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 MODULE
1

LESSON

INTRODUCTION TO
1 MICROBIOLOGY
11
HOURS

Aquaculture is the culture of aquatic organisms per unit water area per unit time
for maximum profit. The economically important finfishes and shellfishes, whose body
physiology is adjustable to varied environmental conditions, are considered as
aquaculture candidate species. So, an overall knowledge on the physiology of such
species is required to improve the culture practices.

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. define correctly what is microbiology;

2. name at least 10 diverse gender scientist who made remarkable achievement in the
field of microbiology;
3. explain how different microbiologist contributed to the field of microbiology;
4. enumerate at least five areas where microbiology is applied;
5. describe the different scope and application of Microbiology;
6. discuss the differences of food intoxication and food infection;
7. relate the significance of studying microbiology in the actual situations of life; and
8. conduct a laboratory activity by illustrating the microscope.

As well as causing a familiar range of diseases in animals and plants and

problems in food spoilage and deterioration of other materials, microbes are also our
‘invisible allies’. Indeed, life on Earth would not be sustainable without the benefits that
many of them provide. The teaching of such an important subject as microbiology
cannot be achieved effectively without enhancing the theory with ‘hands on’ experience
in the laboratory.

INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY

What is Microbiology?
Things aren’t always the way they seem. On the face of it,
‘microbiology’ should be an easy word to define: the science (logos) of
small (micro) life (bios), or to put it another way, the study of living things
so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Bacteria neatly fit
this definition, but what about fungi and algae? These two groups each contain members
that are far from microscopic. On the other hand, certain animals, such as nematode
worms, can be microscopic, yet are not considered to be the domain of the microbiologist.
Viruses represent another special case; they are most certainly microscopic (indeed,
most are submicroscopic), but by most accepted definitions they are not living.
Nevertheless, these too fall within the remit of the microbiologist.
In the central section of this book you can read about the thorny issue of microbial
classification and gain some understanding of just what is and what is not regarded as a
microorganism.

Why microbiology is important?

To the lay person, microbiology means the study of sinister, invisible ‘bugs’ that cause
disease. As a subject, it generally only impinges on the popular consciousness in news
coverage of the latest ‘health scare’. It may come as something of a surprise therefore to
learn that the vast majority of microorganisms coexist alongside us without causing any
harm. Indeed, many perform vital tasks such as the recycling of essential elements,
without which life on our planet could not continue. Other microorganisms have been
exploited by humans for our own benefit, for instance in the manufacture of antibiotics
and foodstuffs.
To get some idea of the importance of microbiology in the world today, just consider
the following list of some of the general areas in which the expertise of a microbiologist
might be used:

 Medicine
 Environmental science
 Food and drink production
 Fundamental research
 Agriculture
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Genetic engineering
 Aquaculture
The popular perception among the general public, however, remains one of
infections and plagues. Think back to the first time you ever heard about
microorganisms; almost certainly, it was when you were a child and your parents
impressed on you the dangers of ‘germs’ from dirty hands or eating things after they’d
been on the floor. In reality, only a couple of hundred out of the half million or so known
bacterial species give rise to infections in humans; these are termed pathogens, and
have tended to dominate our view of the microbial world.
How do we know?
Microbiology in perspective: to the ‘golden age’ and beyond
We have learned an astonishing amount about the invisible world of
microorganisms, particularly over the last century and a half. How has this happened?
The penetrating insights of brilliant individuals are rightly celebrated, but a great many
‘breakthroughs’ or ‘discoveries’ have only been made possible thanks to some (frequently
unsung) development in microbiological methodology. For example, on the basis that
‘seeing is believing’, it was only when we had the means to see microorganisms under a
micro-scope that we could prove their existence.

Microorganisms had been on the

Earth for some 4000 million years, when
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek started out on his
pioneering microscope work in 1673.
Leeuwenhoek was an amateur scientist
who spent much of his spare time grinding
glass lenses to produce simple
microscopes. His detailed drawings make it
clear that the ‘animalcules’ he observed
from a variety of sources included
representatives of what later
Figure 1. Leeuwenhoek’s microscope. The lens (a) was held between two brass
became known as protozoa, platesand used to view the specimen, which was placed on the mounting pin (b).
bacteria and fungi. Where did Focusing wasachieved by means of two screws (c) and (d). Some of Leeuwenhoek’s
these creatures come from? microscopes couldmagnify up to 300 times.
Arguments about the origin of
living things revolved around the long held belief in spontaneous generation, the idea that
living organisms could arise from non-living matter. In an elegant experiment, the Italian
Francesco Redi (1626–1697) showed that the larvae found on putrefying meat arose from
eggs deposited by flies, and not sponta-neously as a result of the decay process. This
can be seen as the beginning of the end for the spontaneous generation theory, but many
still clung to the idea, claiming that while it may not have been true for larger organisms,
it must surely be so for minute creatures such as those demonstrated by Leeuwenhoek.
Despite mounting evidence against the theory, as late as 1859, fresh ‘proof’ was still being
brought forward in its support. Enter onto the scene Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), still
arguably the most famous figure in the history of microbiology. Pasteur trained as a
chemist, and made a lasting contribution to the science of stereochemistry before turning
his attention to spoilage problems in the wine industry. He noticed that when lactic acid
was produced in wine instead of alcohol, rod-shaped bacteria were always present, as
well as the expected yeast cells. This led him to believe that while the yeast produced the
alcohol, the bacteria were responsible for the spoilage, and that both types of organism
had originated in the environment. Exasperated by continued efforts to substantiate the
theory of spontaneous generation, he set out to disprove it once and for all. In response
to a call from the French Academy of Science, he carried out a series of experiments that
led to the acceptance of biogenesis, the idea that life arises only from already existing
life. Using his famous swan-necked flasks, he demonstrated in 1861 that as long as dust
particles (and the microorganisms carried on them) were excluded, the contents would
remain sterile.

Figure 2. Pasteur’s swan-necked flasks. Broth solutions rich in nutrients were placed in flasks and
boiled. The necks of the flasks were heated and drawn out into a curve, but kept open to the atmosphere.
Pasteur showed that the broth remained sterile because any contaminating dust and microorganisms
remained trapped in the neck of the flask as long as it remained upright

This also disproved the idea held by many that there was some element in the air
itself that was capable of initiating microbial growth. In Pasteur’s words ‘the doctrine of
spontaneous generation will never recover from this mortal blow. There is no known
circumstance in which it can be affirmed that microscopic beings came into the world
without germs, without parents similar to themselves.’ Pasteur’s findings on wine
contamination led inevitably to the idea that microorganisms may be also be responsible
for diseases in humans, animals and plants.
The notion that some invisible (and therefore, presumably, extremely small) living
creatures were responsible for certain diseases was not a new one.
 Long before micro-organisms had been shown to exist, the Roman philosopher
Lucretius (∼98–55 BC) and much later the physician Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553)
had supported the idea.
Fracastoro wrote ‘Contagion is an infection that passes from one thing to another’
and recognised three forms of transmission: by direct contact, through inanimate objects
and via the air. We still class transmissibility of infectious disease in much the same way
today. The prevailing belief at the time, however, was that an infectious disease was due
to something called a miasma, a poisonous vapour arising from dead or diseased bodies,
or to an imbalance between the four humours of the body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and
black bile). During the 19th century, many diseases were shown, one by one, to be
caused by microorganisms.
In 1835, Agostino Bassi showed that a disease of silkworms was due to a fungal
infection, and 10 years later, Miles Berkeley demonstrated that a fun-gus was also
responsible for the great Irish potato blight.
Joseph Lister’s pioneering work on antiseptic surgery provided strong, albeit
indirect, evidence of the involvement of microorganisms in infections of humans. The use
of heat-treated instruments and of phenol both on dressings and actually sprayed in a
mist over the surgical area, was found greatly to reduce the number of fatalities following
surgery. Around the same time, in the 1860s, the indefatigable Pasteur had shown that a
parasitic protozoan was the cause of another disease of silkworms called pebrine´, which
had devastated the French silk industry.

The first proof of the involvement of bacteria in disease and the definitive proof of
the germ theory of disease came from the German Robert Koch. In 1876 Koch showed
the relationship between the cattle disease anthrax and a bacillus which we now know
as Bacillus anthracis. Koch infected healthy mice with blood from diseased cattle and
sheep, and noted that the symptoms of the disease appeared in the mice, and that rod
shaped bacteria could be isolated from their blood. These could be grown in culture,
where they multiplied and produced spores. Injection of healthy mice with these spores
(or more bacilli) led them too to develop anthrax and once again the bacteria were
isolated from their blood. These results led Koch to formalise the criteria necessary to
prove a causal relationship between a specific disease condition and a particular
microorganism.

KOCH’S POSTULATES CRITERIA

 The microorganism must be present in every instance of the disease and absent
from healthy environment.
 The microorganism must be capable of being isolated and grown in pure culture.
 When the microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host, the same disease
condition must result.
 The same microorganism must be re-isolated from the experimentally infected host.

Despite their value, it is now realised that Koch’s postulates do have certain
limitations. It is known for ex-ample that certain agents responsible for causing disease
can’t be grown in vitro, but only in host cells. Also, the healthy animal in Postulate 3 is
seldom human, so a degree of extrapolation is necessary – if agent X does not cause
disease in a laboratory animal, can we be sure it won’t in humans? Furthermore, some
diseases are caused by more than one organism, and some organisms are responsible
for more than one disease. On the other hand, the value of Koch’s postulates goes
beyond just defining the causative agent of a particular disease, and allows us to ascribe
a specific effect (of whatever kind) to a given microorganism. Critical to the development
of Koch’s postulates was the advance in culturing techniques, enabling the isolation and
pure culture of specific microorganisms. The development of pure cultures revolutionised
microbiology, and within the next 30 years or so, the pathogens responsible for the
majority of common human bacterial diseases had been isolated and identified. Not
without just cause is this period known as the ‘golden age’ of microbiology!

Koch’s greatest achievement was in using the advances in methodology and the
principles of his own postulates to demonstrate the identity of the causative agent of
tuberculosis, which at the time was responsible for around one in every seven human
deaths in Europe.

Although it was believed by many to have a microbial cause, the causative agent
had never been observed, either in culture or in the affected tissues. We now know that
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the tubercle bacillus) is very difficult to stain by conventional
methods due to the high lipid content of the cell wall surface. Koch developed a staining
technique that enabled it to be seen, but realised that in order to satisfy his own
postulates, he must isolate the organism and grow it in culture. Again, there were
technical difficulties, since even under favourable conditions, M. tuberculosis grows
slowly, but eventually Koch was able to demonstrate the infectivity of the cultured
organisms towards guinea pigs. He was then able to isolate them again from the dis-
eased animal and use them to cause disease in uninfected animals, thus satisfying the
remainder of his postulates.

Although most bacterial diseases of humans and their aetiological agents have
now been identified, important variants continue to evolve and emerge. Notable examples
in recent times include Legionnaires’ disease, an acute respiratory infection caused by
the previously unrecognised genus, Legionella, and Lyme disease, a tick borne infection
first described in Connecticut, USA in the mid-1970s. Also, a newly recognised pathogen,
Helicobacter pylori, has been shown to play an important (and previously unsuspected)
role in the development of peptic ulcers. There still remain a few diseases that some
investigators suspect are caused by bacteria, but for which no pathogen has been
identified.
Following the discovery of viruses during the last decade of the 19th century, it
was soon established that many diseases of plants, animals and humans were caused
by these minute, non-cellular agents.

The major achievement of the first half of the 20th century was the development
of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents, a topic discussed in some detail in Chapter
14. Infectious diseases that previously accounted for millions of deaths became treatable
by a simple course of therapy, at least in the affluent West, where such medications were
readily available.

If the decades either side of 1900 have become known as the golden age of
microbiology, the second half of the twentieth century will surely be remembered as the
golden age of molecular genetics. Following on from the achievements of others such as
Griffith and Avery, the publication of Watson and Crick’s structure for DNA in 1953
heralded an extraordinary 50 years of achievement in this area, culminating at the turn of
the 21st century in the completion of the Human Genome Project.

