MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY Overview:
 The science of microbiology dates back only
MODULE 1 UNIT 1 –SCOPE OF
MICROBIOLOGY
Learning Objectives: At the end of the topic you
should be able
1. Discuss organisms that make up the
microbial world and the development of
microbiology
2. Brief History of Microbiology
3. Microorganisms
4. Division of Microbiology
5. Significance of Microbiology
6. Practical Application of Microbiology
Terminologies
Microbiology
 study of microorganisms, or microbes,
a diverse group of generally minute simple
life-forms that
include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protoz
oa, and viruses.
 The field is concerned with the structure,
function, and classification of such organisms
and with ways of both exploiting and
controlling their activities
Eukaryotes
 any cell or organism that possesses a
clearly defined nucleus has a nuclear
membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in
which the well-defined chromosomes (bodies
containing the hereditary material) are located.
Prokaryotes
 also spelled procaryote, any organism that
lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles
due to the absence of internal membranes
Parasitology
 Parasitology is the study of the interaction
between parasites and their hosts. In general,
parasitologists tend to concentrate on
eukaryotic parasites, such as lice, mites,
protozoa and worms, with prokaryotic
parasites and other infectious agents the
focusof fields such as bacteriology,
microbiology and virology
few hundred years, but the discovery of a 3000-
year-old mummies with Mycobacterium
tuberculosis reminds us that microorganisms
have been around much longer. We know little
about what ancient people thought about the
causes, transmission and treatment of disease,
history of hundred years back is better known.
Let’s look at some important development in the
field of microbiology that helped the field
improve to its current advanced-technology
status. As cited by Tortora, Gerald 9th edition;
 The 17th-century discovery of living forms
existing invisible to the naked eye was a
significant milestone in the history of science,
for from the 13th century onward it had been
postulated that “invisible” entities were
responsible for decay and disease.
 The word microbe was coined in the last
quarter of the 19th century to describe these
organisms, all of which were thought to be
related. As microbiology eventually developed
into a specialized science, it was found that
microbes are a very large group of extremely
diverse organisms.
 In addition to populating both the inner and
outer surfaces of the human body, microbes
abound in the soil, in the seas, and in the air.
 Abundant, although usually unnoticed,
microorganisms provide ample evidence of their
presence—sometimes unfavourably, as when
they cause decay of materials or spread
diseases, and sometimes favourably, as when
they ferment sugar to wine and beer, cause
bread to rise, flavour cheeses, and produce
valued products such as antibiotics and insulin.
 Microorganisms are of incalculable value to
Earth’s ecology, disintegrating animal and plant
remains and converting them to simpler
substances that can be recycled in other
organisms.
Brief History of Microbiology:
A. The First Observations – One of the most
important discoveries in the history happened in
1665 with the aid of a crude microscope. Robert
Hooke observed and reported that life’s
smallest structural units were “little boxes” or
“cells” as he named them. Hooke’s discovery
marked the beginning of the cell theory- which
states that all living things are made of cells.
Though Hooke’s microscope was capable of
focusing cells, it does not allow him to see the
microbes clearly as he lacked the staining
techniques.
It was probably Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, an
amateur scientist and a glass maker observed
the live microorganisms through magnifying
lenses. It is through his invented simple, single
lens microscope he was able to described the
“animalcules”.
B. Spontaneous Generation – After van
Leeuwenhoek’s discovery, the scientific
community became interested of the tiny living
things. Until the second half of the 19th century
they came to believed that some forms of life
could spontaneously arise from non-living
matter; thus they called the process
spontaneous generation.
An opponent of spontaneous generation,
Francesco Redi, John Needham and Lazzaro
Spallanzani firmly demonstrate that a “vital
force” in the air is responsible for the survival of
microorganism
C. Theory of Biogenesis - Unresolved issue
continues, until in 1858 when a German
scientist, Rudolf Virchow challenged
spontaneous generation with the concept of
biogenesis. The concept of biogenesis states
that living cells can arise only from pre-existing
living cells. Disagreements about spontaneous
generation continued until 1861, when Louis
Pasteur resolved the issue. With his perceptive
and weighty experiments, Pasteur denote that
microorganisms are present in the air and can
contaminate sterile solutions, but air itself does
not create microbe. This discovery leads to
form the basis of aseptic techniques. With
Pasteur’s exemplified evidence, scientists now
believe that probably a form of spontaneous
generation occurred on the primitive Earth
when life first began, but does not happen
under today’s environmental conditions.
