Rare-earth element

The rare-earth elements (REE), also called the rare-earth Rare-earth elements

in the periodic table

metals or (in context) rare-earth oxides, or the lanthanides
(though yttrium and scandium are usually included as rare-
earths) are a set of 17 nearly-indistinguishable lustrous
silvery-white soft heavy metals.[1] Scandium and yttrium are
considered rare-earth elements because they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the
lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties, but have different electronic and magnetic
properties.[2][3]

Rare-earth ore (shown with a 19 mm

diameter US 1 cent coin for size
comparison)
 Refined rare-earth oxides are heavy
gritty powders usually brown or black,
but can be lighter colors as shown
Legend:

gadolinium · praseodymium · cerium

samarium · lanthanum

here. neodymium

The 1985 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry "Red Book" (p. 45) recommends
that lanthanoid is used rather than lanthanide. The ending "-ide" normally indicates a negative
ion. However, owing to wide current usage, "lanthanide" is still allowed and is roughly analogous
to rare earth element.

In pure form, these metals tarnish slowly in air at room temperature, and react slowly with cold
water to form hydroxides, liberating hydrogen. They react with steam to form oxides, and at
elevated temperature (400 °C) ignite spontaneously and burn with a fierce colorful pyrotechnic
flame.

These elements and their compounds have no known biological function. The water-soluble
compounds are mildly to moderately toxic, but the insoluble ones are not.[4]

The rare earths have diverse applications in electrical and electronic components, lasers, glass,
magnetic materials, and industrial processes, but since they do not occur as base metals or in
lump or visible quantities like iron or aluminum, their names and properties are unfamiliar in
everyday life. One of the most familiar may be unusually powerful neodymium magnets sold as
novelties.

Despite their name, rare-earth elements are relatively plentiful in Earth's crust, with cerium being
the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million, more abundant than copper. All
isotopes of promethium are radioactive, and it does not occur naturally in the earth's crust;
however, a trace amount is generated by decay of uranium 238. They are often found in minerals
with thorium, and less commonly uranium. Because of their geochemical properties, rare-earth
elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated in rare-earth minerals.
Consequently, economically exploitable ore deposits are sparse (i.e. "rare").[5] The first rare-earth
mineral discovered (1787) was gadolinite, a black mineral composed of cerium, yttrium, iron,
silicon, and other elements. This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in
Sweden; four of the rare-earth elements bear names derived from this single location.

According to chemistry professor Andrea Sella, rare-earth elements differ from other elements,
insofar that "rare-earth metals, when looked at anatomically, seem to be inseparable from each
other, in that they are all almost exactly the same in terms of their chemical properties. However,
in terms of their electronic properties, their magnetic properties, each one is really exquisitely
unique, and so it can occupy a tiny niche in our technology, where virtually nothing else can."[2]
For example, "the rare-earth elements praseodymium (Pr) and neodymium (Nd) can both be
embedded inside glass and they completely cut out the glare from the flame when one is doing
glass-blowing."[2]

List

A table listing the 17 rare-earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the etymology of
their names, and their main uses (see also Applications of lanthanides) is provided here. Some
of the rare-earth elements are named after the scientists who discovered them, or elucidated
their elemental properties, and some after their geographical discovery.
Overview of rare-earth metal properties
Abundance[6][7]

Z Symbol Name Etymology Selected applications

(ppm[a])

Light aluminium-scandium alloys

from Latin for aerospace components,
21 Sc Scandium Scandia additive in metal-halide lamps and 22
(Scandinavia). mercury-vapor lamps,[8] radioactive
tracing agent in oil refineries

39 Y Yttrium after the Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) 33

village of laser, yttrium vanadate (YVO4) as
Ytterby, host for europium in television red
Sweden, phosphor, YBCO high-temperature
where the first superconductors, yttria-stabilized
rare earth ore zirconia (YSZ) (used in tooth
was crowns; as refractory material - in
discovered. metal alloys used in jet engines,
and coatings of engines and
industrial gas turbines;
electroceramics - for measuring
oxygen and pH of hot water
solutions, i.e. in fuel cells; ceramic
electrolyte - used in solid oxide fuel
cell; jewelry - for its hardness and
optical properties; do-it-yourself
high temperature ceramics and
cements based on water), yttrium
iron garnet (YIG) microwave
filters,[8] energy-efficient light bulbs
(part of triphosphor white
phosphor coating in fluorescent
tubes, CFLs and CCFLs, and yellow
phosphor coating in white LEDs),[9]
spark plugs, gas mantles, additive
to steel, aluminium and
magnesium alloys, cancer
 treatments, camera and refractive
telescope lenses (due to high
refractive index and very low
thermal expansion), battery
cathodes (LYP)

High refractive index and alkali-

from the
resistant glass, flint, hydrogen
Greek
storage, battery-electrodes,
57 La Lanthanum "lanthanein", 39
camera and refractive telescope
meaning to be
lenses, fluid catalytic cracking
hidden.
catalyst for oil refineries