As we have seen, a recurring theme in the history of microbiology has been the
way that advances in knowledge have followed on from methodological or technological
developments, and we shall refer to a number of such developments during the course
of this book. To conclude this introduction to microbiology, we shall return to the
instrument that, in some respects, started it all. In any microbiology course, you are sure
to spend some time looking down a microscope, and to get the most out of the instrument
it is essential that you understand the principles of how it works.

HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY

GENDER DIVERSITY OF THE SCIENTISTS IN THE WORLD

OF MICROBIOLOGY

DISCOVERING THE “ORGANISMS”

 1676: Antonie van. Leeuwenhoek - first to observe and describe microbes

accurately.
 1982: Stanley B. Prusiner - described prions (infectious protein that causes a
particular normal protein to alter its shape and become a prion)
 1884:Charles Chamberland - constructed a bacterial filter that allowed the
identification of viruses.
 1898: Friedich Loeffler and Paul Frosch - identified filterable infectious agent as
cause of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle.
 1898-1900: M. Beijerinck -identified tobacco mosaic virus.
DISPROVING SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (THAT LIVING ORGANISMS COULD
DEVELOP FROM NONLIVING MATTER)

1. Francesco Redi (1626-1697) challenged this concept by showing that

maggots on decaying meat came from fly eggs deposited on the meat, and
not from the meat itself.

2. John Needham (1713-1781) showed that mutton broth boiled in flasks and
then sealed could still develop microorganisms, which supported the theory of
spontaneous generation.

3. Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) showed that flasks sealed and then boiled
had no growth of microorganisms, and he proposed that air carried germs to
the culture medium; he also commented that external air might be needed to
support the growth of animals already in the medium; the latter concept was
appealing to supporters of spontaneous generation.

4. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) trapped airborne organisms in cotton; he also

heated the necks of flasks, drawing them out into long curves, sterilized the
media, and left the flasks open to the air; no growth was observed because
dust particles carrying organisms did not reach the medium, instead they
were trapped in the neck of the flask; if the necks were broken, dust would
settle and the organisms would grow; in this way Pasteur disproved the
theory of spontaneous generation.

5. John Tyndall (1820-1893) demonstrated that dust did carry microbes and that
if dust was absent, the broth remained sterile-even if it was directly exposed
to air; Tyndall also provided evidence for the existence of heat-resistant forms
of bacteria.

THE ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN DISEASE

RECOGNITION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MICROORGANISMS AND
DISEASE:

1. Agostino Bassi (1773-1856) - showed that a silkworm disease was

caused by a fungus
 2. M. J. Berkeley (ca. 1845) - demonstrated that the Great Potato Blight of
Ireland was caused by a fungus

3. Louis Pasteur - showed that the péine disease of silkworms was caused
by a protozoan parasite

4. Joseph Lister (1872-1912) - developed a system of surgery designed to

prevent microorganisms from entering wounds; his patients had fewer
postoperative infections, thereby providing indirect evidence that
microorganisms were the causal agents of human disease; his
published findings (1867) transformed the practice of surgery

5. Robert Koch (1843-1910) - using criteria developed by his teacher,

Jacob Henle (1809-1895), established the relationship between Bacillus
anthracis and anthrax; his criteria became known as Koch’s Postulates
and are still used to establish the link between a particular
microorganism and a particular disease:

a. The microorganisms must be present in every case of the disease

but absent from healthy individuals
b. The suspected microorganisms must be isolated and grown in
pure culture
c. The same disease must result when the isolated microorganism is
inoculated into a healthy host
d. The same microorganism must be isolated again from the
diseased host

6. Koch’s work was independently confirmed by Pasteur.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING MICROBIAL

PATHOGENS:
1. Koch and his associates developed techniques, reagents, and other
materials for culturing bacterial pathogens on solid growth media; these enable
microbiologists to isolate microbes in pure culture.

2. Charles Chamberland [1851-1908] constructed a bacterial filter that

removed bacteria and larger microbes from specimens; this led to the discovery
of viruses as disease-causing agents.

Immunological studies:

1. Edward Jenner [ca. 1798] used a vaccination procedure to protect

individuals from smallpox
2. Louis Pasteur developed other vaccines including those for chicken
cholera, anthrax, and rabies
 3. Emil von Behring (1854-1917) and Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931)
induced the formation of diphtheria toxin antitoxins in rabbits; the antitoxins were
effectively used to treat humans and provided evidence for humoral immunity
4. Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) demonstrated the existence of phagocytic
cells in the blood, thus demonstrating cell-mediated immunity

PREVENTING DISEASE BY VACCINATION:

1. 1798 Edward Jenner inoculated people with cowpox to protect against smallpox.
2. 1885 – Pasteur developed the rabies vaccine.
3. 1890: von Behring and Kitasato produced antibodies to purified toxins to
protect against diphtheria and tetanus.
4. 1884: E. Metchnikoff described phagocytosis of bacteria.

DISCOVERING THE EFFECT OF MICROBES ON ORGANIC AND

INORGANIC MATTER:

1. 1856: Pasteur described lactic acid fermentation; contributions to wine industry.

2. 1887-1900: S. Winogradsky and M. Beijerinck studied soil microbes and their role in
the biochemical cycles of sulfur, carbon, nitrogen

RECENT HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY – THE 20TH CENTURY

1. Infectious diseases: The etiological agent of most infectious diseases has been
ascertained. Current research focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms by
which disease is caused.
2. Chemotherapy: Discovery of antibiotics; antibiotic resistance
3. Immunology develops as a science.
4. Physiology and biochemistry: Using microbes as a model, many physiological and
biochemical processes have been elucidated.
5. Genetics: Many of the advances in molecular genetics were made using bacteria as
models. A few of the many:
a. 1941: Beadle and Tatum – 1 gene = 1 enzyme
b. 1943: Luria and Delbruck – mutations are spontaneous in nature
c. 1944: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty – DNA is the genetic material
d. 1961: Jacob and Monod – the operon and gene regulation
6. Molecular biology: Many of the advances in molecular biology were made using
bacteria as models. A few of the many:
a. 1970: Restriction enzymes discovered
b. 1979: Insulin synthesized using recombinant techniques
c. 1990: Gene therapy trials begin
d. 1995: The nucleotide sequence of the first free-living organism
 (Haemophilus influenzea) published

SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology is the study of organisms that are so small they cannot be seen with
the naked eye. These minute organisms are called Microorganisms or microbes. These
microbes are categorized into two. Cellular, which may either be prokaryotes (bacteria,
cyanobacteria and Archean) or eukaryotes fungi, protozoa and algae; and acellular,
which includes viruses.

MICROBIOLOGY IS DIVIDED INTO DIFFERENT BRANCHES:

A. Bacteriology - the study of bacteria

B. Virology - the study of viruses
C. Mycology - the study of fungi
D. Parasitology -the study of protozoa and parasitic worms
E. Phycology - the study of algae
F. Immunology - the study of immune responses.

Microorganisms are present everywhere on earth which includes humans,

animals, plants and other living creatures, soil, water and atmosphere. Microbes can
multiply in all three habitats except in the atmosphere. Together their numbers far
exceed all other living cells on this planet. Microorganisms are relevant to all of us in a
multitude of ways. The influence of microorganism in human life is both beneficial as
well as detrimental also. For example microorganisms are required for the production of
bread, cheese, yogurt, alcohol, wine, beer, antibiotics (e.g. penicillin, streptomycin,
chloromycetin), vaccines, vitamins, enzymes and many more important products.
Microorganisms also have harmed humans and disrupted societies over the
millennia. Microbial diseases undoubtedly played a major role in historical events such
as decline of the Roman empire and conquest of the new world. In addition to health
threat from some microorganisms many microbes spoil food and deteriorate materials
like iron pipes, glass lenses, computer chips, jet fuel, paints, concrete, metal, plastic,
paper and wood pilings. There in this field is immense due to the involvement of
microbiology in many fields like medicine, pharmacy, diary, industry, clinical research,
water industry, agriculture, chemical technology and nanotechnology. The study of
microbiology contributes greatly to the understanding of life through enhancements and
intervention of microorganisms.

There is an increase in demand for microbiologists globally. Related disciplines such as;
 • GENETICS: Mainly involves engineered microbes to make hormones, vaccine,
antibiotics and many other useful products for human being.

• AGRICULTURE: The influence of microbes on agriculture; the prevention of the

diseases that mainly damage the useful crops.

• FOOD SCIENCE: It involves the prevention of spoilage of food and food borne
diseases and the uses of microbes to produce cheese, yoghurt, pickles and beer.

• IMMUNOLOGY: The study of immune system which protect the body from
pathogens.

• MEDICINE: deals with the identification of plans and measures to cure

diseases of human and animals which are infectious to them.

• INDUSTRY: it involves use of microbes to produce antibiotics, steroids, alcohol,

vitamins and amino acids etc.

Applied Fields of Microbiology

1. Agricultural microbiology – try to combat plant diseases that attack
important food crops, work on methods to increase soil fertility and crop yields
etc. Currently there is a great interest in using bacterial or viral insect pathogens
as substitute for chemical pesticides.
2. Microbial ecology – biogeochemical cycles – bioremediation to reduce
pollution effects
3. Food and dairy microbiology – try to prevent microbial spoilage of food
and transmission of food borne diseases such as botulism and salmonellolis. Use
microorganisms to make foods such as cheese, yogurt, pickles and beers.
4. Industrial microbiology – used to make products such as antibiotics,
vaccines, steroids, alcohols and other solvents, vitamins, amino acids and
enzymes.
5. Microbial physiology and Biochemistry – study the synthesis of
antibiotics and toxins, microbial energy production, microbial nitrogen fixation,
effects of chemical and physical agents on microbial growth and survival etc.
6. Microbial genetics and Molecular biology – nature of genetic
information and how it regulated the development and function of cells and
organisms. Development of new microbial strains that are more efficient in
synthesizing useful products.
7. Genetic engineering – arisen from work of microbial genetics and
molecular biology. Engineered microorganisms are used to make hormones,
antibiotics, vaccines and other products. New genes can be inserted into plants
and animals.
Applications of Microbiology
Microbiology is one of the largest and most complex of the biological sciences as
it deals with many diverse biological disciplines. In addition to studying the natural
history of microbes, it deals with every aspects of microbe-human and environmental
interaction. These interactions include: ecology, genetics, metabolism, infection,
disease, chemotherapy, immunology, genetic engineering, industry and agriculture.

The environment:
• Microbes are responsible for the cycling of carbon, nitrogen phosphorus
(geochemical cycles)
• Maintain ecological balance on earth
• They are found in association with plants in symbiotic relationships, maintain
soil fertility and may also be used to clean up the environment of toxic compounds (bio-
remediation).
• Some are devastating plant pathogens, but others act as biological control
agents against these diseases.

Medicine:

• Disease causing ability of some microbes such as

• Small Pox (Variola virus)
• Cholera (Vibrio cholera)
• Malaria (Plasmodium, protozoa) etc.
• They have also provided us with the means of their control in the form of
antibiotics and other medically important drugs.

Food:
• Microorganisms have been used to produce food, from brewing and wine
making, through cheese production and bread making, to manufacture of soy sauce.
• Microbes are also responsible for food spoilage.

Biotechnology:

• Commercial applications include the synthesis of acetone, organic acids,

enzymes, alcohols and many drugs.
• Genetic engineering – bacteria can produce important therapeutic substances
such as insulin, human growth hormone, and interferon.

Food Intoxication vs Food Infection

Microbial foodborne illness is often divided into two broad categories: food
intoxication and food infection.
 Food intoxication occurs when the pathogenic microorganism secretes a toxin in
the food. Eating the food that contains the toxin disrupts a particular target, such as the
gastrointestinal tract or the nervous system. The symptoms of intoxication vary from
bouts of vomiting and diarrhea to severely disrupted muscle function, as with botulism.
Food infection occurs when the microorganism multiplies in food until it reaches
the minimum infective dose (MID), which is the number of microorganisms needed to
cause illness in humans. When the food is eaten, the microorganism acts directly on the
intestines. In some cases, the microbes infect the surface of the intestine; in others,
they invade the intestine and other body structures. Most food infections result in some
degree of diarrhea and abdominal distress. Food infection also can result in toxin
production, causing the same disease signs. However, in food infection, microbes
growing in the infected tissue release the toxins, unlike food intoxication, where the
toxins are already present in the food.
The MID varies for different pathogens and can range from as few as 10 cells
for the Shigella species (and possibly Escherichia coli O157:H7) to as many as
100,000 cells for Staphylococcus aureus. Some of the factors that influence the
infections include:
• The immune status of the host—immunodepressed or immunocompetent.
• How efficient the pathogen is at attaching to, and penetrating, the target
tissues.
• The number of pathogenic organisms entering the body.

Significant Microorganisms in Food Production

Microorganisms such as molds, yeasts, and bacteria can grow in food and cause
spoilage. Bacteria also can cause foodborne illness. Viruses and parasites, such as
tapeworms, roundworms, and protozoa, can cause foodborne illness, but they are not
capable of growing in food and do not cause spoilage.
The following is a list of pathogens and infectious agents of public health
concern. This list is not exhaustive, but contains most of the foodborne pathogens
that affect meat, poultry, and processed egg products.

• Bacteria
• Bacillus cereus (B. cereus)
• Brucella species (Brucella spp)
• Campylobacter spp
• Clostridium botulinum (C. botulinum)
• Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens)
 • Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7) and other
Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (including O26,
O45, O103, O111, O121, and O145)
• Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes)
• Salmonella spp
• Shigella spp
• Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)
• Yersinia enterocolitica (Y. enterocolitica)

Viruses
• Hepatitis A and D
• Norovirus
• Rotaviruses

Tapeworms
 Taenia spp.

Roundworms
 Trichinella spp

Protozoa
• Toxoplasma spp
• Sarcocystis spp

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that the most
common foodborne illnesses for which an organism has been identified are those caused
by the bacteria Campylobacter, Salmonella, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7 and
the norovirus.
THE MICROSCOPE
OVERVIEW OF MICROSCOPE

Having been constructed in the 16th Century, Microscopes have revolutionized

science with their ability to magnify small objects such as microbial cells, producing
images with definitive structures that are identifiable and characterized.

So, what are microscopes?

Microscopes are instruments that are used in science laboratories, to visualize

very minute objects such as cells, microorganisms, giving a contrasting image that is
magnified. Microscopes are made up of lenses for magnification, each with their own
magnification powers. Depending on the type of lens, it will magnify the specimen
according to its focal strength.

Their ability to function is because they have been constructed with special
components that enable them to achieve high magnification levels. They can view very
small specimens and distinguish their structural differences, for example, the view of
animal and plant cells, viewing of microscopic bacterial cells.

Microscopes are generally made up of structural parts for holding and supporting
the microscope and its components and the optical parts which are used for magnification
and viewing of the specimen images. This description defines the parts of a microscope
and the functions they perform to enable visualization of specimens.
Microscope Parts and Function
There are three structural parts
of the microscope (head, base,
and arm).

 Head – This is also

known as the body, it
carries the optical parts
in the upper part of the
microscope.
 Base – It acts as
microscopes support. It
also carriers the
microscopic illuminators.
 Arms – This is the part
connecting the base and
to the head and the
eyepiece tube to the
base of the microscope.
It gives support to the
Figure 3. The microscope and its
head of the microscope and it also used
parts.
when carrying the microscope. Some
high-quality microscopes have an articulated arm with more than one joint allowing
more movement of the microscopic head for better viewing.

OPTICAL PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

The optical parts of the microscope are used to view, magnify, and produce an image
from a specimen placed on a slide. These parts include:
1. Eyepiece – also known as the ocular. This is the part used to look through the
microscope. It is found at the top of the microscope. Its standard magnification is
10x with an optional eyepiece having magnifications from 5X – 30X.

2. Eyepiece tube – it is the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the
objective lens. In some microscopes such as the binoculars, the eyepiece tube is
flexible and can be rotated for maximum visualization, for variance in distance. For
monocular microscopes, they are none flexible.
3. Objective lenses – These are the major lenses used for specimen visualization.
They have a magnification power of 40x-100X. There are about 1- 4 objective
lenses placed on one microscope, in that some are rare facing and others face
forward. Each lens has its own magnification power.

4. Nose piece – also known as the revolving turret. It holds the objective lenses. It is
movable hence it can revolve the objective lenses depending on the magnification
power of the lens.

5. The Adjustment knobs – These are knobs that are used to focus the microscope.
There are two types of adjustment knobs i.e fine adjustment knobs and the coarse
adjustment knobs.

6. Stage – This is the section on which the specimen is placed for viewing. They have
stage clips hold the specimen slides in place. The most common stage is a
mechanical stage, which allows the control of the slides by moving the slides using
the mechanical knobs on the stage instead of moving it manually.
7. Aperture – This is a hole on the microscope stage, through which the transmitted
light from the source reaches the stage.

8. Microscopic illuminator – This is the microscopes light source, located at the

base. It is used instead of a mirror. It captures light from an external source of a low
voltage of about 100v.

9. Condenser – These are lenses that are used to collect and focus light from the
illuminator into the specimen. They are found under the stage next to the diaphragm
of the microscope. They play a major role in ensuring clear sharp images are
produced with a high magnification of 400X and above. The higher the magnification
of the condenser, the more the image clarity. More sophisticated microscopes come
with an Abbe condenser that has a high magnification of about 1000X.

10. Diaphragm – it is also known as the iris. It is found under the stage of the
microscope and its primary role is to control the amount of light that reaches the
specimen. It is an adjustable apparatus, hence controlling the light intensity and the
size of the beam of light that gets to the specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the
diaphragm comes attached with an Abbe condenser and combined they are able to
control the light focus and light intensity that reaches the specimen.

11. Condenser focus knob – this is a knob that moves the condenser up or down thus
controlling the focus of light on the specimen.

12. Abbe Condenser – this is a condenser specially designed on high-quality

microscopes, which makes the condenser to be movable and allows very high
 magnification of above 400X. The high-quality microscopes normally have a high
numerical aperture than that of the objective lenses.

13. The rack stop – It controls how far the stages should go preventing the objective
lens from getting too close to the specimen slide which may damage the specimen.
It is responsible for preventing the specimen slide from coming too far up and hit the
objective lens.

LABORATORY APPARATUS AND THEIR USES

It is imperative for schools to have the latest and high quality science lab supplies
these days. Science is different from any other subject. In order to understand its
concepts, one has to look beyond the books and conventional classroom teaching.
Effective teaching and learning of science involves seeing, handling, and manipulating
real objects and materials. The knowledge that kids attain in classrooms would be
ineffectual unless they actually observe the process and understand the relationship
between action and reaction.

Effective teaching and learning of science involves a perpetual state of show and
tell. Good schools combine classroom teaching with laboratory experiments to ensure
that their students grasp each and every concept thoroughly. It is also believed that
laboratory teaching and experiments that are being conducted there help encourage deep
understanding in children. Students are able to retain the knowledge for longer when they
see the experiments being performed in front of their eyes.

Science lab equipment allows students to interact directly with the data gathered.
They get a first-hand learning experience by performing various experiments on their own.
Students are made to use the models and understand different scientific theories and
concepts. It is also found that school science lab equipment and supplies make teaching
and learning easy both for the teachers, as well as for the students. There are several
scientific theories and concepts that are difficult to explain directly from the books.

The following are the laboratory apparatus and their uses:

Analytical Balance
Thermometer
 Lens that produces an enlarged
image of an object.

Magnifying Glass
This learning activities will fall on your laboratory activities. (100 points)

Instructions:
1. On a short bondpaper, make a margine using a black marker (0.5 inch in
all sides)
2. Using your phone, search for the different types of microscope and
choose at least two (2) and draw.
3. Label each parts of the microscope.
4. Below your drawing, define the uses/functions of each parts of
microscope.
5. Make sure to indicate your source or reference at the lower right side of
your bondpaper.

Name: Date:
Year and Section: Rating:

Laboratory Activity No.1

THE MICROSCOPE

RUBRIC:

POINTS INDICATOR
95-100 Exceptional and impressive. Completed ahead of time.
90-94 Work/project exceeds the standards; through and effective
application of knowledge and skills are evident.
85-89 Project meets the standard.
80-84 Work/project is acceptable.
 75-79 Work project shows partial application of knowledge and skills;
lacks depth or incomplete and needs considerable development

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