D. Golden Age of Microbiology – After
Pasteur’s work, there was a roll of discoveries
in microbiology. The period from 1857 – 1914
has been marked as the Golden Age of
Microbiology. In this period, rapid advances
like discoveries of agents of many diseases,
role of immunity in the prevention and cure of
disease happened which led to the initiation of
microbiology as science spearheaded by
Pasteur and Robert Koch. During this
productive years, chemical activities of
microorganisms were studied, improved
microscopy and culturing techniques as well as
developing vaccines and surgical techniques.
Fermentation and Pasteurization
 This method were developed to prevent
spoilage of beverages and milk respectively
when shipped long distance and to kill
potentially harmful bacteria.
The Germ Theory of Disease
 The relationship between microorganisms to
humans as well with plants and animals in
terms of causing a disease.
  Until the late 1970s it was generally accepted
that all bacteria are closely related in
evolutionary development. This concept was
challenged in 1977 by Carl R. Woese and
coinvestigators at the University of Illinois,
whose research on ribosomal RNA from a
broad spectrum of living organisms established
that two groups of bacteria evolved by separate
Koch’s Postulates pathways from a common and ancient ancestral
 German scientist, Robert Koch was first to form. This discovery resulted in the
established the direct relationship of a specific establishment of a new terminology to identify
microbe to a specific disease. the major distinct groups of microbes—namely,
the eubacteria (the traditional or “true”
Vaccination bacteria), the archaea (bacteria that diverged
 Often used as a treatment or prevention to a from other bacteria at an early stage
certain disease. Long before Robert Koch of evolution and are distinct from the
demonstrate the specific microorganism causes eubacteria), and the eukarya (the eukaryotes).
anthrax, a young British physician by the name Today the eubacteria are known simply as the
of Edward Jenner jumped on an experiment to true bacteria (or the bacteria) and form the
discover a way to protect people from smallpox. domain Bacteria.
 Bacteria have a variety of shapes, including
Collecting and inoculating scrapings of cowpox
blisters from a sick young milkmaid and spheres, rods, and spirals.
 Individual cells generally range in width from
inoculated it to a healthy volunteer turned out to
be successful, in such a way that the healthy 0.5 to 5 micrometres (μm; millionths of a metre).
 Although unicellular, bacteria often appear in
volunteer became sick but recovered and never
again contracted the smallpox. Nowadays, pairs, chains, tetrads (groups of four), or
vaccination is widely used as a treatment and clusters.
 Some have flagella, external whip like
prevention to many diseases.
structures that propel the organism through
E. Modern Chemotherapy ( Magic Bullet) –. liquid media; some have capsule, an external
After establishing the relationship between coating of the cell; some produce spores—
microbes and diseases, the next agenda of the reproductive bodies that function much as
microbiologist was to search for substances seeds do among plants.
 One of the major characteristics of bacteria is
that could eliminate pathogenic microbes
without damaging the infected subject. Thus, their reaction to the Gram stain. Depending
chemotherapy was introduced. Chemotherapy upon the chemical and structural composition of
is the treatment of disease using chemical the cell wall, some bacteria are gram-positive,
substances, it is commomnly refer to chemical taking on the stain’s purple colour, whereas
treatment of non-infectious diseases, such as others are gram-negative.
 Through a microscope the archaea look much
cancer.
like bacteria, but there are important differences
Types of microorganisms in their chemical composition, biochemical
activities, and environments. The cell walls of
1. Bacteria (eubacteria and archaea) all true bacteria contain the chemical substance
peptidoglycan, whereas the cell walls of
archaeans lack this substance. Many
The major groups of microorganisms—namely archaeans are noted for their ability to survive
bacteria, archaea, fungi (yeasts and molds), algae, unusually harsh surroundings, such as high
protozoa, and viruses levels of salt or acid or high temperatures.
These microbes, called extremophiles, live in
 Prokaryotes—that is, single-celled organisms such places as salt flats, thermal pools,
without a membrane-bound nucleus. and deep-sea vents. Some are capable of a
 Their DNA (the genetic material of the cell), unique chemical activity—the production
instead of being contained in the nucleus, exists of methane gas from carbon dioxide and
as a long, folded thread with no specific location hydrogen.
within the cell.