Chemical oxidizing agent,

after the
polishing powder, yellow colors in
dwarf planet
glass and ceramics, catalyst for
Ceres, named
self-cleaning ovens, fluid catalytic
58 Ce Cerium after the 66.5
cracking catalyst for oil refineries,
Roman
ferrocerium flints for lighters,
goddess of
robust intrinsically hydrophobic
agriculture.
coatings for turbine blades[10]

Rare-earth magnets, lasers, core

from the
material for carbon arc lighting,
Greek
colorant in glasses and enamels,
"prasios",
additive in didymium glass used in
59 Pr Praseodymium meaning leek- 9.2
welding goggles,[8] ferrocerium
green, and
firesteel (flint) products, single
"didymos",
mode fiber optical amplifiers (as a
meaning twin.
dopant of fluoride glass)

from the
Rare-earth magnets, lasers, violet
Greek "neos",
colors in glass and ceramics,
meaning new,
60 Nd Neodymium didymium glass, ceramic 41.5
and
capacitors, electric motors of
"didymos",
electric automobiles
meaning twin.

61 Pm Promethium after the Titan Nuclear batteries, luminous paint 1 × 10−15

 [11][b]
Prometheus,
who brought
fire to
mortals.

after mine
Rare-earth magnets, lasers,
official, Vasili
62 Sm Samarium neutron capture, masers, control 7.05
Samarsky-
rods of nuclear reactors
Bykhovets.

after the Red and blue phosphors, lasers,

63 Eu Europium continent of mercury-vapor lamps, fluorescent 2
Europe. lamps, NMR relaxation agent

High refractive index glass or

garnets, lasers, X-ray tubes, Bubble
(computer) memories, neutron
capture, MRI contrast agent, NMR
relaxation agent, magnetostrictive
alloys such as Galfenol, steel and
after Johan chromium alloys additive,
Gadolin magnetic refrigeration (using
(1760–1852), significant magnetocaloric effect),
64 Gd Gadolinium 6.2
to honor his positron emission tomography
investigation scintillator detectors, substrate for
of rare earths. magneto-optical films, high
performance high temperature
superconductors, ceramic
electrolyte used in solid oxide fuel
cells, oxygen detectors, possibly in
catalytic conversion of automobile
fumes.

65 Tb Terbium after the Additive in Neodymium based 1.2

village of magnets, green phosphors, lasers,
Ytterby, fluorescent lamps (as part of the
Sweden. white triband phosphor coating),
magnetostrictive alloys such as
 terfenol-D, naval sonar systems,
stabilizer of fuel cells

from the
Additive in Neodymium based
Greek
magnets, lasers, magnetostrictive
66 Dy Dysprosium "dysprositos", 5.2
alloys such as terfenol-D, hard disk
meaning hard
drives
to get.

after
Stockholm (in
Latin, Lasers, wavelength calibration
67 Ho Holmium "Holmia"), standards for optical 1.3
native city of spectrophotometers, magnets
one of its
discoverers.

after the
village of Infrared lasers, vanadium steel,
68 Er Erbium 3.5
Ytterby, fiber-optic technology
Sweden.

after the
mythological Portable X-ray machines, metal-
69 Tm Thulium 0.52
northern land halide lamps, lasers
of Thule.

after the Infrared lasers, chemical reducing

village of agent, decoy flares, stainless steel,
70 Yb Ytterbium 3.2
Ytterby, stress gauges, nuclear medicine,
Sweden. monitoring earthquakes

Positron emission tomography –

after Lutetia, PET scan detectors, high-
the city that refractive-index glass, lutetium
71 Lu Lutetium 0.8
later became tantalate hosts for phosphors,
Paris. catalyst used in refineries, LED
light bulb

a. Parts per million in earth's crust, e.g. Pb=13 ppm

 b. No stable isotopes occurring in nature.

A mnemonic for the names of the sixth-row elements in order is "Lately college parties never
produce sexy European girls that drink heavily even though you look".[12]

Discovery and early history

The first rare-earth element discovered was the black mineral "ytterbite" (renamed to gadolinite
in 1800). It was discovered by Lieutenant Carl Axel Arrhenius in 1787 at a quarry in the village of
Ytterby, Sweden.[13]

Arrhenius's "ytterbite" reached Johan Gadolin, a Royal Academy of Turku professor, and his
analysis yielded an unknown oxide (earth) that he called yttria. Anders Gustav Ekeberg isolated
beryllium from the gadolinite but failed to recognize other elements the ore contained. After this
discovery in 1794, a mineral from Bastnäs near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, which was believed to be
an iron–tungsten mineral, was re-examined by Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger. In
1803 they obtained a white oxide and called it ceria. Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently
discovered the same oxide and called it ochroia.

Thus by 1803 there were two known rare-earth elements, yttrium and cerium, although it took
another 30 years for researchers to determine that other elements were contained in the two
ores ceria and yttria (the similarity of the rare-earth metals' chemical properties made their
separation difficult).

In 1839 Carl Gustav Mosander, an assistant of Berzelius, separated ceria by heating the nitrate
and dissolving the product in nitric acid. He called the oxide of the soluble salt lanthana. It took
him three more years to separate the lanthana further into didymia and pure lanthana. Didymia,
although not further separable by Mosander's techniques, was in fact still a mixture of oxides.

