Thesis Title: Signal Detection Techniques For System Signal Detection Techniques For Cognitive Radio Cognitive Radio

DIL
DILLA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOOGY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COMMUNICATION STREAM
Thesis Title: Signal Detection Techniques for Cognitive Radio

System
Name Id
1 Hayat Busere……………………………………….………………0798/14
Busere……………………………………….…
2. Alemitu Tute……………………………………………………….0152/14
Tute…………………………………………
3. Kemal Oumer……………………………………………
umer…………………………………………………..….0912/14
4. Musa Beshir………………………………………………………..1239/14
Beshir…………………………………………
A Thesis
sis Submitted to the School of undergraduate
undergraduate Studies of Dilla University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical and
Computer Engineering (communication stream)
Advisor:: Mr. Niguse (Msc)
Submission date: 08 June 2019

SIGNAL DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR COGNITIVE RADIO SYSTEM
ii
SoECE thesis project DU 2019
Declaration
We the undersigned declare that this thesis is our original work, has not been presented a degree
in this or any other university, and all source of materials used for the thesis have been fully
acknowledged.
Name ID Signature
1. Musa Beshir 1239/14

2. Kemal Oumer 0912/14
3. Hayat Busere 0798/14
4. Alemitu Tute 0152/14
Submission Date:
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor
Niguse B. (Msc)
Advisor’s Name Signature
Examiner Name
1.
Signature
i
Acknowledgments
First of all we are thankful to almighty God who has given us the strength and courage to work
on the thesis. We like special thanks to our Advisor Mr. Niguse (Msc) in the School of Electrical
and Computer Engineering for his guidance and technical support in the development of our
thesis project. It has been a pleasure to work with and learn from him.
Secondly, we are extremely grateful to the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, for
giving us the opportunity to carry out this thesis project, which is an integral part of the
curriculum in Dilla University.
Last but not the least; we also respect the support of our family who has always stood with us
and guided us through our career. We extend our gratefulness to one and all who are directly or
indirectly involved in the successful completion of this project work.
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Table of Contents
Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... ii
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... v
List of Figure.................................................................................................................................. vi
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION ............................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Objective of the Project ......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Main Objectives .............................................................................................................. 2
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Scope of Project .................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Document Outline ................................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4
BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORKS ............................................................................ 4
2.2 Cognitive Radio..................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Types of Cognitive Radio ..................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1Transmitter Detection ...................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Types of Small-Scale Fading ................................................................................................ 8
2.5 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread ........................................................... 8
2.6 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread .................................................................................. 8
2.7 Correlations Function ............................................................................................................ 9
2.7.1 Auto correlations Function ................................................................................................. 9
2.7.2 Spectral Correlation Function (SCF) .............................................................................. 9
2.8 Cyclostationarity ................................................................................................................. 10
2.9 Definition of Spectral Correlation Function (SCF) ............................................................. 10
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 13
SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 13
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3.1 Spectrum Sensing Techniques ............................................................................................ 13

3.1.2 Matched Filter Detection .............................................................................................. 17
3.1.3 Waveform Based Detection .......................................................................................... 18
3.1.4 Cyclostationary Feature Detection (CFD) .................................................................... 19
3.2 Principle of Cyclostationarity.............................................................................................. 21
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 23
RESULT AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................................. 23
4.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 23
4.3 Comparison of Transmitter Detection Techniques ............................................................. 31
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 34
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION ............................................................................... 34
5.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 34
5.2 Recommendation................................................................................................................. 35
Annex 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 36
REFERENCE................................................................................................................................ 49
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List of Abbreviations
AWGN ………………………………………….Additive White Gaussian Noise
BPSK ……………………………………………Binary Phase Shift Keying
CAV …………………………………….…........Covariance Absolute Value
CDMA ……………………………………..........Code Division Multiple Access
CFD……………………………………………...Covariance Frobenius Norm
CIR ………………………………………..……..Channel Impulse Response
CR ………………………………………….........Cognitive Radio
CSI……………………………………..………....Channel State Information
CSIR…………………….......................................Channel State Information at Receiver
CSIT ……………………………………………..Channel State Information at Transmitter
DSSS ………………………………..………...….Direct-Sequence Spread- Spectrum
ED ……………………………………………......Energy Detection
FAR ……………………………………,…………False Alarm Rate
FBSE ……………………………………,………..Filter Bank Based Spectrum Estimation
FFT …………………………………………….....Fast Fourier Transform
FHSS …………………………………………......Frequency-Hopped Spread-Spectrum
HF …………………………………………..….…High Frequency
LMMSE…………………………………………...Linear Minimum Mean Squared Error
LS ……………………………………………....…Least Squares
MAI …………………………………….………....Multiple Access Interference
MF ..........................................................….............Matched Filter
MTSE ……………………….………….........……Multi Taper Spectrum Estimation
PSD…………………….……….………………….Power Spectral Density
PD …………………………………………….…...Probability of Detection
PU. ……………….………………………………..Primary User
QPSK ……………………..………...………..…...Quaternary Phase Shift Keying
SNR ……………………….………………….. Signal to Noise Ratio
SCF………………………………………………. Spectral Correlation Function
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List of Figure pages

Figure 2.1 Spectrum sensing structure ............................................................................................ 7
figure 2.2 signal detection outcomes ........................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.1 matrics detection outcomes .........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.2 energy detection in frequency domain ....................................................................... 15
Figure 3.3 block diagram of Energy detection............................................................................. 16
Figure 4.1 flow chart spectrum sensing of energy detection ........................................................ 24
Figure 4.2 probability of energy detection sniped from Matlab ................................................... 25
Figure 4.5 simulation of cyclostationary feature detection snipped from Matlab ........................ 28
Figure 4.6 shows flow chart of matched filter detection .............................................................. 30
Figure 4.7 simulation of matched filter snipped from Matlab ...................................................... 30
figure 4.8 simulaion of mached filtersnipped from Matlab .......................................................... 30
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List of Tables page

Table 3.1 comparison of signal detection mechanisms ............................................................... 22
Table 4. 2 compares sensing time ................................................................................................. 32
Table 4. 3 comparison of element of spectrum sensing techniques .............................................. 33
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Abstract
The thesis focuses on designing model for signal detection techniques for cognitive radio system.
More specifically, identification of presence/absence of a signal from cooperative (known
communication) or none cooperative transmitter under noisy and possibly multipath fading
communication channel has been considered in this thesis. The study has been started
with thorough understanding of the concepts and details of signal detection mechanisms
and spectrum sensing techniques . A different signal detection techniques like energy based
detection, matched filter detection, cyclostationary feature detection, waveform based detection,
radio identification based detection, Covariance Based Detection, Multi taper Based Detection,
Filter Bank Based Estimation, and Random Hough Transform Based Detection has been
done. Moreover, a comparison of the mentioned techniques has been done based on
different features like performance and detecting ability. From the detail studying and the
comparison it has been observed that cyclostationary feature detection is the best method for the
considered system.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
Wireless communication is one of the fastest exponentially growing technology over the last
decade. Although wireless communication is flexible (enable new application), robust
(strong), having mobility (enable anywhere/anytime connectivity) properties and faster to deploy
than wired communication it can experience so many problems such as fading, shadowing,
multiple access interference, scattering, power decaying effects due to obstacles (mountains,
buildings, trees, moving objects such as cars, etc.) and distance until they reach the receiver.
Therefore detection of the presence of signal at the receiver side is highly required. Besides in
order to mitigate challenges with wireless channel; a lot of channel estimation techniques are
also studied. Signal detection plays a key role in military intelligence. T o know an opponent‘s
information in the battlefield is as critical as knowing an ally ‘s information. Signal
detection is the first step for garnering an opponent‘s information. Similarly signal detection
plays a key role in cognitive radio, radar detection, telemedicine, and satellite
communication and telecommunication systems. We have studied the literature review of
signal detection mechanisms such as Energy Detection, Matched Filter Detection, Radio
Identification Based, Filter Bank Based, Covariance Based Detection and Cyclostationary
Feature Detection. We have also tried to compare and contrast their advantages and
disadvantages. We have got Energy Based Detection and Cyclostationary Feature
Detection are the two methods used to detect the presence of a signal from unknown transmit
ter. The rest are used for signal detection from known transmitters [1].
To minimize these undesirable effects, we have studied several signal detection

mechanisms and channel estimation techniques to select best algorithm for detecting the
signal and estimating the channel. Information in applications such as military
communications is exploited by signal interception and jamming. In applications which required
high security such as military application signals from unknown transmitters may reach to the
receiver side. To overcome these problems the study of signal detection mechanisms and
channel estimation techniques are required. Therefore a more advanced signal detection
mechanisms are so important for the existence of a secured society / country.
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1.2 Problem Statement

Most of all the challenges originate from the nature of wireless communications. Unlike wire
line systems, the signal in a wireless system is transmitted over unconstrained propagation
media, mostly in air. Many undesirable phenomena such as: multipath fading, noise & capturing
secured military information by opponent side, inefficient utilization of spectrum, multiple
access interference, scattering, power decaying effects due to obstacles and distance until they
reach the receiver.
In general, the mentioned and other factors cause undesirable effects in the transmitted
signal which affect our communication and hence our receiver becomes unable to detect the
presence and absence of a signal. Therefore we assume to propose this thesis to enhance the
techniques of spectrum sensing for cognitive radio system and develop Matlab algorithm for best
and selected techniques.
1.3 Objective of the Project

1.3.1 Main Objectives
The primary objective of this thesis is to conduct a comprehensive appraisal of the contemporary
techniques used for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks and to provide implementation
of suitable techniques on the Matlab. The secondary objective includes identification of the areas
for improvement of the results and the resolution of the identified deficiencies.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives

 Comparing and contrast the advantages and disadvantages among those spectrum sensing
mechanisms.
 Develop mat lab algorithm for energy detection techniques.
 Develop mat lab algorithm for matched filter detection techniques.
 Develop mat lab algorithm for cyclostationary feature detection.
1.4 Scope of Project

We are doing our work sensing the spectrum using different techniques in the cognitive radio
system so that, it’s easy to identify which spectrum is licensed and which are not licensed by the
primary user to be used by secondary person.
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1.5 Document Outline

This thesis is organized in five chapters and references and the necessary mat lab code are
attached at the last. The second chapter contains the back ground and related work of
Signal Detection and spectrum sensing by cognitive radio. Under this chapter the issues fading
(fast fading, slow fading, flat fading and Doppler shift), correlation functions
(autocorrelation and cross correlation), Cyclostationarity of a signal, spectral correlation
function and its properties are gone through. Chapter 3 is all about the detail study of
signal detection techniques (Energy based detection, Matched Filter Detection,
Cyclostationary based feature Detection, Filter bank based Detection, Radio Identification
based Detection, and Covariance based detection and Mutlitapper detection).Chapter four
covers the results , simulation and discussion of the result achieved in this project. And, the
final chapter, chapter five, contains the conclusion of the achievement and some
recommendations. Appendices are also attached at the end of the paper.
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CHAPTER TWO
BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORKS
2.1 Introduction to Cognitive Radio
This chapter includes the summary of various approaches used to address the problem of
Spectrum Sensing. The chapter encompasses the background work on spectrum sensing
techniques.
Cognitive radios (CRs) are radios that are aware of their surroundings and adapt intelligently [1].
The term surroundings most often refer to other users of spectrum. When performing Dynamic
Spectrum Access (DSA), a cognitive radio acts as a secondary user that has to detect and identify
other radio users in order to not interfere. To accomplish this, CRs use signal detection to sense
spectral occupancy. Without guaranteed signal detection, a CR cannot reliably perform its role.
Signal detection is widely used in many applications. Some examples include cognitive radio
and military intelligence. Similarly, signal detection also plays a key role in military intelligence.
To know an opponent‘s information in the battlefield is as critical as knowing an ally‘s
information. Signal detection is the first step for garnering an opponent‘s information. Signal
detection is the first step for garnering an opponent‘s information. Wireless signal detection can
be performed using many different techniques. Some of the most popular include matched filters,
energy detectors (which use measurements such as the Power Spectral Density (PSD) of
the signal), and cyclostationary Feature Detectors (CFD) [2]. Each of these techniques has
advantages and disadvantages in terms of theoretical and real world performance. Signal
detection technology also has been widely used in many areas, especially in the area of
wireless communication signal processing. Now, with the increase of different networks,
different operations and different access technologies in wireless communication, the
spectrum resource is becoming more and more scarce. The problem of how to further
improve spectrum utilization, the system capacity and quality of service in next-generation
wireless communication needs urgent solutions. The first basic problem concerning
wireless communication signal processing is the detection of signal within a noisy
environment. We have studied a lot of signal detection mechanisms & we have got
cyclostationary feature detection is the best one which can be used to detect signal from
unknown transmitter. One tool to detect Cyclostationarity is Spectral Correlation Function
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(SCF), which can be thought of as a more generalized form of Power Spectral Density
(PSD). The SCF is used in signal processing areas such as signal detection, parameter
estimation, and signal classification [6] [7]. The reason why it is used is that it is robust to
noise and has different unique feature sets for different modulations. Signals are transmitted
using spectrum as a medium in wireless communication. However spectrum is not a cleanǁ
medium, which means that it carries not only the signal of interest but also noise and
interference. Also, there can be distorting effects such shadowing and multipath. All of these
make it difficult to detect signals. The SCF theoretically has better performance i n noisy
environments than PSD [8]; white Gaussian noise shows little spectral correlation within
the noise, and modulated signal has its own spectral correlation feature within itself, which
makes SCF more outstanding. However, there can still exist spectral correlation between the
noise and the signal due to the limited sample sizes, which is called cross-SCF [6]. The effect of
cross-SCF can be bigger if the noise is not truly white, making feature of the signal less visible
because it is hidden by spectral correlation within the noise itself and between noise and the
signal.
2.2 Cognitive Radio

Cognitive Capability: Cognitive capability refers to the ability of radio to sniff or sense
information from its environment and perform real time interaction with it. The cognitive
capability can be explained with the help of three characteristics; Spectrum Sensing, Spectrum
Analysis and Spectrum Decision [10]. The spectrum sensing performs the task of monitoring and
detection of spectrum holes. The spectrum analysis will estimate the characteristic of detected
spectrum hole. In the spectrum decision, the appropriate spectrum is selected by determine the
parameters like data rate, transmission mode etc.
Spectrum Sensing: A cognitive radio senses the radio environment. Finds available spectrum
band, the Information related to its parameters and detects spectrum holes.
Spectrum Analysis: The analyses of the spectrum holes that are detected through spectrum
sensing and their characteristics are estimated.
Spectrum Decision: Cognitive radio first determines its own capabilities e.g. the data rate, the
transmission mode, and the bandwidth of the transmission. Then, the appropriate spectrum band
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selection is made from the spectrum holes determined in spectrum sensing. Once the operating
spectrum band is determined, the communication can be performed over this spectrum band.
However, since the radio environment changes from time to time, the cognitive radio should be
aware of the changes of the radio environment. If some primary user wants to communicate on
the spectrum band, which is in the use of cognitive radio then the spectrum mobility function is
invoked to provide a seamless transmission. Any environmental change during the transmission
such as primary user appearance, user mobility, or traffic variation can activate this adjustment.
Cognitive radio is a type of wireless communication where a transceiver can intelligently
distinguish the channels for communication which are being used and which are not being used,
and move into unused channels while maintaining a strategic distance from occupied ones. This
enhances the utilization of available radio-frequency spectra while interference is minimized to
other users. This is an ideal model for wireless communication during interference with licensed
or unlicensed clients. [3]
2.3 Types of Cognitive Radio

There are two types of Cognitive Radios: Full Cognitive Radio: Full Cognitive Radio (CR)
considers all parameters. A wireless node or network can be conscious of every possible
parameter observable. Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Radio: Detects channels in the radio
frequency spectrum. Fundamental requirement in cognitive radio network is spectrum sensing.
To enhance the detection probability many signal detection techniques are studied in this work.
2.4 Classification of Techniques

The main challenge to the Cognitive radios is the spectrum sensing. In spectrum sensing there is
a need to find spectrum holes in the radio environment for CR users. However it is difficult for
CR to have a direct measurement of channel between primary transmitter and receiver [2]. A CR
cannot transmit and detect the radio environment simultaneously, thus, we need such spectrum
sensing techniques that take less time for sensing the radio environment. In literature the
spectrum sensing techniques have been classified in the following three categories [2].
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Spectrum
Sensing
Transmitter Receiver Interference

Detection Detection Temperature
management
Matched filter
Energy detection Cyclostationary
Figure 2.1 Spectrum sensing structure
2.4.1Transmitter Detection
In transmitter detection we have to find the primary transmitters that are transmitting at any
given time. Hypothesis model for transmitter detection is defined in [7] that is, the signal
received (detected) by the CR (secondary) user is
( ) = { ( ) 0} 1.1
( ) = {ℎ ( ) + ( ) 1} 1.2
Where x(t) signal received by CR , s(t) is the transmitted signal of primary user, n(t) is the
Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) and h is the amplitude gain of the is hypothesis model
we generally use three transmitter n(t) where x (t) is the sign d by CR, s (t) channel. On the basis
of the detection techniques [4]: Matched Filter Detection, Energy Detection and Cyclostationary
Feature Detection now in the following section we will discuss each of the transmitter detection
technique their pros and their cons.
2.5 Factors Influencing Transmitted Signal