 Methane-producing archaea live only in
environments with no oxygen, such as swamp
mud or the intestines of ruminants such as
cattle and sheep. Collectively, this group of
microorganisms exhibits
tremendous diversity in the chemical changes
that it brings to its environments.
2. Algae
 The cells of eukaryotic microbes are similar to
plant and animal cells in that their DNA is
enclosed within a nuclear membrane, forming
the nucleus. Eukaryotic microorganisms include
algae, protozoa, and fungi.
 Collectively algae, protozoa, and some lower
fungi are frequently referred to
as protists (kingdom Protista, also called
Protoctista); some are unicellular and others
are multicellular. Eukaryotes and, like plants,
contain the green pigment chlorophyll, carry
out photosynthesis, and have rigid cell walls.
 They normally occur in moist soil and aquatic
environments.
 These eukaryotes may be unicellular and
microscopic in size or multicellular and up to
120 metres (nearly 400 feet) in length. Algae as
a group also exhibit a variety of shapes. Single-
celled species may be spherical, rod-shaped,
club-shaped, or spindle-shaped. Some are
motile.
 Algae that are multicellular appear in a variety
of forms and degrees of complexity. Some are
organized as filaments of cells attached end to
end; in some species these filaments intertwine
into macroscopic, plantlike bodies.
 Algae also occur in colonies, some of which are
simple aggregations of single cells, while others
contain different cell types with special
functions.
3. Fungi
 They are eukaryotic organisms that, like algae,
have rigid cell walls and may be either
unicellular or multicellular. Some may be
microscopic in size, while others form much
larger structures, such as mushrooms and
bracket fungi that grow in soil or on damp logs.
Unlike algae, fungi do not contain chlorophyll
and thus cannot carry out photosynthesis.
Fungi do not ingest food but must
absorb dissolved nutrients from
the environment. Of the fungi classified as
microorganisms, those that are multicellular and
produce filamentous, microscopic structures are
frequently called molds, whereas yeasts are
unicellular fungi.
 In molds cells are cylindrical in shape and are
attached end to end to form threadlike filaments
(hyphae) that may bear spores. Individually,
hyphae are microscopic in size. However, when
large numbers of hyphae accumulate—for
example, on a slice of bread or fruit jelly—they
form a fuzzy mass called a mycelium that is
visible to the naked eye.
 The unicellular yeasts have many forms, from
spherical to egg-shaped to filamentous. Yeasts
are noted for their ability to
ferment carbohydrates, producing alcohol and
carbon dioxide in products such as wine and
bread.
Protozoa
Protozoa, or protozoans, are single-celled,
eukaryotic microorganisms. Some protozoa are
oval or spherical, others elongated. Still others
have different shapes at different stages of the life
cycle. Cells can be as small as 1 μm in diameter
and as large as 2,000 μm, or 2 mm (visible without
magnification). Like animal cells, protozoa
lack cell walls, are able to move at some stage of
their life cycle, and ingest particles of food;
however, some phytoflagellate protozoa are
plantlike, obtaining their energy via photosynthesis.
Protozoan cells contain the typical internal
structures of an animal cell. Some can swim
through water by the beating action of short,
hairlike appendages (cilia) or flagella. Their rapid,
darting movement in a drop of pond water is
evident when viewed through a microscope.
The amoebas (also amoebae) do not swim, but
they can creep along surfaces by extending a
portion of themselves as a pseudopod and then
allowing the rest of the cell to flow into this
extension. This form of locomotion is called
amoeboid movement. The sporozoans
(phylum Apicomplexa) are so named because they
form dormant bodies called spores during one
phase of their life cycle. Protozoa occur widely in
nature, particularly in aquatic environments.
Virus
Virus agents considered on the borderline of living
organisms, are also included in the science of
microbiology, come in several shapes, and are
widely distributed in nature, infecting animal cells,
plant cells, and microorganisms. The field of study
in which they are investigated is called virology. All
viruses are obligate parasites; that is, they lack
metabolic machinery of their own to generate
energy or to synthesize proteins, so they depend
on host cells to carry out these vital functions. Once
inside a cell, viruses have genes for usurping the
cell’s energy-generating and protein-synthesizing
systems. In addition to their intracellular form,
viruses have an extracellular form that carries the
viral nucleic acid from one host cell to another. In
this infectious form, viruses are simply a central
core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
called a capsid. The capsid protects the genes
outside the host cell; it also serves as a vehicle for
entry into another host cell because it binds
to receptors on cell surfaces. The structurally
mature, infectious viral particle is called a virion.