In 1842 Mosander also separated the yttria into three oxides: pure yttria, terbia and erbia (all the
names are derived from the town name "Ytterby"). The earth giving pink salts he called terbium;
the one that yielded yellow peroxide he called erbium.

So in 1842 the number of known rare-earth elements had reached six: yttrium, cerium,
lanthanum, didymium, erbium and terbium.

Nils Johan Berlin and Marc Delafontaine tried also to separate the crude yttria and found the
same substances that Mosander obtained, but Berlin named (1860) the substance giving pink
salts erbium, and Delafontaine named the substance with the yellow peroxide terbium. This
confusion led to several false claims of new elements, such as the mosandrium of J. Lawrence
Smith, or the philippium and decipium of Delafontaine. Due to the difficulty in separating the
metals (and determining the separation is complete), the total number of false discoveries was
dozens,[14][15] with some putting the total number of discoveries at over a hundred.[16]

Spectroscopic identification

There were no further discoveries for 30 years, and the element didymium was listed in the
periodic table of elements with a molecular mass of 138. In 1879 Delafontaine used the new
physical process of optical flame spectroscopy and found several new spectral lines in didymia.
Also in 1879, the new element samarium was isolated by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from
the mineral samarskite.

The samaria earth was further separated by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886, and a similar result
was obtained by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac by direct isolation from samarskite. They
named the element gadolinium after Johan Gadolin, and its oxide was named "gadolinia".

Further spectroscopic analysis between 1886 and 1901 of samaria, yttria, and samarskite by
William Crookes, Lecoq de Boisbaudran and Eugène-Anatole Demarçay yielded several new
spectroscopic lines that indicated the existence of an unknown element. The fractional
crystallization of the oxides then yielded europium in 1901.

In 1839 the third source for rare earths became available. This is a mineral similar to gadolinite,
uranotantalum (now called "samarskite"). This mineral from Miass in the southern Ural
Mountains was documented by Gustav Rose. The Russian chemist R. Harmann proposed that a
new element he called "ilmenium" should be present in this mineral, but later, Christian Wilhelm
Blomstrand, Galissard de Marignac, and Heinrich Rose found only tantalum and niobium
(columbium) in it.

The exact number of rare-earth elements that existed was highly unclear, and a maximum
number of 25 was estimated. The use of X-ray spectra (obtained by X-ray crystallography) by
Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley made it possible to assign atomic numbers to the elements.
Moseley found that the exact number of lanthanides had to be 15, and that element 61 had yet
to be discovered.

Using these facts about atomic numbers from X-ray crystallography, Moseley also showed that
hafnium (element 72) would not be a rare-earth element. Moseley was killed in World War I in
1915, years before hafnium was discovered. Hence, the claim of Georges Urbain that he had
discovered element 72 was untrue. Hafnium is an element that lies in the periodic table
immediately below zirconium, and hafnium and zirconium are very similar in their chemical and
physical properties.

During the 1940s, Frank Spedding and others in the United States (during the Manhattan Project)
developed chemical ion-exchange procedures for separating and purifying the rare-earth
elements. This method was first applied to the actinides for separating plutonium-239 and
neptunium from uranium, thorium, actinium, and the other actinides in the materials produced in
nuclear reactors. Plutonium-239 was very desirable because it is a fissile material.

The principal sources of rare-earth elements are the minerals bastnäsite, monazite, and loparite
and the lateritic ion-adsorption clays. Despite their high relative abundance, rare-earth minerals
are more difficult to mine and extract than equivalent sources of transition metals (due in part to
their similar chemical properties), making the rare-earth elements relatively expensive. Their
industrial use was very limited until efficient separation techniques were developed, such as ion
exchange, fractional crystallization and liquid–liquid extraction during the late 1950s and early
1960s.[17]

Some ilmenite concentrates contain small amounts of scandium and other rare-earth elements,
which could be analysed by XRF.[18]

Early classification

Before the time that ion-exchange methods and elution were available, the separation of the rare
earths was primarily achieved by repeated precipitation or crystallization. In those days, the first
separation was into two main groups, the cerium earths (scandium, lanthanum, cerium,
praseodymium, neodymium, and samarium) and the yttrium earths (yttrium, dysprosium,
holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium). Europium, gadolinium, and terbium were
either considered as a separate group of rare-earth elements (the terbium group), or europium
was included in the cerium group, and gadolinium and terbium were included in the yttrium
group. The reason for this division arose from the difference in solubility of rare-earth double
sulfates with sodium and potassium. The sodium double sulfates of the cerium group are poorly
soluble, those of the terbium group slightly, and those of the yttrium group are very soluble.[19]
Sometimes, the yttrium group was further split into the erbium group (dysprosium, holmium,
erbium, and thulium) and the ytterbium group (ytterbium and lutetium), but today the main
grouping is between the cerium and the yttrium groups.[20] Today, the rare-earth elements are
classified as light or heavy rare-earth elements, rather than in cerium and yttrium groups.
Light versus heavy classification

The classification of rare-earth elements is inconsistent between authors.[21] The most common
distinction between rare-earth elements is made by atomic numbers; those with low atomic
numbers are referred to as light rare-earth elements (LREE), those with high atomic numbers are
the heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), and those that fall in between are typically referred to as
the middle rare-earth elements (MREE).[22] Commonly, rare-earth elements with atomic numbers
57 to 61 (lanthanum to promethium) are classified as light and those with atomic numbers
greater than 62 are classified as heavy-rare earth elements.[23] Increasing atomic numbers
between light and heavy rare-earth elements and decreasing atomic radii throughout the series
causes chemical variations.[23] Europium is exempt of this classification as it has two valence
states: Eu2+ and Eu3+.[23] Yttrium is grouped as heavy rare-earth element due to chemical
similarities.[24] The break between the two groups is sometimes put elsewhere, such as between
elements 63 (europium) and 64 (gadolinium).[25] The actual metallic densities of these two
groups overlap, with the "light" group having densities from 6.145 (lanthanum) to 7.26
(promethium) or 7.52 (samarium) g/cc, and the "heavy" group from 6.965 (ytterbium) to 9.32
(thulium), as well as including yttrium at 4.47. Europium has a density of 5.24.

Origin

Rare-earth elements, except scandium, are heavier than iron and thus are produced by
supernova nucleosynthesis or by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. In nature,
spontaneous fission of uranium-238 produces trace amounts of radioactive promethium, but
most promethium is synthetically produced in nuclear reactors.

Due to their chemical similarity, the concentrations of rare earths in rocks are only slowly
changed by geochemical processes, making their proportions useful for geochronology and
dating fossils.

Geological distribution
Abundance of elements in Earth's crust per million Si atoms (y axis is logarithmic)

As seen in the chart to the right, rare-earth elements are found on earth at similar concentrations
to many common transition metals. The most abundant rare-earth element is cerium, which is
actually the 25th most abundant element in Earth's crust, having 68 parts per million (about as
common as copper). The exception is the highly unstable and radioactive promethium "rare
earth" is quite scarce. The longest-lived isotope of promethium has a half-life of 17.7 years, so
the element exists in nature in only negligible amounts (approximately 572 g in the entire Earth's
crust).[26] Promethium is one of the two elements that do not have stable (non-radioactive)
isotopes and are followed by (i.e. with higher atomic number) stable elements (the other being
technetium).

The rare-earth elements are often found together. During the sequential accretion of the Earth,
the dense rare-earth elements were incorporated into the deeper portions of the planet. Early
differentiation of molten material largely incorporated the rare-earths into mantle rocks.[27] The
high field strength and large ionic radii of rare-earths make them incompatible with the crystal
lattices of most rock-forming minerals, so REE will undergo strong partitioning into a melt phase
if one is present.[27] REE are chemically very similar and have always been difficult to separate,
but a gradual decrease in ionic radius from light REE (LREE) to heavy REE (HREE), called
lanthanide contraction, can produce a broad separation between light and heavy REE. The larger
ionic radii of LREE make them generally more incompatible than HREE in rock-forming minerals,
and will partition more strongly into a melt phase, while HREE may prefer to remain in the
crystalline residue, particularly if it contains HREE-compatible minerals like garnet.[27][28] The
result is that all magma formed from partial melting will always have greater concentrations of
LREE than HREE, and individual minerals may be dominated by either HREE or LREE, depending
on which range of ionic radii best fits the crystal lattice.[27]

Among the anhydrous rare-earth phosphates, it is the tetragonal mineral xenotime that
incorporates yttrium and the HREE, whereas the monoclinic monazite phase incorporates
cerium and the LREE preferentially. The smaller size of the HREE allows greater solid solubility in
the rock-forming minerals that make up Earth's mantle, and thus yttrium and the HREE show less
enrichment in Earth's crust relative to chondritic abundance than does cerium and the LREE. This
has economic consequences: large ore bodies of LREE are known around the world and are
being exploited. Ore bodies for HREE are more rare, smaller, and less concentrated. Most of the
current supply of HREE originates in the "ion-absorption clay" ores of Southern China. Some
versions provide concentrates containing about 65% yttrium oxide, with the HREE being present
in ratios reflecting the Oddo–Harkins rule: even-numbered REE at abundances of about 5% each,
and odd-numbered REE at abundances of about 1% each. Similar compositions are found in
xenotime or gadolinite.[29]

Well-known minerals containing yttrium, and other HREE, include gadolinite, xenotime,
samarskite, euxenite, fergusonite, yttrotantalite, yttrotungstite, yttrofluorite (a variety of fluorite),
thalenite, yttrialite. Small amounts occur in zircon, which derives its typical yellow fluorescence
from some of the accompanying HREE. The zirconium mineral eudialyte, such as is found in
southern Greenland, contains small but potentially useful amounts of yttrium. Of the above
yttrium minerals, most played a part in providing research quantities of lanthanides during the
discovery days. Xenotime is occasionally recovered as a byproduct of heavy-sand processing,
but is not as abundant as the similarly recovered monazite (which typically contains a few
percent of yttrium). Uranium ores from Ontario have occasionally yielded yttrium as a
byproduct.[29]

Well-known minerals containing cerium, and other LREE, include bastnäsite, monazite, allanite,
loparite, ancylite, parisite, lanthanite, chevkinite, cerite, stillwellite, britholite, fluocerite, and
cerianite. Monazite (marine sands from Brazil, India, or Australia; rock from South Africa),
bastnäsite (from Mountain Pass rare earth mine, or several localities in China), and loparite (Kola
Peninsula, Russia) have been the principal ores of cerium and the light lanthanides.[29]
Enriched deposits of rare-earth elements at the surface of the Earth, carbonatites and
pegmatites, are related to alkaline plutonism, an uncommon kind of magmatism that occurs in
tectonic settings where there is rifting or that are near subduction zones.[28] In a rift setting, the
alkaline magma is produced by very small degrees of partial melting (<1%) of garnet peridotite in
the upper mantle (200 to 600 km depth).[28] This melt becomes enriched in incompatible
elements, like the rare-earth elements, by leaching them out of the crystalline residue. The
resultant magma rises as a diapir, or diatreme, along pre-existing fractures, and can be
emplaced deep in the crust, or erupted at the surface. Typical REE enriched deposits types
forming in rift settings are carbonatites, and A- and M-Type granitoids.[27][28] Near subduction
zones, partial melting of the subducting plate within the asthenosphere (80 to 200 km depth)
produces a volatile-rich magma (high concentrations of CO2 and water), with high
concentrations of alkaline elements, and high element mobility that the rare-earths are strongly
partitioned into.[27] This melt may also rise along pre-existing fractures, and be emplaced in the
crust above the subducting slab or erupted at the surface. REE enriched deposits forming from
these melts are typically S-Type granitoids.[27][28]

Alkaline magmas enriched with rare-earth elements include carbonatites, peralkaline granites
(pegmatites), and nepheline syenite. Carbonatites crystallize from CO2-rich fluids, which can be
produced by partial melting of hydrous-carbonated lherzolite to produce a CO2-rich primary
magma, by fractional crystallization of an alkaline primary magma, or by separation of a CO2-rich
immiscible liquid from.[27][28] These liquids are most commonly forming in association with very
deep Precambrian Cratons, like the ones found in Africa and the Canadian Shield.[27]
Ferrocarbonatites are the most common type of carbonatite to be enriched in REE, and are often
emplaced as late-stage, brecciated pipes at the core of igneous complexes; they consist of fine-
grained calcite and hematite, sometimes with significant concentrations of ankerite and minor
concentrations of siderite.[27][28] Large carbonatite deposits enriched in rare-earth elements
include Mount Weld in Australia, Thor Lake in Canada, Zandkopsdrift in South Africa, and
Mountain Pass in the USA.[28] Peralkaline granites (A-Type granitoids) have very high
concentrations of alkaline elements and very low concentrations of phosphorus; they are
deposited at moderate depths in extensional zones, often as igneous ring complexes, or as
pipes, massive bodies, and lenses.[27][28] These fluids have very low viscosities and high element
mobility, which allows for crystallization of large grains, despite a relatively short crystallization
time upon emplacement; their large grain size is why these deposits are commonly referred to
as pegmatites.[28] Economically viable pegmatites are divided into Lithium-Cesium-Tantalum
(LCT) and Niobium-Yttrium-Fluorine (NYF) types; NYF types are enriched in rare-earth minerals.
Examples of rare-earth pegmatite deposits include Strange Lake in Canada, and Khaladean-
Buregtey in Mongolia.[28] Nepheline syenite (M-Type granitoids) deposits are 90% feldspar and
feldspathoid minerals, and are deposited in small, circular massifs. They contain high
concentrations of rare-earth-bearing accessory minerals.[27][28] For the most part these deposits
are small but important examples include Illimaussaq-Kvanefeld in Greenland, and Lovozera in
Russia.[28]

Rare-earth elements can also be enriched in deposits by secondary alteration either by

interactions with hydrothermal fluids or meteoric water or by erosion and transport of resistate
REE-bearing minerals. Argillization of primary minerals enriches insoluble elements by leaching
out silica and other soluble elements, recrystallizing feldspar into clay minerals such kaolinite,
halloysite and montmorillonite. In tropical regions where precipitation is high, weathering forms
a thick argillized regolith, this process is called supergene enrichment and produces laterite
deposits; heavy rare-earth elements are incorporated into the residual clay by absorption. This
kind of deposit is only mined for REE in Southern China, where the majority of global heavy rare-
earth element production occurs. REE-laterites do form elsewhere, including over the carbonatite
at Mount Weld in Australia. REE may also by extracted from placer deposits if the sedimentary
parent lithology contained REE-bearing, heavy resistate minerals.[28]

In 2011, Yasuhiro Kato, a geologist at the University of Tokyo who led a study of Pacific Ocean
seabed mud, published results indicating the mud could hold rich concentrations of rare-earth
minerals. The deposits, studied at 78 sites, came from "[h]ot plumes from hydrothermal vents
pull[ing] these materials out of seawater and deposit[ing] them on the seafloor, bit by bit, over
tens of millions of years. One square patch of metal-rich mud 2.3 kilometers wide might contain
enough rare earths to meet most of the global demand for a year, Japanese geologists report in
Nature Geoscience." "I believe that rare[-]earth resources undersea are much more promising
than on-land resources," said Kato. "[C]oncentrations of rare earths were comparable to those
found in clays mined in China. Some deposits contained twice as much heavy rare earths such
as dysprosium, a component of magnets in hybrid car motors."[29][30]

Geochemistry applications

The application of rare-earth elements to geology is important to understanding the petrological

processes of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock formation. In geochemistry, rare-
earth elements can be used to infer the petrological mechanisms that have affected a rock due
to the subtle atomic size differences between the elements, which causes preferential
fractionation of some rare earths relative to others depending on the processes at work.[22]
In geochemistry, rare-earth elements are typically presented in normalized "spider" diagrams, in
which concentration of rare-earth elements are normalized to a reference standard and are then
expressed as the logarithm to the base 10 of the value. Commonly, the rare-earth elements are
normalized to chondritic meteorites, as these are believed to be the closest representation of
unfractionated solar system material. However, other normalizing standards can be applied
depending on the purpose of the study. Normalization to a standard reference value, especially
of a material believed to be unfractionated, allows the observed abundances to be compared to
initial abundances of the element.[22] Normalization also removes the pronounced 'zig-zag'
pattern caused by the differences in abundance between even and odd atomic numbers. The
trends that are observed in "spider" diagrams are typically referred to as "patterns", which may be
diagnostic of petrological processes that have affected the material of interest.[22]

The rare-earth elements patterns observed in igneous rocks are primarily a function of the
chemistry of the source where the rock came from, as well as the fractionation history the rock
has undergone.[22] Fractionation is in turn a function of the partition coefficients of each
element. Partition coefficients are responsible for the fractionation of a trace elements
(including rare-earth elements) into the liquid phase (the melt/magma) into the solid phase (the
mineral). If an element preferentially remains in the solid phase it is termed ‘compatible’, and it
preferentially partitions into the melt phase it is described as ‘incompatible’.[22] Each element
has a different partition coefficient, and therefore fractionates into solid and liquid phases
distinctly. These concepts are also applicable to metamorphic and sedimentary petrology.

In igneous rocks, particularly in felsic melts, the following observations apply: anomalies in
europium are dominated by the crystallization of feldspars. Hornblende, controls the enrichment
of MREE compared to LREE and HREE. Depletion of LREE relative to HREE may be due to the
crystallization of olivine, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene. On the other hand, depletion of HREE
relative to LREE may be due to the presence of garnet, as garnet preferentially incorporates
HREE into its crystal structure. The presence of zircon may also cause a similar effect.[22]

In sedimentary rocks, rare-earth elements in clastic sediments are a representation provenance.

The rare-earth element concentrations are not typically affected by sea and river waters, as rare-
earth elements are insoluble and thus have very low concentrations in these fluids. As a result,
when a sediment is transported, rare-earth element concentrations are unaffected by the fluid
and instead the rock retains the rare-earth element concentration from its source.[22]

Sea and river waters typically have low rare-earth element concentrations. However, aqueous
geochemistry is still very important. In oceans, rare-earth elements reflect input from rivers,
hydrothermal vents, and aeolian sources;[22] this is important in the investigation of ocean
mixing and circulation.[24]

Rare-earth elements are also useful for dating rocks, as some radioactive isotopes display long
half-lives. Of particular interest are the 138La-138Ce, 147Sm-143Nd, and 176Lu-176Hf systems.[24]

Production

Global production 1950–2000

Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths were sourced from placer sand deposits in India and
Brazil. Through the 1950s, South Africa was the world's rare-earth source, from a monazite-rich
reef at the Steenkampskraal mine in Western Cape province.[31] Through the 1960s until the
1980s, the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California made the United States the leading
producer. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still produce some rare-earth
concentrates, but they are dwarfed by the scale of Chinese production. In 2017, China produced
81% of the world's rare-earth supply, mostly in Inner Mongolia,[5][32] although it had only 36.7% of
reserves. Australia was the second and only other major producer with 15% of world
production.[33] All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) come from Chinese
rare-earth sources such as the polymetallic Bayan Obo deposit.[32][34] The Browns Range mine,
located 160 km south east of Halls Creek in northern Western Australia, is currently under
development and is positioned to become the first significant dysprosium producer outside of
China.[35]
Increased demand has strained supply, and there is growing concern that the world may soon
face a shortage of the rare earths.[36] In several years from 2009 worldwide demand for rare-
earth elements is expected to exceed supply by 40,000 tonnes annually unless major new
sources are developed.[37] In 2013, it was stated that the demand for REEs would increase due to
the dependence of the EU on these elements, the fact that rare earth elements cannot be
substituted by other elements and that REEs have a low recycling rate. Furthermore, due to the
increased demand and low supply, future prices are expected to increase and there is a chance
that countries other than China will open REE mines.[38] REE is increasing in demand due to the
fact that they are essential for new and innovative technology that is being created. These new
products that need REEs to be produced are high technology equipment such as smart phones,
digital cameras, computer parts, semiconductors, etc. In addition, these elements are more
prevalent in the following industries: renewable energy technology, military equipment, glass
making, and metallurgy.[39]

China

These concerns have intensified due to the actions of China, the predominant supplier.[40]
Specifically, China has announced regulations on exports and a crackdown on smuggling.[41] On
September 1, 2009, China announced plans to reduce its export quota to 35,000 tons per year in
2010–2015 to conserve scarce resources and protect the environment.[42] On October 19, 2010,
China Daily, citing an unnamed Ministry of Commerce official, reported that China will "further
reduce quotas for rare[-]earth exports by 30 percent at most next year to protect the precious
metals from over-exploitation."[43] The government in Beijing further increased its control by
forcing smaller, independent miners to merge into state-owned corporations or face closure. At
the end of 2010, China announced that the first round of export quotas in 2011 for rare earths
would be 14,446 tons, which was a 35% decrease from the previous first round of quotas in
2010.[44] China announced further export quotas on 14 July 2011 for the second half of the year
with total allocation at 30,184 tons with total production capped at 93,800 tonnes.[45] In
September 2011, China announced the halt in production of three of its eight major rare-earth
mines, responsible for almost 40% of China's total rare-earth production.[46] In March 2012, the
US, EU, and Japan confronted China at WTO about these export and production restrictions.
China responded with claims that the restrictions had environmental protection in mind.[47][48] In
August 2012, China announced a further 20% reduction in production.[49]
The United States,
Japan, and the European Union filed a joint lawsuit with the World Trade Organization in 2012
against China, arguing that China should not be able to deny such important exports.[48]
In response to the opening of new mines in other countries (Lynas in Australia and Molycorp in
the United States), prices of rare earths dropped.[50] The price of dysprosium oxide was
994 USD/kg in 2011, but dropped to US$265/kg by 2014.[51]

On August 29, 2014, the WTO ruled that China had broken free-trade agreements, and the WTO
said in the summary of key findings that "the overall effect of the foreign and domestic
restrictions is to encourage domestic extraction and secure preferential use of those materials
by Chinese manufacturers." China declared that it would implement the ruling on September 26,
2014, but would need some time to do so. By January 5, 2015, China had lifted all quotas from
the export of rare earths, but export licences will still be required.[52]

In 2019, China supplied between 85% and 95% of the global demand for the 17 rare earth
powders, half of them sourced from Myanmar.[53] After the 2021 military coup in that country,
future supplies of critical ores were possibly constrained. Additionally, it was speculated that the
PRC could again reduce rare earth exports to counter-act economic sanctions imposed by the
US and EU countries. Rare earth metals serve as crucial materials for EV-manufacturing and
high-tech military applications.[54]

Outside China

As a result of the increased demand and tightening restrictions on exports of the metals from
China, some countries are stockpiling rare-earth resources.[55] Searches for alternative sources
in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania, Greenland, and the United States are
ongoing.[56] Mines in these countries were closed when China undercut world prices in the
1990s, and it will take a few years to restart production as there are many barriers to entry.[41]
One example is the Mountain Pass mine in California, which announced its resumption of
operations on a start-up basis on August 27, 2012.[32][57] Other significant sites under
development outside China include Steenkampskraal in South Africa, the world's highest grade
rare earths and thorium mine, which is gearing to go back into production. Over 80% of the
infrastructure is already complete.[58] Other mines include the Nolans Project in Central
Australia, the Bokan Mountain project in Alaska, the remote Hoidas Lake project in northern
Canada,[59] and the Mount Weld project in Australia.[32][57][60] The Hoidas Lake project has the
potential to supply about 10% of the $1 billion of REE consumption that occurs in North America
every year.[61] Vietnam signed an agreement in October 2010 to supply Japan with rare earths[62]
from its northwestern Lai Châu Province.[63]
In the US, NioCorp Development Ltd has launched a long-shot effort to secure $1.1 billion[64]
toward opening a niobium, scandium, and titanium mine at its Elk Creek site in southeast
Nebraska[65] which may be able to produce as much as 7200 tonnes of ferro niobium and 95
tonnes of scandium trioxide annually.[66]

Also under consideration for mining are sites such as Thor Lake in the Northwest Territories, and
various locations in Vietnam.[32][37][67] Additionally, in 2010, a large deposit of rare-earth minerals
was discovered in Kvanefjeld in southern Greenland.[68] Pre-feasibility drilling at this site has
confirmed significant quantities of black lujavrite, which contains about 1% rare-earth oxides
(REO).[69] The European Union has urged Greenland to restrict Chinese development of rare-earth
projects there, but as of early 2013, the government of Greenland has said that it has no plans to
impose such restrictions.[70] Many Danish politicians have expressed concerns that other
nations, including China, could gain influence in thinly populated Greenland, given the number of
foreign workers and investment that could come from Chinese companies in the near future
because of the law passed December 2012.[71]

In central Spain, Ciudad Real Province, the proposed rare-earth mining project 'Matamulas' may
provide, according to its developers, up to 2,100 Tn/year (33% of the annual UE demand).
However, this project has been suspended by regional authorities due to social and
environmental concerns.[72]

Adding to potential mine sites, ASX listed Peak Resources announced in February 2012, that
their Tanzanian-based Ngualla project contained not only the 6th largest deposit by tonnage
outside of China, but also the highest grade of rare-earth elements of the 6.[73]

North Korea has been reported to have exported rare-earth ore to China, about US$1.88 million
worth during May and June 2014.[74][75]

Malaysian refining plans

In early 2011, Australian mining company Lynas was reported to be "hurrying to finish" a US$230
million rare-earth refinery on the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia's industrial port of
Kuantan. The plant would refine ore — lanthanides concentrate from the Mount Weld mine in
Australia. The ore would be trucked to Fremantle and transported by container ship to Kuantan.
Within two years, Lynas was said to expect the refinery to be able to meet nearly a third of the
world's demand for rare-earth materials, not counting China.[76] The Kuantan development
brought renewed attention to the Malaysian town of Bukit Merah in Perak, where a rare-earth
mine operated by a Mitsubishi Chemical subsidiary, Asian Rare Earth, closed in 1994 and left
continuing environmental and health concerns.[77][78] In mid-2011, after protests, Malaysian
government restrictions on the Lynas plant were announced. At that time, citing subscription-
only Dow Jones Newswire reports, a Barrons report said the Lynas investment was $730 million,
and the projected share of the global market it would fill put at "about a sixth."[79] An independent
review initiated by the Malaysian Government, and conducted by the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) in 2011 to address concerns of radioactive hazards, found no non-compliance
with international radiation safety standards.[80]

However, the Malaysian authorities confirmed that as of October 2011, Lynas was not given any
permit to import any rare-earth ore into Malaysia. On February 2, 2012, the Malaysian AELB
(Atomic Energy Licensing Board) recommended that Lynas be issued a temporary operating
license subject to meeting a number of conditions. On 2 September 2014, Lynas was issued a 2-
year full operating stage license by the AELB.[81]

In May 2012, researchers from two universities in Japan announced that they had discovered
rare earths in Ehime Prefecture, Japan.[82]

Other sources

Mine tailings

Significant quantities of rare-earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of
uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe, Estonia.[83] Due to the rising prices of rare
earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently
exports around 3,000 tonnes per year, representing around 2% of world production.[84] Similar
resources are suspected in the western United States, where gold rush-era mines are believed to
have discarded large amounts of rare earths, because they had no value at the time.[85]

Ocean mining

In January 2013 a Japanese deep-sea research vessel obtained seven deep-sea mud core
samples from the Pacific Ocean seafloor at 5,600 to 5,800 meters depth, approximately 250
kilometres (160 mi) south of the island of Minami-Tori-Shima.[86] The research team found a
mud layer 2 to 4 meters beneath the seabed with concentrations of up to 0.66% rare-earth
oxides. A potential deposit might compare in grade with the ion-absorption-type deposits in
southern China that provide the bulk of Chinese REO mine production, which grade in the range
of 0.05% to 0.5% REO.[87][88]
Waste

Another recently developed source of rare earths is electronic waste and other wastes that have
significant rare-earth components.[89] Advances in recycling technology have made extraction of
rare earths from these materials less expensive.[90] Recycling plants operate in Japan, where an
estimated 300,000 tons of rare earths are found in unused electronics.[91] In France, the Rhodia
group is setting up two factories, in La Rochelle and Saint-Fons, that will produce 200 tons of
rare earths a year from used fluorescent lamps, magnets and batteries.[92][93] Coal and coal by-
products are a potential source of critical elements including rare earth elements (REE) with
estimated amounts in the range of 50 million metric tons.[94]

Methods

One study mixed fly ash with carbon black and then sent a 1-second current pulse through the
mixture, heating it to 3,000 °C (5,430 °F). The fly ash contains microscopic bits of glass that
encapsulate the metals. The heats shatters the glass, exposing the rare earths. Flash heating
also converts phosphates into oxides, which are more soluble and extractable. Using
hydrochloric acid at concentrations less than 1% of conventional methods, the process
extracted twice as much material.[95]

Uses

Global REE consumption, 2015[96]

   Catalysts, 24% (24%)

   Magnets, 23% (23%)
    Polishing, 12% (12%)
   "other", 9% (9%)
   Metallurgy, 8% (8%)
   Batteries, 8% (8%)
   Glass, 7% (7%)
   Ceramics, 6% (6%)
   Phosphors and pigments, 3% (3%)

US consumption of REE, 2018[97]

   Catalysts, 60% (60%)

   Ceramics and glass, 15% (15%)
   Polishing, 10% (10%)
   "other", 5% (5%)
   Metallurgy, 10% (10%)

The uses, applications, and demand for rare-earth elements has expanded over the years.
Globally, most REEs are used for catalysts and magnets.[96] In USA, more than half of REEs are
used for catalysts, and ceramics, glass and polishing are also main uses.[97]

Other important uses of rare-earth elements are applicable to the production of high-
performance magnets, alloys, glasses, and electronics. Ce and La are important as catalysts,
and are used for petroleum refining and as diesel additives. Nd is important in magnet
production in traditional and low-carbon technologies. Rare-earth elements in this category are
used in the electric motors of hybrid and electric vehicles, generators in wind turbines, hard disc
drives, portable electronics, microphones, speakers.
Ce, La and Nd are important in alloy making, and in the production of fuel cells and nickel-metal
hydride batteries. