly states that the functions
necessary for life occur in the cell. Findings since the time of the original Cell Theory have enabled scientists to
"modernize" the theory, including points related to biochemistry and molecular biology. The modern version of
the Cell Theory includes:

• all known living things are made up of one or more cells,

• all living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division,
• the cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms,

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

• the activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells,

• energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells,
• cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division,
• all cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

The Cell Theory is one of the main principles of biology. The points of the theory have been found to be true for all
life. As with any scientific theory, the Cell Theory is based on observations that over many years upheld the basic
conclusions of Schwann’s 1839 paper. However, one of Schwann’s original conclusions stated that cells formed in
a similar way to crystals. This observation, which refers to spontaneous generation of life, was discounted when
Virchow proposed that all cells arise only from other cells. The Cell Theory has withstood intense examination
of cells by modern powerful microscopes and other instruments. Scientists continue to use new techniques and
equipment to look into cells to discover additional explanations for how they work.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/157582

Summary

• The Cell Theory states that all living things are made of one or more cells, that cells are the basic unit of life,
and that cells come only from other cells.
• The Cell Theory has been updated to include findings based on more recent findings.

Review

1. What three things does the original Cell Theory propose?

2. Compare the modern Cell Theory to the original Cell Theory.
3. How has the theory developed?

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1.2. Cells - Advanced www.ck12.org

1.2 Cells - Advanced

• Describe the importance of cells to biology.

Why is a cell so complex?

Cells have lots of things to do. Some cells make the whole organism, so that one cell must do everything that
organism needs to do to live. Other cells perform specific functions, so they must be designed to do that specific
activity.

Introduction to Cells

The cell is the smallest unit of structure and function of all living organisms. A cell is also the smallest unit of life,
with single-celled organisms present on this planet for over 3.5 billion years. Single-celled (unicellular) organisms
like bacteria are obviously composed of just one cell, whereas multicellular organisms can be composed of trillions
of cells. Multicellular organisms include protists (though single-celled protists also exist), fungi, plants and animals.
Most plant and animal cells are between 1 and 100 µm and therefore can only be observed under the microscope.
The one cell of a unicellular organism must be able to perform all the functions necessary for life. These functions
include metabolism, homeostasis and reproduction. Specifically, these single cells must transport materials, obtain
and use energy, dispose of wastes, and continuously respond to their environment. The cells of a multicellular
organism also perform these functions, but they may do so in collaboration with other cells.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

Cells are essentially carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids in a water-based environment. It is the
lipid (phospholipid) membrane that keeps the water-based environment in the cell separate from the water-based
environment outside the cell. But a cell, even the single cell of a unicellular organism, must be able to interact with
its external environment. The cell must be able to bring molecules in from the outside, and expel unwanted waste
products. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is necessary to all of the biological sciences.
Learning about the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell biology
and molecular biology. Cell biology is the field of biology that studies cells. In particular, cell biologists study a cell’s
physiological properties, structure, organelles, interactions with the extracellular environment, life cycle, division
and death. Molecular biology concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a
cell, including the relationships between DNA, RNA and proteins.
Research in cell biology is closely linked to molecular biology, as well as genetics, biochemistry and developmental
biology. The importance of the similarities and differences between cell types is a unifying theme in biology. They
allow the principles learned from studying one cell type to be applied when learning about other cell types. For
example, learning about how single-celled bacteria function can help us understand more about how human cells
function. Understanding basic cellular processes, such as cell division or metabolism in bacteria, gives information
about similar processes in our cells.

Summary

• A cell is the smallest unit of structure and function of all living organisms.
• The understanding of cells is integral to other biological fields, including molecular biology, genetics, bio-
chemistry and developmental biology.

Review

1. What is a cell?
2. List some of the functions of a cell.
3. Describe the relationship between cell biology and molecular biology.

Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139336

1. Concerning cells, what does all life have in common?

2. How many cells are in the human body?
3. How big is a cell?
4. Each second, what is happening in your cells that keeps you alive?

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1.3. Discovery of Cells - Advanced www.ck12.org

1.3 Discovery of Cells - Advanced

• Identify the scientists that first observed cells.

• Describe the first cells identified.

What was needed to discover the cell?

The microscope of course. Objects that were too small to be seen with the human eye were unknown until the
microscope was developed. Once this instrument was developed, a whole new field of science was initiated.

Discovery of Cells

If you look at living organisms under a microscope you will see they are made up of cells. The word cell, derived
from the Latin word cellula meaning small compartment, was first used by Robert Hooke, a British biologist and
early microscopist. Hooke looked at thin slices of cork under a microscope. The structure he saw looked like
a honeycomb as it was made up of many tiny units. Hooke’s drawing is shown in Figure 1.1. In 1665 Hooke
published his book Micrographia, in which he wrote:
... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores
of it were not regular.... these pores, or cells, ... were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps,
that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this...

During the 1670s, the Dutch tradesman Antony van Leeuwenhoek, shown in Figure 1.2, used microscopes to observe
many microbes and body cells. Leeuwenhoek developed an interest in microscopy and ground his own lenses to

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

FIGURE 1.1
This figure is a drawing of the structure
of cork from Micrographia as it appeared
under the microscope to Robert Hooke.

make simple microscopes. Leeuwenhoek was so good at making lenses that his simple microscopes were able
to magnify much more clearly than the compound microscopes of his day. His microscope’s increased ability to
magnify over 200x is comparable to a modern compound light microscope. Compound microscopes, which are
microscopes that use more than one lens, had been invented around 1595 by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutch spectacle-
maker. Several people, including Robert Hooke, had built compound microscopes and were making important
discoveries with them during Leeuwenhoek’s time.
Fortunately, Leeuwenhoek took great care in writing detailed reports of what he saw under his microscope. He was
the first person to report observations of many microscopic organisms. Some of his discoveries included tiny animals
such as ciliates, foraminifera, roundworms, and rotifers, shown in Figure 1.3. He discovered blood cells and was
the first person to see living sperm cells. In 1683, Leeuwenhoek wrote to the Royal Society of London about his
observations on the plaque between his own teeth, "a little white matter, which is as thick as if ’twere batter." He
called the creatures he saw in the plaque animacules, or tiny animals. This report was among the first observations
on living bacteria ever recorded.

Summary

• Before the development of microscopes, the existence of cellular life was unknown.
• By examining a piece of cork, Robert Hooke first saw and named cells.
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to see living cells.

Review

1. Describe the contributions of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek to cell biology.

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1.3. Discovery of Cells - Advanced www.ck12.org

FIGURE 1.2
Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723).
His carefully crafted microscopes and in-
sightful observations of microbes led to
the title the "Father of Microscopy."

FIGURE 1.3
A rotifer, the microscopic organism
Leeuwenhoek saw under his microscope.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

2. What enabled Leeuwenhoek to observe things that nobody else had seen before?

Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139342

1. How did Hooke first observe cells?

2. What did Leeuwenhoek look at through his microscope?

9
1.4. Cell Size and Shape - Advanced www.ck12.org

1.4 Cell Size and Shape - Advanced

• Identify the limitations on cell size. Describe the relationship between volume and surface area.
• Discuss cell shape and its relationship to cell function.

What determines a cell’s function?

The cell’s structure has a lot to do with it. Notice in the representation of skin that there are different layers. These
layers have different functions. Also notice the difference in cell shape within the different layers. The structure-
function relationship is a central theme running throughout biology.

Diversity of Cells

Different cells within a single organism can come in a variety of sizes and shapes. They may not be very big, but
their shapes can be very different from each other. However, these cells all have common abilities, such as obtaining
and using food energy, responding to the external environment, and reproducing. In part, a cell’s shape determines
its function.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

Cell Size

If cells are the main structural and functional unit of an organism, why are they so small? And why are there no
organisms with huge cells? The answers to these questions lie in a cell’s need for fast, easy food. The need to be
able to pass nutrients and gases into and out of the cell sets a limit on how big cells can be. The larger a cell gets,
the more difficult it is for nutrients and gases to move in and out of the cell.
As a cell grows, its volume increases more quickly than its surface area. If a cell was to get very large, the small
surface area would not allow enough nutrients to enter the cell quickly enough for the cell’s needs. This idea is
explained in Figure 1.4. However, large cells have a way of dealing with some size challenges. Big cells, such
as some white blood cells, often grow more nuclei so that they can supply enough proteins and RNA for the cell’s
requirements. Large, metabolically active cells often have lots of cell protrusions, resulting in many folds throughout
the membrane. These folds increase the surface area available for transport of materials into or out of the cell. Such
cell types are found lining your small intestine, where they absorb nutrients from your food through protrusions
called microvilli.

Scale of Measurements
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm) = 10 2 meters (m)
• 1 mm = 1000 micrometers (µm) = 10 3 m
• 1 µm = 1000 nanometers (nm) = 10 6 m
• 1 nm = 10 3 µm

FIGURE 1.4
A small cell (left), has a larger surface-
area to volume ratio than a bigger cell
(center). The greater the surface-area to
volume ratio of a cell, the easier it is for
the cell to get rid of wastes and take in
essential materials such as oxygen and
nutrients. In this example, the large cell
has the same area as 27 small cells, but
much less surface area.

Imagine cells as little cube blocks. If a small cube cell like the one in Figure 1.4 is one unit (u) in length, then the
total surface area of this cell is calculated by the equation:

• height ⇥ width ⇥ number of sides ⇥ number of boxes

• 1u ⇥ 1u ⇥ 6 ⇥ 1 = 6u2

The volume of the cell is calculated by the equation:

• height ⇥ width ⇥ length ⇥ number of boxes

• 1u ⇥ 1u ⇥ 1u ⇥ 1 = 1u3

The surface-area to volume ratio is calculated by the equation:

• area ÷ volume

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1.4. Cell Size and Shape - Advanced www.ck12.org

• 6÷1=6

A larger cell that is 3 units in length would have a total surface area of

• 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 6 ⇥ 1 = 54u2

and a volume of:

• 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 1 = 27u3

The surface-area to volume ratio of the large cell is:

• 54 ÷ 27 = 2

Now, replace the three unit cell with enough one unit cells to equal the volume of the single three unit cell. This can
be done with 27 one unit cells. Find the total surface area of the 27 cells:

• 1u ⇥ 1u ⇥ 6 ⇥ 27 = 162u2

The total volume of the block of 27 cells is:

• 1 ⇥ 1 ⇥ 1 ⇥ 27 = 27u3

The surface-area to volume ratio of the 27 cells is:

• 162 ÷ 27 = 6

An increased surface area to volume ratio means increased exposure to the environment. This means that nutrients
and gases can move in and out of a small cell more easily than in and out of a larger cell.

FIGURE 1.5
Ostrich eggs (A) can weigh as much as
1.5 kg and be 13 cm in diameter, whereas
each of the mouse cells (B) shown at right
are each about 10 µm in diameter, much
smaller than the period at the end of this
sentence.

The cells you have learned about so far are much smaller than the period at the end of this sentence, so they are
normally measured on a very small scale. The smallest prokaryotic cell currently known has a diameter of only 400
nm. Eukaryotic cells normally range between 1- 100µm in diameter. The mouse cells in Figure 1.5 are about 10
µm in diameter. One exception, however, is eggs. Eggs contain the largest known single cell, and the ostrich egg is
the largest of them all. The ostrich egg in Figure 1.5 is over 10,000 times larger than the mouse cell.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

Cell Shape

The variety of cell shapes seen in prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the functions that each cell has, confirming
the structure-function relationship seen throughout biology. Each cell type has evolved a shape that is best related
to its function. For example, the neuron in Figure 1.6 has long, thin extensions (axons and dendrites) that reach
out to other nerve cells. The extensions help the neuron pass chemical and electrical messages quickly through the
body. The shape of the red blood cells (erythrocytes) enable these cells to easily move through capillaries. The
spikes on the pollen grain help it stick to a pollinating insect or animal so that it can be transferred to and pollinate
another flower. The long whip-like flagella (tails) of the algae Chlamydomonas help it swim in water.

FIGURE 1.6
Cells come in very different shapes. Left
to right, top row: Long, thin nerve cells;
biconcave red blood cells; curved-rod
shaped bacteria. Left to right, bottom
row: oval, flagellated algae and round,
spiky pollen grains are just a sample of
the many shapes.

Summary

• Cell size is limited by a cell’s surface area to volume ratio. A smaller cell is more effective and transporting
materials, including waste products, than a larger cell.
• Cells come in many different shapes. A cell’s function is determined, in part, by its shape.

Review

1. What limits the size of a cell? Why?

2. A cell has a volume of 64 units, and total surface area of 96 units. What is the cell’s surface area to volume
ratio?
3. What is the largest single cell?
4. Describe the relationship between cell shape and function? Give an example of cell shape influencing cell
function.

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1.4. Cell Size and Shape - Advanced www.ck12.org

Explore More

Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/139343

1. Describe the relationship between the cell surface area and cell membrane.
2. Why is a smaller volume of the cell better?
3. What are ways to "get around" the SA:V ratio?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

1.5 Common Parts of Cells - Advanced

• Identify the parts common to all cells.

What do your cells share with a bacterium?

This bacterial cell has the features all cells have in common-the ribosomes and DNA can be seen floating around in
the cytoplasm, which is surrounded by the plasma membrane.

Parts of a Cell

There are many different types of cells, but all cells fall into two general categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
These cells can be vastly different, but still similar in some ways. All cells, whether from a simple bacterium or a
cell from a large whale, have a few things in common. These are:

• a cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane)

• cytoplasm
• ribosomes
• DNA (genetic information)

The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) is the physical boundary between the intracellular space
(the inside of the cell) and the extracellular environment. It acts almost like the "skin" of the cell, controlling the

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1.5. Common Parts of Cells - Advanced www.ck12.org

movement of substances in and out of cells. The cell membrane is semi-permeable, allowing only select ions and
organic molecules to enter and/or leave the cell. The cell membrane consists of two layers of phospholipids (a lipid
bilayer) with embedded proteins which have numerous functions. More about the cell membrane will be discussed
in the The Plasma Membrane (Advanced) concepts.
Cytoplasm is the general term for all of the material inside the cell, excluding the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. All
the contents of a prokaryotic cell are contained within the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is made up of cytosol, a watery
fluid that contains cytoskeletal fragments, dissolved particles and organelles. Organelles are structures that carry
out specific functions inside the cell. It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many
metabolic pathways and processes such as cell division. More about the cytoplasm will be discussed in the Cell
Structures: The Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton (Advanced) concept.
Ribosomes are the organelles on which proteins are made during protein synthesis. Ribosomes are found through-
out the cytosol of the cell and attached to the endoplasmic reticulum organelle. Ribosomes order amino acids using
messenger RNA (mRNA) as a template in a process called translation. Ribosomes are made from complexes of
ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) and proteins called ribonucleoproteins. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits.
The smaller subunit binds to the mRNA pattern, while the larger subunit binds to the transfer RNA (tRNA) and the
growing polypeptide chain. More about the ribosome will be discussed in the Cell Structures: Ribosomes (Advanced)
concept.
All cells also have DNA. DNA contains the genetic information needed for building structures such as proteins and
RNA molecules in the cell.

Summary

• Parts common to all cells are the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material.

Review

1. What are the common parts of all cells?

2. What is one general feature of the plasma membrane?
3. What occurs on the ribosomes? What are the three types of RNAs?
4. What is the relationship between cytosol and cytoplasm?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

1.6 Cell Structures

What are cell structures?

The contents of the cell, or the structures of the cell, allow the cell to be "specialized." Together with the cell’s
proteins, they allow the cell to do specific things. They allow a cell to act like a neuron or a bone cell or a skin cell.

Introduction to Cellular Structures

The invention of the microscope opened up a previously unknown world. Before the invention of the microscope,
very little was known about what made up living things and non-living things, or where living things came from.
During the discovery of cells, spontaneous generation — the belief that living organisms grow directly from
decaying organic substances — was the accepted explanation for the appearance of small organisms. For example,
people accepted that mice spontaneously appeared in stored grain, and maggots formed in meat with no apparent
external influence. Once cells were discovered, the search for answers to such questions as "What are cells made
of?" and "What is the function of cells?" became the focus of study.

Cell Function

Cells share the same needs: the need to get energy from their environment, the need to respond to their environment,
and the need to reproduce. Cells must also be able to separate their relatively stable interior from the ever-changing
external environment. They do this by coordinating many processes that are carried out within organelles, or other

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1.6. Cell Structures www.ck12.org

FIGURE 1.7
The structure and contents of a typical
animal cell. Every animal cell has a cell
membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and a
nucleus, but not all cells have every struc-
ture shown here. For example, some cells
such as red blood cells do not have any
mitochondria, yet others such as muscle
cells may have thousands of mitochon-
dria.

cellular structures. Structures that are common to many different cells indicate the common history shared by cell-
based life. Examples of these common structures include the components of both the cell (or plasma) membrane
and the cytoskeleton, and other structures shown in Figure 1.7.
Is there a relationship between the cell structure and its function? Of course there is. The structure-function
relationship describes a pattern evident throughout biological systems. This relationship is evident in proteins
(protein structure determines its function), nucleic acids (nucleic acid structure results in a genetic code), anatomy
(longer necked giraffes are more functional than short neck giraffes), as well as cells. Using the human body as an
example, specialized cells perform many diverse functions, from digestion and excretion to message transmission
and oxygen distribution. The structure of each type of human cell depends on what function it will perform. This
structure-function relationship can be extended to all other organisms, from the largest whale to the smallest bacteria.
The variability between cell function is related to the proteins expressed in a particular type of cell. For example,
though they do have many proteins in common, a neuron is going to use select different proteins than muscle cell.
A direct relationship exists between the proteins expressed, the size and shape of every cell and the tasks it needs to
accomplish. Examples can easily be seen in red blood cells, neurons muscle cells and sperm cells.

• Red blood cells are flat, round, and very small. Their small size allows easy maneuverability through the
capillaries, the narrowest blood vessels, where oxygen is transferred into body cells.
• Neurons have a long, thin cellular extension, allowing for very quick and accurate communication and
responses. The long length allows a neuron to send electrical messages extremely quickly.
• Skeletal muscle cells have an arrangement of linear protein fibers. The elongated shape allows for muscle
contraction.
• Sperm cells are the only human cell with flagella. This is because of their need to "swim" long distances to
reach an egg for fertilization.

Summary

• A cell’s function is usually directly related to its structure; this is known as the structure-function relationship.
• The structure-function relationship is evident throughout biology.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Cell

Review

1. Describe the structure-function relationship of cells. Give two examples.

2. Discuss the role of proteins in the structure-function relationship of cells.

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