UNIT 1 MODULE 1: IMPORTANCE, BRANCHES,
AND APPLICATION OF MICROBIOLOGY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Discuss importance of microbiology
 Define and Describe the different branches of
Microbiology
 Demonstrate understanding on the different
application of Microbiology
Importance
Essentially, microbiology is the study of biological
organisms that are too small to be seen with the
naked eye (without using such tools as the
magnifying glass or microscope etc). Microbiology
is therefore dedicated to studying the lives and
characteristics of a wide variety of organisms
ranging from bacteria and archaea to parasitic
worms in their environments. Here, the discipline is
used to learn about all aspects of the organisms in
order to not only determine how they live in their
environment, but also how they impact their
respective surroundings and thus other organisms
around them (human beings, animals, etc).
Microbiology has proved to be one of the most
important disciplines in biology, making it possible
to identify how some of these organisms cause
diseases, discover cures for such diseases and
even use some microbes for industrial purposes
etc. Some of the fields that microbiologists may
specialize in include: Immunology
Soil biology , Industrial Microbiology ,Biotechnology
Biogeochemistry , Microbial genetics , Aquatic
Microbiology
Although microbiology is, for the most part,
described as the study of microorganisms (those
that cannot be seen with the naked eye), such
groups as algae and fungi contain organisms that
do not necessarily require the use of special tools
to observe them. Therefore, microbiology also
encompasses a number of organisms that fall
outside the traditional definition.
Branches of Microbiology
Bacteriology is the branch of microbiology
concerned with the study of bacteria. This branch is
further divided into a number of specializations that
include marine bacteriology, sanitary bacteriology,
industrial bacteriology, agricultural bacteriology,
and systematic bacteriology among others. Here,
this branch of microbiology gives focus to such
aspects as types of bacteria and their
characteristics, diseases, and application among
others.
Mycology - Unlike bacteriology which is the study
of bacteria, which are prokaryotic organisms,
mycology deals with the study of fungi which are
eukaryotic in nature. Found in many types of
environments, the different types of fungi (mold and
yeast) can be highly beneficial or harmful.
Mycology gives focus to the different properties of
these organisms (characteristics, taxonomy, etc)
which has it turn made it possible to use them in
various industries ranging from breweries to food
and medicine.
Those who specialize in mycology are known as
mycologists.
Protozoology is one of the newer branches of
microbiology based on taxonomy. It is the sub-
discipline that deals with the study of protozoa. Like
fungi, these are eukaryotic organisms that include
such groups as amoeboids, ciliates, sporozans ,
and flagellates. Given that a good number of these
organisms have been associated with animals and
human diseases, protozoologists not only focus on
their taxonomy and morphological aspects for
classification purposes, but also for medical
significance. Some common examples of diseases
caused by protozoa include malaria, sleeping
sickness as well as amoebic dysentery.
Phycology is one of the branches of microbiology
that is concerned with the study of multicellular
organisms. Unlike mycology, however, phycology
deals with the study of different types of algae that
can be found in different types of environment.
While they may exist as small microorganisms
found floating in the ocean, some algae grow to
form large seaweeds found in the aquatic
environments. Apart from being part of the food
chain, algae are also involved in the production of
oxygen which makes them important in
microbiology.
Those who study phycology (e.g. Carl Adolph
Agardh) are known as phycologists.
Parasitology is a wide field of microbiology that
deals with the study of parasites. For the most part,
parasitology is concerned with organisms found in
three major groups including protozoa, helminths
(worms) and arthropods. Given that parasitology is
concerned with disease-causing organisms (as well
as vectors) it has been influenced by a number of
other disciplines including immunology and
biochemistry among others. Like mycology and
phycology, parasitology entails the study of both
unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Those who study parasitology are known as
parasitologists.