The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation Channel:
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1. Multipath propagation – Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals
reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath include
constructive and destructive interference, and Phase shifting of the signal.
2. Speed of the mobile – The relative motion between the base station and the Mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath
components.
3. Speed of surrounding objects – If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a
time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at a
greater rate than the mobile, then this effect Dominates fading.
4. Transmission Bandwidth of the signal – If the transmitted radio signal Bandwidth is
greater than the ―bandwidthǁ of the multipath channel (quantified by coherence bandwidth) the
received signal will be distorted Used in spectrum sensing. [4]
2.4 Types of Small-Scale Fading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel depends on the
relation between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the Channel
parameters (RMS delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence we have four Different types of
fading. There are two types of fading due to the time dispersive nature of the channel.
2.5 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

Flat fading such type of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than
the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the Signal is more
than the RMS delay spread of the channel, then the fading is flat fading. Fading Frequency
selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence Bandwidth of the
mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols duration of the signal is less than the RMS
delay spread.
2.6 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread

Fast Fading In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
symbol duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion
leading to distortion. Transmission involving very low data rates suffers from fast fading.
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In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much less than the
transmitted signal. We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in which channel is almost
constant over at least one symbol duration. The Doppler Effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in
frequency of a wave for an Observe r moving relative to the source of the wave.
2.7 Correlations Function

Correlation determines the degree of similarity between two signals. If the signals are identical,
then the correlation coefficient is 1; if they are totally different, the correlation coefficient is 0,
and if they are identical except that the phase is shifted by exactly 1800 (i.e. mirrored), then
the correlation coefficient is -1
2.7.1 Auto correlations Function

When the same signal is compared to phase shifted copies of itself, the procedure is known as
autocorrelation. Auto correlations function is a method which is frequently used for the
extraction of fundamental frequency, F0: if a copy of the signal is shifted in phase, the
distance between correlation peaks is taken to be the fundamental period of the signal
(directly related to the fundamental frequency). The method may be combined with the
simple smoothing operations of peak and center clipping, or with other low-pass filter
operations.
2.7.2 Cross correlation
When two independent signals are compared, the procedure is known as cross correlation. A
function which is related to the correlation function, but arithmetically less complex, is the
average magnitude difference function. Cross-correlation is the method which basically
underlies implementations of the Fourier transformation: signals of varying frequency and phase
are correlated with the input signal, and the degree of correlation in terms of frequency
and phase represents the frequency and phase spectrums of the input signal.
2.7.2 Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)

Cyclostationary features of signals are measured using SCF. That is, SCF is used to show
Cyclostationarity of signals. Therefore, before the SCF is investigated, Cyclostationarity is
introduced first.
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2.8 Cyclostationarity
Stationary processes are processes whose mean and autocorrelation do not change as time
changes. Cyclostationary processes, which have the property of Cyclostationarity, are
processes whose statistical parameters, mean and autocorrelation, show periodicity [9].That
is, its mean and autocorrelation change with periodicity as time varies. This periodicity is
called second-order periodicity. Many stochastic processes generated by technical processes
exhibit Cyclostationarity. Examples include most modulated communication signals and
vibration noise produced by rotating machines [9]. Cyclostationarity is described mathematically
as [10]:
( + )=m( ) 1.3
R ( + , ) = R( , ) 1.4
Where R ( , ) =* E{ x( + )*(t- )} , x(t) mean of process x(t) at time t and R (t, ) is
autocorrelation of process x(t) with time difference and E{▪} denotes the Mathematical
expectation. T0 is a period.
2.9 Definition of Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)

The SCF represents how much the spectral components of a process are correlated with
other spectral components of the process. The SCF can be derived from Cyclic
Autocorrelation Function (CAF). Before looking into SCF, we define the CAF to understand
the concept of cycle frequency. As previously described, a cyclostationary process exhibits
periodicity in its autocorrelation. If the autocorrelation of a process is periodic with T0, it
indicates that the autocorrelation has its own frequency called the cycle frequency (denoted by
α), which can be described as = / 0 where m is integer. Since it is periodic with frequency
α, it can be described in Fourier series [11]
R ( , Ʈ) = ∑ ( ) (1)
Where (Ʈ ) is the CAF of process x (t) with cycle frequency α, which is also the Fourier
coefficients of the autocorrelation of process x (t). Thus, the Fourier coefficients can be
expressed as
(t) =lim1/ T ∫ (t, ) dt (2)
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For more than periodicity [6][7]. In short, the CAF ( ) can be said to indicate the magnitude
of the autocorrelation with of x(t) at a component cycle frequency α. In addition, an
interesting thing is that if the cyclic autocorrelation is not periodic but constant (that is α=0) it is
equal to simple autocorrelation, which means that cyclic autocorrelation includes autocorrelation.
According to the Wiener relation, the Fourier transform of autocorrelation is identical to
PSD. The Wiener relation can extend to cyclic autocorrelation, resulting in cyclic Wiener
relation which embraces the α≠0 cases [10].
According to the cyclic Wiener relation, the Fourier transforms of the CAF is equal to SCF,
expressed as [12]
(f) = ∫ (t, ) d (3)
The algorithm used to calculate the Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)
1. Read n samples into vector z
2. Multiply vector z with exp (-i*pi*alpha*t) store in x (alpha is the cyclic frequency) which
will take a series of values for each vector z, t is the time.
3. Multiply vector z with exp (i*pi*alpha*t) store in y
4. Multiply x, y with a Kaiser-window
5. Take the N-point FFT of x, y (N < n)
6. Conjugate X (the FFT of x)
7. Multiply X* and Y
8. Repeat from 5 until all n samples are processed and sum up the results from 7
9. Normalize the result from 8
10. Repeat from 2 until the entire series of alpha-values are processed.
SCF describes a spectral characteristic that comes from Cyclostationarity. A reason why the
spectral correlation concept has been studied is that it has some properties which can be used in
practical situation resulting in better performance compared to other methods of detecting
such as PSD. One property is that the SCF of same modulation type with different
number of possible symbols, such as Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quaternary
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PSK (QPSK), have different unique features. This is in contrast to the PSD which has
identical features on the same modulation type. This property helps to detect expected signal
and classify signals according to modulation type.
2.7 Summary of Literature Review

This Chapter reviews the techniques and factor that influence transmission of signal in order to
study the spectrum sensing for cognitive radios. Since the purpose of this work is to analyze the
transmitter detection techniques therefore the focus has been kept on the transmitter detection
techniques.
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CHAPTER THREE
SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Spectrum Sensing Techniques
Wireless signal detection can be performed using many different techniques. Some of the most
popular include energy based detectors, matched filters, Cyclostationary feature based detection,
waveform based detection, radio identification based detection, covariance based detection, and
filter bank based detection. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages in terms
of theoretical and real world performance. Taking an assumption of two hypotheses H0 and H1to
represent the presence of a signal in a receiver side; the corresponding signal model is given by
( ) 0
( )= (3.1)
ℎ∗ ( )+ ( )
Where r(t) is the received signal at the sensor.
W(t) is the additive white Gaussian noise
S(t) is the transmitted signal.
Signal detection outcome matrix:

Stimulus
Present Absent
FALSE
HIT
ALARM
“YES”
Participant response
“NO”
MISS CORRECTION
REJECTION
Figure 3.1 shows detection outcomes
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3.1.1 Energy Detector Based Detection

Detecting unknown signals is a critical topic in wireless communications and has attracted for
years the attention of both Academia and Industry. The detection is typically realized in the form
of spectrum sensing with energy detection (ED) constituting the most simple and popular
method. The operating principle of ED is based on the deployment of a radiometer, which is a
non-coherent detection device that measures the energy level of a received signal waveform over
an observation time window. The obtained measure is subsequently compared with a
predefined energy threshold which determines accordingly whether an unknown signal is
present or not. It would be hard to distinguish between the transmitted signal and noise signal
when the signal-to-noise ratio is very low. For this reason, the knowledge of the noise
power can be used to improve the detection performance of the energy detector. Energy
detection (also known as a radiometer) is non-coherent, which means it is simple to implement
because it doesn‘t require much information for coherent processing. However it is a suboptimal
technique because its performance is not useful in some environments, such as under low SNR.
There are two main ways of performing energy detection. A conventional energy detector
consists of a low pass filter to filter out band noise and adjacent signals, Nyquist sampling
A/D converter, square-law device and integrator, which is time domain representation of
energy detection [13] [14]. A realization of this energy detector is illustrated in below fig
(1).Another way of performing energy detection is by using a period gram, which is
frequency domain representation [14]. I t is also depicted in Figure (2). I t estimates
spectrum via squared magnitude of the FFT. In terms of result, both approaches don‘t make any
difference. However, in terms of utilization, the latter is typically preferred. That is, using pre-
filter which should be matched to the bandwidth of the signal makes the time domain
approach inflexible compared to the frequency domain approach because frequency domain
approach provides the flexibility to process wider bandwidth and detect multiple signals at the
same time if the signals have different center Frequency, which enables to process
arbitrary bandwidth of modulated signals [13] [14].
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signal s(t) A/D () Average N
Number
Figure 3.2 Energy Detection in Time Domain
Signal s(t) A/D K point ‖ Average M

FFT bins N times
Figure 3.3 Energy Detection in frequency Domain

There are some drawbacks of the energy detector in terms of susceptibility to noise and
time performance. The energy detector is susceptible to noise especially in low SNR
Environments. Because it is not able to differentiate signal from noise, the signal can be hidden
below noise in a low SNR environment, which makes it unable to be detected. This
drawback results in the lower SNR ―wallǁ, which is minimum SNR level below which
signals cannot be detected, than under other signal detectors. Therefore, the energy detector
has good performance only above the SNR wall, and poor performance below it. In
addition, under noise uncertainty , there can be a higher probability of false detection [13].
Also, it is susceptible to spread spectrum signals such as direct-sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS) and frequency-hopped spread-spectrum (FHSS) modulation because DSSS has no
identifiable spectral feature and FHSS modulated signal itself can be interference [2] [15].
Another disadvantage of the energy detection is that timing or phasing properties of signal
of interest cannot be identified from energy detector, which is overcome by using more
systems though [15]. I n terms of time performance, due to the non-coherent processing,
O(1/SNR2) samples are needed to meet a probability of detection constraint, which
indicates that, in the environment of SNR<1, the energy detector requires more samples to
meet a probability of detection constraint compared to a matched filter which needs O(1/SNR)
samples [2]. Thus, under a low SNR environment, a longer time to sense the signal is
needed with an energy detector than with a matched filter, but it will be a shorter amount of
time than CFDs (discussed next) [16]. Mathematical model for Energy detection is given by the
following two hypotheses H0 and H1:
15
Let H0: (signal absent)
y (n) = u(n) n = 1, 2, . . . ,N 3.2
H1: (Signal Present) 3.3
y(n) = s(n) + u(n) n = 1, 2, . . . ,N 3.4
Where u(n) is noise and s (n) is the Transmitted signal.
Band pass ( ) >

yo
filter <
S(t) r(t) (. ) decide
Figure 3.4 Block Diagram of Energy Detection

There are some drawbacks of the energy detector in terms of susceptibility to noise and
time performance. The energy detector is susceptible to noise especially in low SNR
Environments. Because it is not able to differentiate signal from noise, the signal can be
hidden below noise in a low SNR environment, which makes it unable to be detected.
This drawback results in the lower SNR ―wallǁ, which is minimum SNR level below
which signals cannot be detected, than under other signal detectors. Therefore, the energy
detector has good performance only above the SNR wall, and poor performance below it.
In addition, under noise uncertainty , there can be a higher probability of false detection
[13]. Also, it is susceptible to spread spectrum signals such as direct-sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) and frequency-hopped spread-spectrum (FHSS) modulation because DSSS
has no identifiable spectral feature and FHSS modulated signal itself can be interference
[2] [15]. Another disadvantage of the energy detection is that timing or phasing properties
of signal of interest cannot be identified from energy detector, which is overcome by using
more systems though [15]. I n terms of time performance, due to then on-coherent processing,
O (1/SNR2) samples are needed to meet a probability of detection constraint, which
indicates that, in the environment of SNR<1, the energy detector requires more samples to
meet a probability of detection constraint compared to a matched filter which needs O(1/SNR)
samples [2]. Thus, under a low SNR environment, a longer time to sense the signal is needed
16
with an energy detector than with a matched filter, but it will be a shorter amount of time
than CFDs (discussed next) [6].
The band pass filter selects the specific Band of frequency to which the transmitted signal wants
to detect. After the band pass filter there is a squaring device which is used to measure
the received energy. The energy which is found by squaring device is then passed through
integrator which determines the observation interval T. Now the output of integrator is
compared with a value called threshold and if the values are above the threshold, it will
consider that signal is present otherwise signal absent.
3.1.2 Matched Filter Detection

Matched filter is a technique for detecting the presence of a signal of a certain shape
when assuming that noise is A WGN. Matched filter is the optimal way for signal detection,
since it can turn low SNR into high SNR regime so that arbitrary weak signals can be
detected [13]. To yield the highest SNR, matched filter controls the impulse response of its
filter. To properly control the impulse response, matched filter detection requires a priori
knowledge of signal, which means that the received signal is a deterministic signal to the
receiver. A prior knowledge includes modulation type and order, pulse shaping, packet
format, etc. However, since this a priori knowledge is mostly stored in detector‘s memory, it is
not a burdensome process. Another thing to care about is coherency. Coherency in matched
filter designs can be achieved by timing and carrier synchronization, as well as channel
equalization [2]. To keep a coherency with existing signal, matched filter detection uses pilots,
preambles, synchronization words or spreading codes. TV signals which have a narrowband
pilot for audio and video carriers and CDMA systems which have dedicated spreading codes
for pilot and synchronization channels are examples that can be used for overcoming the
coherency problem [2]. An advantage of a matched filter in addition to its optimal
performance is that it requires O(1/SNR) samples to meet a target probability of error
constraint [17]. The number of samples required is related to time performance. Thus, in the
case of SNR<1, matched filter detection can give high processing gain with shorter time
than other techniques, such as energy detectors (which requires O(1/SNR2) samples) [17].
The time performance of matched filter is a lower bound on the sensing time for any
17
possible sensing detector type [13]. The drawbacks of matched filters come from its
characteristics. Since it requires a priori knowledge of the waveform and coherency with
received signal, it is difficult to use in the real world. Practically, this means that in the
presence of channel distortion, The receiver must be matched to the convolution of a
predetermined impulse response of a filter and the impulse response of a channel which
generally can‘t be identified [18]. Also, a significant disadvantage of matched filters is that
they need a dedicated receiver for every different class of signals, which is not applicable to
a radio which is expected to detect more than one signal such as cognitive radio because it have
an ability to detect all the primary user classes. A matched filter is a linear filter designed to
provide the maximum signal-to noise ratio at its output for a given transmitted waveform [3].
Figure below depicts the block diagram of matched filter. The signal received by CR is input to
matched filter which is as follow
r(t) = s(t) + n(t). 3.5
The matched filter convolves the r (t) with h (t) where h (t) = s (T-t + τ). Finally the output of
matched filter is compared with a threshold λ to decide whether the primary user is present or
not.
3.1.3 Waveform Based Detection

Known patterns are usually utilized in wireless systems to assist synchronization or for
other purposes. Such patterns include preambles, midambles, regularly transmitted pilot
patterns, spreading sequences etc. A preamble is a known sequence transmitted before each burst
and a midamble is transmitted in the middle of a burst or slot. In the presence of a known pattern,
sensing can be performed by correlating the received signal with a known copy of itself. This
method is only applicable to systems with known signal patterns, and it is termed as waveform-
based sensing or coherent sensing. Waveform based sensing out performs energy detector based
sensing in reliability and convergence time. The performance of the sensing algorithm also
increases as the length of the known signal pattern increases. Let us assume that the received
signal has the following simple form
y (n) = s(n) + w(n) 3.6
18
Where s (n) is the signal to be detected, w (n) is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
sample, and n is the sample index. The waveform-based sensing metric can be obtained as
= ℜ [∑ ( )∗ ( )] 3.7
Where represents * the conjugation operation, ℜ denotes the real part. In the absence of the
primary user, the metric value becomes
= ℜ [∑ ( )∗ ( )] 3.8
Similarly, in the presence of a primary users signal, the sensing metric becomes
=∑ |s(n)|2+ℜ [∑ ( )∗ ( )] (3.9)
The decision on the presence of a transmitted signal can be made by comparing the
decision metric M against a fixed threshold.
3.1.4 Cyclostationary Feature Detection (CFD)

From the properties of SCF discussed before, stationary noise exhibits no spectral
correlation, which makes modulated signals that are severally masked by noise be more
effectively detected by CFD using SCF rather than energy detection using PSD [19]. Since
matched filter detection is hard to achieve for general signal detection in real world
environments, CFD is compared against energy detection. The reason why SCF is used for
CFD rather than CAF is similar to talking about the difference between temporal anal y
sis and spectral analysis. Spectral analysis enables CFD to view the received signal
within certain range of frequency, not a whole frequency range, which is difficult in
temporal view because plenty of signal components of frequencies are superimposed. One
of the advantages of CFD is a high noise tolerance, which means that it has the ability to
separate signal from noise. SCF which is used for CFD is described as at coordinates of
frequency f and cycle frequency α , whereas the energy detector has only frequency
component f. The CFD uses signal features which are discretely distributed in the cycle
frequency in the cyclic spectrum, even if continuous distribution is exhibited in the power
spectrum. This indicates that overlapping features in the power spectrum of signals can have
non-overlapping features in the cyclic spectrum, that is, SCF features are not overlapped
19
due to its discretely distributed property [15]. This characteristic is applied to background
noise which is assumed to have no cyclic feature at α ≠ 0 and, therefore, is used to analyze
signals at a nonzero cycle frequency where only a signal of interest feature which has
cyclostationarity is expected to appear and the noise to disappear. Such analysis will expose
the cyclostationary features of a signal without any other features caused by background
noise except measurement noise [5].
From the fact that PSD is a part of SCF when α=0 , the author says that, only when α =
0 , large noise appears and hide a PSD feature of a signal and , in area when α ≠ 0 ,
large noise does not appear and SCF features of the signal is still visible without being
buried under noise. Thus the CFD detects the target signal by inspecting not the SCF
features in α = 0 region but SCF features in α ≠ 0 region, because SCF features in α ≠ 0
area are not buried by Another advantage of CFD is that it is able to identify modulation
types by examining SCF features at α ≠ 0 since these features often change with
modulation type. In [2], the SCF has its unique features even under low SNR environments using
AWGN as a noise. In high SNR environments (SNR > 1), when a signal strength is larger
than noise strength, PSD and SCF show their unique features in bi-frequency plane as in
Fig4. However, in low SNR environments (SNR < 1) when noise strength is larger than signal
strength, PSD is hidden by noise and its unique Feature is not visible. Thus, it is impossible for
energy detector (which uses PSD) to know whether the signal exists or not. Whereas, SCF
features when α ≠ 0 is still visible regardless of noise strengt noise which has little spectral
correlation. Furthermore, by inspecting the locations and relative magnitudes of the peaks
at α ≠ 0, the modulation type can also be identified. However, the CFD has a
disadvantage in the computation aspect. I t can be easily seen that the CFD using the SCF
is more complex to calculate than energy detection because the PSD (which can be used in
energy detection) is only one part of the SCF. In other words, the PSD can be represented using
a 2-dimensional plot whereas the SCF requires a 3-dimensional plot The PSD only considers
one parameter (frequency) But SCF considers two parameters (frequency and cycle
frequency) which give intuition that the SCF takes up more calculation than PSD. The
computational complexity of SCF depends on the resolution of frequency f as PSD does.
However, increment of the FFT resolution has larger effect on the computational complexity of
20
SCF than that of PSD. Figure 4 below shows the computational process of the SCF. The
detailed operation of N-point FFT and correlation is shown in the rectangle. I n terms of
complex multiplier, the number of multiplier in SCF scales as O(N2+NlogN) whereas
that of energy detection scales as O (N), where N is there solution of FFT [21] [20].
Note that this O (N) is computational performance, that is, the number of operations
needed at certain samples, whereas O (1/SNR2) is time performance which is that how many
samples are needed to meet certain detection performance under certain SNR level[6].
A/D N oint FFT Correlate Average Feature detect

over T
X(f+a)X(f-a)
X(k+M)
FFT = { /2,M/2}
X(k-M)
Figure 3.5 Block Diagram of Cyclostationary Feature Detection [3]
3.2 Principle of Cyclostationarity

Modulated signals are in general coupled with cosine carrier, repeating spreading,
oversampling etc., resulting in built-in periodicity. When the signal‘s mean and autocorrelation
exhibit periodicity,
i.e., mx(t+T) = mx (t), Rx(t+T, u+T)= Rx(t,u), We call this signal a second- order cyclic statistics
process. The auto-correlation of signal x(t) is defined as
(t, )=lim → + 1∑ ( + + )x*(t-τ/2+n ) 3.9
21
Since Rx(t,τ) is periodic with period T0, it can be expressed as a Fourier series
Representation
_
(τ)=1/ ∫ ( , ) dT 3.10
(f)= ∫ ( ) d = X (f+ )X*(f- ) 3.11

Where X (f) is the Fourier Transform of the signal x(t). From above we can find that ( ) is the
correlation of the signal spectrum.
Detection Method Advantage Disadvantage

Energy Detection No need of prior Performance poor at low SNR
knowledge, low computation Lead to false detection
,less expensive
Matched Filter Detection Require less time to achieve Prior knowledge of primary
high processing gain. user required, need coherent
detection
Waveform Based detection reliability and convergence only applicable to systems

time with known signal patterns
Covariance Based Detection can be used for various Complexity
signal detection applications
without knowledge of the
signal, the channel and
noise power
Radio Identification Higher dimensional only applicable to systems

knowledge and Higher with known signal patterns
accuracy.
Filter Bank Based Detection conventional method for requirement for many band-
spectral estimation pass filters in the receiver
Cyclostationary Based Perform well at low SNR Computationally complex,

Feature Detection Require large observation time
Table 3.1 Comparison of signal detection mechanisms
22
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The design and implementation of our project is based on cyclostationary feature
spectrum, energy detection spectrum and matched filter sensing spectrum. These signal detection
mechanism are the best promising technique over the others. There are because was applicable
in low signal to noise ratio (low SNR) under noisy environments. Cyclostationary feature
detection is a method for detecting transmitted signal by exploiting the Cyclostationarity features
of the received signals. Cyclostationary features are caused by the periodicity in the signal or in
its statistics like mean and autocorrelation or they can be intentionally induced to assist detection
of a signal. Instead of power spectral density (PSD), cyclic correlation function is used for
detecting signals present in a given receiver. The Cyclostationarity based detection algorithms
can differentiate noise from transmitted signals. This is a result of the fact that noise is
wide-sense stationary (WSS) with no correlation while modulated signals are
cyclostationary with spectral correlation due to the redundancy of signal periodicities.
Furthermore, Cyclostationarity can be used for distinguishing among different types of
transmissions and transmitted signals [3]
4.2 Energy Detection

The simplest detection technique for spectrum sensing is Energy Detection. As discussed in
Chapter three energy detector measures the energy received from primary user during the
Observation interval. If energy is less then certain threshold value then it declares it as Spectrum
hole. Let r(t The simplest detection technique for spectrum sensing is Energy Detection. As
discussed in Chapter two energy detector measures the energy received from primary user during
the observation interval. If energy is less then certain threshold value then it declares it as
spectrum hole. Let r(t) is the received signal which we have to pass from energy detector. The
procedure of the Energy Detector is as follows.
23
Start
Pxx=period gram(r)
estimate Power spectrum
density
Hpsd=dspdata.psd (pxx)
Integral of PSD
Each freq point consist of 20

Points in Matlab. Sum the
point of each freq.
Determine threshold in this

case on experimental basis
z
Primary user present
Primary Y>z End

user is
absent
Figure 4.1 shows flow chart spectrum sensing of energy detection
24
Figure 4.2 probability of energy detection sniped from Matlab

As you observe from the above figure when there is no primary user, even then energy detector
detects that primary user is present under low SNR conditions. This is the main drawback of
energy detection that it can’t distinguish between noise and energy of the signal. Under low SNR
conditions energy detector told that primary user is present in all around the spectrum if it is
white noise.
25
4. 3 probability of false detection snipped from Matlab
4.4 Cyclostationary sensing result

Cyclostationary Feature Detection as discussed in Chapter three. It uses inbuilt features in the
primary user’s waveform for detection. Hence, it is computationally complex detector. Flow
chart for the implementation of Cyclostationary Feature Detector is shown in Figure 4.3 Let r(t)
is the received signal which we have to pass from Cyclostationary feature detector detector. The
procedure of the Cyclostationary Feature Detection is as follows.
Step 1: First take Fourier of the received signal by using ‘fft’ function. R=fft(r)
Step 2: Multiple r with complex exponential. As multiplication with complex exponential in
time domain is equivalent to frequency shift infrequency domain.
XT=r.*exp (j*2*pi *shfT);
Step 3: Correlate XT with R
XY=xcorr(XT,R); Average over time T pt= fft(XY).*conj(fft(XY))
Step 4: On experimental basis when results at low and high SNR are compared then threshold is
set to be1<λ<5.
26
Step 5: Finally the output of the integrator, pt is compared with a threshold value λ to decide
whether primary user is present or not.
Step 6: Now if the primary user is present then we can find features of the primary signal like
operating frequency and modulation technique.
Start
Compute R(t) by applying fft

function of MATLAB
Multiply r(t) with complex

exponential
Correlate R(f) and XT

XY =xcorr(R,XT)
Averaging End
Pt= fft(XY).*conj(fft(XY))
Determine threshold in this case

Compute feature like
on experimental basis
operating frequency
1<Ի<5 and modulation
Primary Y> Ի
user Primary user present
absent
Figure 4.4 shows flow chart of cyclostationary spectrum sensing
27
Figure 4.5 simulation of cyclostationary feature miss detection snipped from Matlab
4.2 Matched Filter Detection

Another technique for spectrum sensing is Matched Filter as discussed in Chapter three. Matched
filter requires prior knowledge about primary user’s waveform. Hence, it requires less sensing
time for detection. Flow chart of Matched Filter is shown in Figure 4.7. Let r (t) is the received
signal which we have to pass from matched filter. The procedure of the matched filter is as
follows.
Step 1: For the matched filter prior knowledge of primary user wave form is required. Therefore
a local carrier is generated using local oscillator.
Step 2: xcorr estimates the cross-correlation sequence of a random process. Autocorrelation is
handled as a special case.
Step 3: On experimental basis when results at low and high SNR are compared then threshold λ
is set to be±35.
28
Step 4: Finally the output of the integrator, Y is compared with a threshold value λ to decide
whether primary user is present or not
Flow chart of matched filter detection
Start
Pxx=period gram(r)
Estimate power spectral
density
Hpsd= dspdata psd (pxx)

Integral of psd
Each freq point consists

of 20 point in Matlab;
sum the points of each
freq.
Determine thresholds
Primary user Y> Primary

user present
Is absent
End
29
Figure 4.6 simulation of matched filter snipped from Matlab
Figure 4.7 simulation of matched filter snipped from Matlab
30
Figure 4.8 simulation of matched filter detection snipped from Matlab
4.3 Comparison of Transmitter Detection Techniques

Now consider some metrics on the basis of which we can compare transmitter detection
techniques. There are three metrics on the basis of which we can compare these Techniques.
Metrics for
comparison
Sensing time Detection Sensitivity Ease for implementation
Figure 4.5 Comparison of transmitter detection implementation

4.3.1 Sensing Time
During communication cognitive radio continuously sense the radio environment for Spectrum
holes and CR can’t transmit and sense at the same time. Therefore we need Sensing time as small
31
as possible. Matched Filtering is a good technique for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio
networks if we have prior knowledge about primary users waveform. But in most of cases we
have no prior knowledge about primary user’s wave form which makes it difficult for the use of
Spectrum sensing. It requires least sensing time to achieve high processing gain due to
coherency. Comparing Energy Detector and Matched Filtering, Energy Detector requires a
longer sensing time to achieve good results as shown in Table 4.1 Cyclostationary Feature
Detection is also a non coherent technique which makes it Superior to Matched Filtering.
Cyclostationary Feature Detection technique is computationally very complex and it takes long
observation time for sensing.
Sr. number Type of Primary Energy detection Matched filter cyclostationary
signal
1 BPSK 1.20sec 0.17sec 9..5sec
2 QPSK 1.23sec 0.2sec 11.21sec
Table 4. 2 compare sensing time
hence from the experimental results in Table 4.2 shows that matched filter requires least among
the all sensing techniques and cyclostationary takes most.
4.3.2 Detection Sensitivity
As matched filter required prior knowledge about primary user’s wave form but in comparison
with energy detector it is still better under noisy environment. The major drawback of the energy
detector is that it is unable to differentiate between sources of received energy i.e. it cannot
distinguish between noise and primary user. So this makes it susceptible technique when there
are uncertainties in background noise power, especially at low SNR. Cyclostationary Feature
Detector is good technique under noisy environment as it is able to distinguish between noise
energy and signal energy. Figure 5.1 shows comparison of transmitter detection techniques when
there is primary user is present under different SNRs. Results shows that at low SNR when
primary user is present
4.3.3 Ease for Implementation
The advantage of energy detector is its low cost and simple implementation, which makes it a
good candidate for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks. Matched Filter is not easy to
implement because it requires generating carrier at receiver, which increases the cost of cognitive
32
radio. Cyclostationary Feature Detection is also very complex technique which takes high cost
and high computational complexity. Table below shows comparison element for signal detection
techniques.
Sr. No. Type Energy detection Matched filter Cyclostationary

1 Sensing time More less most
2 Simple to implement Yes no no
3 Performance under noise Poor bad good
4 Prior knowledge No yes no
required
Table 4. 3Comparison of element of spectrum sensing techniques
Summary
The designed test program is written in MATLAB. The program comprises of three major
techniques (i.e. Energy Detector, Matched Filter and Cyclostationary Feature Detection). We
compare three of them in terms of different parameter like signal to noise ratio, sensing time,
probability of detection, probability false detection, probability of false alarm, probability miss
detection and probability of correct rejection.
33
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
As the demand of radio spectrum increases in past few years and licensed bands are used In
efficiently, improvement in the existing spectrum access policy is expected. Dynamic Spectrum
access is imagine to resolve the spectrum shortage by allowing unlicensed users to dynamically
utilize spectrum holes across the licensed spectrum on non interfering Basis. This Thesis was
aimed towards the detection and classification of primary user’s wave form in cognitive radio
networks. The primary requirement of a spectrum sensing System is its real time processing and
decision making. The proposed methodology has been implemented on a desktop PC and
requires MATLAB support for simulation.
First all the transmitter detection techniques are compared on the basis of three metrics: Sensing
Time, Detection Sensitivity and ease of implementation. By comparing these techniques it is
concluded that cyclostationary feature detection gives best results but take long computation time
compared to other techniques.
Finally it is concluded that every detection technique has an SNR threshold below which it will
fail to operate robustly. So by using the results of different techniques at the same time better
results can be obtained. In this thesis main issues associated with spectrum sensing techniques
are highlighted. Performance of these spectrum sensing techniques limits due to uncertainty in
the noise level. As we have tried to explain earlier the main purpose of this project is to detect
the presence or absence of a signal from known or unknown transmitters. The need of the study
is that in order to check the presence of a signal from unknown /known transmitter. This in turn
helps us in order not to exploit information in applications that required security such as military
applications. Signal interception and jamming are the two hazards that must be protected. We
have reviewed a number of signal detection & channel estimation techniques such as Energy
detection, Matched filter detection, Filter based detection, Radio Identification based
detection & Cyclostationary based feature detection to detect presence or absence of a signal
from known &unknown transmitters at the receiver of a communication channel. We have seen
that the Energy detection is the simplest method of detection which simply compares the energy
of the received signal with predetermined threshold value to decide whether a signal is present or
34
not. If the amount of energy level is beyond that threshold it decides signal present otherwise
signal absent. But the main drawback is it cannot work for low SNR. it means that it is highly
susceptible to noise. it is not able to differentiate signal from noise, the signal can be hidden
below noise in a low SNR environment, which makes it unable to be detected. The advantage
is in addition to its simplicity it does not also required a prior knowledge of the signal.
Unlike the Energy detection the Matched filter detection is the optimal way for signal detection,
since it can turn low SNR into high SNR regime so that arbitrary weak signals can be detected.
To yield the highest SNR, matched filter controls the impulse response of its filter. To properly
control the impulse response, matched filter detection requires a priori knowledge of signal,
which means that the received signal is a deterministic signal to the receiver. A priori
knowledge includes modulation type and order, pulse shaping, packet format, etc.
However Matched filter detection also has disadvantage as it needs a dedicated receiver for
every different class of signals, which is not applicable to a radio which is expected to detect
more than one signal such as cognitive radio because it has to have an ability to detect all
the primary user classes. We have found that the most and the best algorithm of
detecting a signal from unknown transmitter is cyclostationary based feature detection sine it is
applicable in low SNR value(noisy environment).Mean and Autocorrelation shows periodicity.
5.2 Recommendation
Most of the research on spectrum sensing is mainly focused on reliable sensing to meet the
regulatory requirements. One of the important areas for the research is to focus on user level
cooperation among cognitive radios and system level cooperation among different cognitive
radio networks to overcome the noise level uncertainties. In this work, the noise level
uncertainties are catered by a proper combination of spectrum sensing techniques.
Another area for research is cross layer communication in which spectrum sensing and higher
layer functionalities can help in improving quality of service (QoS).
35
Annex 1
MATLAB Code of Energy detector
The MATLAB script ‘energy detector .m’, presented below, simulates the Energy Detector for
Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks. The code is self explanatory and consists of
following parts.
clc
close all
clear all
L = 1000;
snr_dB = -14; % SNR in decibels
snr = 10.^(snr_dB./10); % Linear Value of SNR
Pf = 0.01:0.01:1; % Pf = Probability of False Alarm
%% Simulation to plot Probability of Detection (Pd) vs. Probability of False Alarm (Pf)
for m = 1:length(Pf)
m
i = 0;
for kk=1:10000 % Number of Monte Carlo Simulations
n = randn(1,L); %AWGN noise with mean 0 and variance 1
s = sqrt(snr).*randn(1,L); % Real valued Gaussina Primary User Signal
y = s + n; % Received signal at SU
energy = abs(y).^2; % Energy of received signal over N samples
energy_fin =(1/L).*sum(energy); % Test Statistic for the energy detection
thresh(m) = (qfuncinv(Pf(m))./sqrt(L))+ 1; % Theoretical value of Threshold, refer, Sensing
Throughput Tradeoff in Cognitive Radio, Y. C. Liang
if(energy_fin >= thresh(m)) % Check whether the received energy is greater than threshold, if so,
increment Pd (Probability of detection) counter by 1
i = i+1;
end
end
Pd(m) = i/kk;
end
36
plot(Pf, Pd,'linewidth',2)
hold on
grid on
%% Theroretical ecpression of Probability of Detection; refer above reference.
thresh = (qfuncinv(Pf)./sqrt(L))+ 1;
Pd_the = qfunc(((thresh - (snr + 1)).*sqrt(L))./(sqrt(2).*(snr + 1)));
plot(Pf, Pd_the, 'r-')
xlabel('probablity of false detection')
ylabel('probability of detection')
37
MATLAB Code of Matched Filter

The MATLAB script ‘matchedfilter.m’, presented below, simulates the Matched Filter
For Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks.
MATLAB Script matchedfilter.m
clear all; clc;
n=10; %Number of data symbols
Tsym=8; %Symbol time interms of sample time or oversampling rate equivalently
SNRstep=5;
SNR_dB=-20:SNRstep:20;
rng('default');%set the random generator seed to default.
BinData=round(rand(1,n));
data=2*BinData-1; %BPSK data Unipolar 2 Bipolar
bpsk=reshape(repmat(data,1,Tsym)',n*Tsym,1); %BPSK signal
L=length(bpsk);
PDc1=0;
PDc2=0;
PFc1=0;
PFc2=0;
PFc=0;
PFs=0.1;
for i=1:length(SNR_dB)
SNR = 10^(SNR_dB(i)/10); %SNR to linear scale
Esym=sum(abs(bpsk).^2)/(L); %Calculate actual symbol energy
N0=Esym/SNR; %Find the noise spectral density
noiseSigma = sqrt(N0);%Standard deviation for AWGN Noise when x is real
noise(:,i) = noiseSigma*randn(1,L);%computed noise
receivedx(:,i)=bpsk+noise(:,i) ;
receivedfliped=flipud(receivedx(:,i));
impRes = [0.5 ones(1,6) 0.5]; %Averaging Filter -> u[n]-u[n-Tsamp]
yy1(:,i)=conv(receivedx(:,i),impRes,'full');
38
xp(:,i)=receivedfliped;
thresh(:,i)=noise(:,i).*xp(:,i);
yy2(:,i)=filter(xp(:,i),1,receivedx(:,i));
for j = 1:L
if(yy1(j,i)>thresh(j,i))
PDc1=PDc1+1;
end
if(yy2(j,i)>thresh(j,i))
PDc2=PDc2+1;
end
if(noise(j,i)>thresh(j,i))
PFc=PFc+1;
end
if(yy1(j,i)<thresh(j,i))
PFc1=PFc1+1;
end
if(yy2(j,i)<thresh(j,i))
PFc2=PFc2+1;
end
end
PD1(:,i)=PDc1/(L*n);
PD2(:,i)=PDc2/(L*n);
PF1(:,i)=PFc1/(L*n);
PF2(:,i)=PFc2/(L*n);
PFinv(:,i)=(PFc/(L*n));
PF(:,i)=1-PFinv(:,i);
TheoryThreshold(i)=qfuncinv(PFinv(:,i)).*sqrt(SNR*noiseSigma^2);
PFstatic(i)=PFs;
StaticThreshold(i)=qfuncinv(PFs).*sqrt(SNR*noiseSigma^2);
PDtheory(i)=qfunc((TheoryThreshold(i)-SNR)/sqrt(SNR*noiseSigma^2));
PMdy(i)=1-PDtheory(i);
39
PDstatictheory(i)=qfunc((StaticThreshold(i)-SNR)/sqrt(SNR*noiseSigma^2));
PMstatic(i)=1-PDstatictheory(i);
PFAtheory(i)=qfunc((1-TheoryThreshold(i))/sqrt(SNR*noiseSigma^2));
figure('Color',[1 1 1]);
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(bpsk);
titleX=sprintf('Simulation with %d dB',SNR_dB(i));
title(titleX);
xlabel('Sample index [n]');
ylabel('Amplitude');
set(gca,'XTick',0:8:L);
axis([1 L -2 2]); grid on;
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(receivedx(:,i));
title('Transmitted BPSK symbols (with noise)');
ylabel('Amplitude')
ymax=max(receivedx(:,i))+1;
ymin=min(receivedx(:,i))+1;
axis([1 L ymin ymax]); grid on;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(yy1(:,i));
title('Matched Filter (Averaging Filter) output');
ymax=max(yy1(:,i))+1;
ymin=min(yy1(:,i))+1;
subplot(4,1,4);
40
plot(yy2(:,i));
title('Matched Filter (Rational IR) output');
ymax=max(yy2(:,i))+1;
ymin=min(yy2(:,i))+1;
pause(1);
end
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PD1,'-ro',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerEdgeColor','k',...
'MarkerFaceColor','g','MarkerSize',5);
hold on
plot(SNR_dB,PD2,'-bo',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerEdgeColor','y',...
legend('Averaging Filter','Rational IR Filter')
ylabel('Probability of Detection P_D');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('Probability of Detection');
grid on;
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PDtheory,'-go',...
ylabel('Probability of Detection P_D');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('Theoritical P_D');
grid on;
41
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PF,'-mo',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerEdgeColor','g',...
ylabel('Probability of False Alarm P_F_A');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('Probability of False Alarm');
grid on;
PM1=1-PD1;
PM2=1-PD2;
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PM1,'-ro',...
hold on
TheoryThreshold=TheoryThreshold(end:-1:1);
plot(SNR_dB,PM2,'-bo',...
ylabel('Probability of Miss Ditection P_M');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('Probability of Miss Ditection');
grid on;
TER1=PM1+PF;
TER2=PM2+PF;
figure
plot(SNR_dB,TER1,'-bo',...
hold on
42
plot(SNR_dB,TER2,'-go',...
ylabel('TER');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('TOtal Error rate');
grid on;
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PFAtheory,'-yo',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerEdgeColor','r',...
ylabel('Probability of False Alarm P_F_A');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('Probability of False Alarm Theoritical');
grid on;
figure
plot(thresh(:,1),'LineWidth',1.5)
hold on
legend('-20 dB','-15 dB','-10 dB','-5 dB','0 dB','5 dB','10 dB','15 dB','20 dB')
xlabel('Time Index')
ylabel('Energy')
title('Simulated Dynamic Thresholds')
43
figure
plot(SNR_dB,StaticThreshold,'-m*',...
'LineWidth',2,'MarkerEdgeColor','b',...
hold on
plot(SNR_dB,TheoryThreshold,'-yo',...
legend('Static Threshold','Dynamic Threshold')
ylabel('THreshold');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('THreshold');
grid on;
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PDstatictheory,'LineWidth',1.5)
hold on
plot(SNR_dB,PDtheory,'LineWidth',1.5)
legend('Static','Dynamic')
ylabel('P_D');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('P_D Static vs Dynamic')
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PFstatic,'LineWidth',1.5)
hold on
plot(SNR_dB,PF,'LineWidth',1.5)
ylabel('P_F_A');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('P_F_A Static vs Dynamic')
figure
plot(SNR_dB,PMstatic,'LineWidth',1.5)
44
hold on
plot(SNR_dB,PMdy,'LineWidth',1.5)
ylabel('P_M');
xlabel('SNR_d_B');
title('P_M Static vs Dynamic')
45
MATLAB Code of Cyclostationary Feature Detector

The MATLAB script ‘cyclostationary .m’, presented below, simulates the Cyclostationary
Feature Detector for Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks. The code is self
explanatory and consists of the following parts
Correlation and Averaging
We assume that received signal is cyclostationary i.e. its mean and autocorrelation are periodic
functions of time. Hence, correlation of received signal with its shifted version is obtained.
Shifting of receive d signal is done by multiplying it with ejα. The time average of correlated
factor is computed
Thresholding
If the correlation factor is greater than certain threshold then it means that there is a primary user
in radio environment. There is another possibility in which cyclostationary feature detector is not
sure about whether the primary user is present or not. So, we have two thresholds λ1 and λ2.
MATLAB Script Cyclostationay.m
clc;
close all;
clear all;
L = 10;
snr_dB = -14; % SNR in decibels
snr = 10.^(snr_dB./10); % Linear Value of SNR
Pf = 0.01:0.01:1; % Pf = Probability of False Alarm
%% Simulation to plot Probability of Detection (Pd) vs. Probability of
%% False Alarm (Pf)
%% Simulation to plot Probability of Detection (Pd) vs. Probability of False Alarm (Pf)
wsize=64; % 64 point hamming window
nfft=64; % fft size
len=100;
for m = 1:length(Pf)
fprintf('For %d\n',m);
46
id = 0;
for kk=1:len % Number of Monte Carlo Simulations
n = randn(1,L); %AWGN noise with mean 0 and variance 1
nv=(2/5)*length(n);
% nw=(3/2)*length(n);
s = sqrt(snr).*randn(1,L); % Real valued Gaussina Primary User Signal
y = s + n; % Received signal at SU
y1=y*exp(-2*pi*j);
y2=y*exp(2*pi*j);
%define hamming window size
window = hamming(L);
% wvtool(window);
%convulate time shifted signal with window function
Yw1=y1*window;
Yw2=y2*window;
%calcuate fft of window signal
Yfft1=fft(Yw1,nfft);
Yfft2=fft(Yw2,nfft);
%take correlation
Sxi=Yfft1.*conj(Yfft2);
Scorr=sum(Sxi)/square(window);
%find max
Smax=max(Scorr);
%compare Smax with estimated thorotical value
Variance=var(y);
N=L;
SNRv=snr;
Lamda(m)=sqrt(((2*Variance^4)/(2*N+1))*qfuncinv(Pf(m)));
47
if(Smax >= Lamda(m)) % Check whether the received energy is greater than threshold, if so,
increment Pd (Probability of detection) counter by 1
id = id+1;
end
end
Pd(m) = id/kk;
end
plot(Pf, Pd,'-ob','LineWidth',2,...
'MarkerEdgeColor','b',...
'MarkerFaceColor','b',...
'MarkerSize',5);
hold on
grid on
48
REFERENCE
[1] SET Docket No. 03-222 Notice of proposed rulemaking and order, December 2003.
[2] I.F Akyildiz,WLee, M.C Vuran, S Mohanty,”Next Generation/ Dynamic Spectrum
access/cognitive radio wireless networks: Asurvey” Computer Networks 50(2006) 2127-2159,
May 2006.
[3] B Saklar,”Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications” (2nd Edition)(Prentice
Hall Communications Engineering and Emerging Technologies Series).
[4] D. Cabric, S. M. Mishra, and R. W.Brodersen, ”Implementation Issues in Spectrum Sensing
for Cognitive Radios”, in Proc. 38th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers,
pp. 772776, Nov. 2004.
[5] A. Sahai, N. Hoven and R. Tandra, ”Some Fundamental Limits inCognitive Radio”, in Proc.
Allerton Conf. on Comm., Control and Computing 2004.
[6] H. Tang,”SomePhysical Layer Issues of Wideband Cognitive Radio System”,in Proc. IEEE
DySPAN, pp. 151159, Nov. 2005.
[7] D. Maldonado, B. Lie, A. Hugine, T.W.Rondeau, C.W.Bostian, Cognitive radio applications
to dynamic spectrum allocation, in: Proc. IEEE Dy SPAN 2005, November 2005, pp. 597–600.
[8] Tandra, R. Sahai, A.: SNR Walls for Feature Detectors, New Frontiers in Dynamic Spectrum
Access Networks, April 2007. page(s): 559-570.
[9] N. Hoven. ”On the Feasibility of Cognitive Radio”, Master’s thesis University of California
at Berkeley. Berkeley CA, 2005.
[10] L. Berlemann, S. Mangold, B.H.Walke, Policy-based reasoning for spectrum sharing in
cognitive radio networks, in: Proc. IEEE Dy SPAN 2005, November 2005, pp. 1–10.
[11] T. Yucek and H. Arslan, ―A survey of spectrum sensing algorithms for cognitive radio
applications,ǁ Communications Surveys & Tutorials, IEEE, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 116–130.
[12] F. Javed, I. Shafi, and A. Mahmood, ―A novel radio mode identification approach for
spectrum sensing in cognitive radios,ǁ International Journal of Communication Networks and
Information Security (IJCNIS), vol. 4, no. 2, 2012
[13] K. Sithamparanathan and A. Giorgetti, Cognitive Radio Techniques: Spectrum Sensing,
Interference Mitigation, and Localization. Artech House, 2012.
49
[13] D.B.Rawat, G. Yan, C. Bajracharya (2010), ―Signal Processing Techniques for Spectrum
Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks‘‘, International Journal of Ultra Wideband
Communications and Systems
[14] W.A. Gardner, "Signal interception: a unify ing theoretical framework for feature
detection," Communications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. vol.36, no. no.8, pp. pp.897-906,
Aug 1988.
[15] Hy oil Kim and Kang G. Shin, "In-band spectrum sensing in cognitive radio networks:
energy detection or feature detection," in Proceedings of the 14th ACM international
conference on Mobile computing and networking, 2008.
50

Thesis Title: Signal Detection Techniques For System Signal Detection Techniques For Cognitive Radio Cognitive Radio

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DIL

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOOGY

Thesis Title: Signal Detection Techniques for Cognitive Radio

Advisor:: Mr. Niguse (Msc)

Submission date: 08 June 2019

1. Musa Beshir 1239/14

Advisor’s Name Signature

3.1 Spectrum Sensing Techniques ............................................................................................ 13

List of Figure pages

List of Tables page

To minimize these undesirable effects, we have studied several signal detection

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Objective of the Project

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1.4 Scope of Project

1.5 Document Outline

2.2 Cognitive Radio

2.3 Types of Cognitive Radio

2.4 Classification of Techniques

Transmitter Receiver Interference

Figure 2.1 Spectrum sensing structure

2.5 Factors Influencing Transmitted Signal

2.4 Types of Small-Scale Fading

2.5 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

2.6 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread

2.7 Correlations Function

2.7.1 Auto correlations Function

2.7.2 Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)

2.9 Definition of Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)

(t) =lim1/ T ∫ (t, ) dt (2)

(f) = ∫ (t, ) d (3)

The algorithm used to calculate the Spectral Correlation Function (SCF)

1. Read n samples into vector z

3. Multiply vector z with exp (i*pi*alpha*t) store in y

4. Multiply x, y with a Kaiser-window

5. Take the N-point FFT of x, y (N < n)

6. Conjugate X (the FFT of x)

9. Normalize the result from 8

2.7 Summary of Literature Review

Where r(t) is the received signal at the sensor.

W(t) is the additive white Gaussian noise

S(t) is the transmitted signal.

Signal detection outcome matrix:

Figure 3.1 shows detection outcomes

3.1.1 Energy Detector Based Detection

signal s(t) A/D () Average N

Figure 3.2 Energy Detection in Time Domain

Signal s(t) A/D K point ‖ Average M

Figure 3.3 Energy Detection in frequency Domain

Let H0: (signal absent)

y (n) = u(n) n = 1, 2, . . . ,N 3.2

H1: (Signal Present) 3.3

y(n) = s(n) + u(n) n = 1, 2, . . . ,N 3.4

Where u(n) is noise and s (n) is the Transmitted signal.

Band pass ( ) >

Figure 3.4 Block Diagram of Energy Detection

3.1.2 Matched Filter Detection

r(t) = s(t) + n(t). 3.5

3.1.3 Waveform Based Detection

y (n) = s(n) + w(n) 3.6

3.1.4 Cyclostationary Feature Detection (CFD)

A/D N oint FFT Correlate Average Feature detect

3. Multiply vector z with exp (ipialpha*t) store in y