Immunology is the sub-discipline that deals with
the study of the immune system. It has been one of
the most important areas of study since the 18th
Century whose efforts are directed towards
enhancing the immune system to protect the body
from diseases. It is worth noting that while diseases
are caused by various organisms and foreign
substances, they can also result from the immune
system itself in cases of autoimmunity
By studying the relationship between the body,
pathogens and the immune system, researchers
have made significant strides and breakthroughs
that have made it possible to eradicate diseases
that were once common in society. These efforts
continue to be seen in studies regarding such
diseases and Ebola among others outbreaks
identified in different parts of the world. A person
who studies immunology is known as an
immunologist.
Virology is the branch of microbiology that is
concerned with the study of viruses. Unlike most of
the other organisms which are either described as
being unicellular or multicellular, viruses are
acellular microbes with simple structures and need
host cells to multiply.
Given that viruses need host cells to multiply, they
also, end up affecting the cells and consequently
causing disease. In virology, researchers also focus
on such aspects as biochemistry, distribution,
molecular biology as well as the evolution of
viruses which makes it's possible to not only
understand them, but also develop cures to some
of the most serious diseases caused by these
parasites (AIDs etc).
Nematology is the sub-disciplines that deal with
the study of multicellular nematodes. Also known
as roundworms, nematodes include a variety of
organisms (worms) found in a variety of
environments on earth (they can be found in soil,
mud, sands, mountains, etc).
According to studies, nematodes are some of the
most abundant organisms on our planet.
Nematology, as a branch of microbiology, has
allowed for the classification of these worms based
on their general morphology, habitats as well as
whether or not they cause diseases, etc. Those
who study nematology are known as nematologists.
Apart from taxonomy, microbiology is also
classified into pure sciences.
Some of the most common categories include: ·
Microbial cytology
deals with the structure and function of the
organisms ·
Microbial physiology
is the branch of microbiology that deals with the
different parts and normal functions of the
organisms (functioning of the different parts of the
organism) ·
Microbial ecology
branch that deals with the surroundings/habitat of
the organism. This makes it possible to understand
how the organism interacts and affects its
surroundings ·
Microbial genetics
is concerned with the genetic makeup of the
organism. It is used to identify the different strains
and phenotypes of an organism and classify the
organisms.
Whereas taxonomy classification gives focus to the
organism and its general characteristics, applied
microbiology is focused on how various organisms
can be used (applied) in given processes or the
impact they can have in different industries.
Some of the most important branches of
microbiology based on application include:
Food microbiology
Research studies focus on a variety of
microorganisms that contaminate/damage food and
those that can be used for food
processing/modification among others. As such,
microbiology gives special attention to such
microorganisms as molds, yeasts, and bacteria
among others that either benefit or have negative
effects on the quality of food material with public
health concern in mind.
Food microbiology is connected to several other
fields (immunology and molecular biology etc) and
entails such aspects as food processing and
preservation, food ingredients, production and
fermentation among others.
Medical Microbiology
This is the branch of microbiology that is concerned
with the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of
diseases caused by different types of organisms
(infection agents). This sub-discipline is therefore
related to a number of other fields including
virology, bacteriology, immunology, and
germicrobiology. Industrial microbiology This
branch of microbiology is concerned with the use of
given microorganisms for industrial production.
Here, research studies are directed towards the
use of these organisms to increase and maximize
yields in industries like fuel, pharmaceutical, and
chemicals among others. Here, the use of
microorganisms makes it possible to mass produce
for a big market.
Agricultural microbiology
Agricultural microbiology is concerned with
microbes associated with plants and animal
diseases and production. As such, it is not only
concerned with the medical significance of these
organisms, but also their economic importance for
farmers and the industry as a whole. In the
process, agricultural microbiology is aimed to solve
issues identified in agricultural practices while
helping increase yields for farmers
Some of the other branches of microbiology based
on application include:
Soil microbiology - This is the branch of
microbiology that deals with the study of soil
microorganisms and how they impact soil
properties
Pharmaceutical microbiology - Concerned with
the use of microorganisms for inhibiting
contamination as well as the development of
pharmaceuticals
Veterinary microbiology - Focus on microbes that
cause diseases ·
Microbial biotechnology - Area of microbiology
and biotechnology aimed at using microbes for
beneficial purposes: It is aimed at enhancing
microbial application in the day to day life. A good
example of this is the research study currently
being conducted (at the time of writing) to use given
bacteria to replace the traditional sewage systems
by the Gates Foundation.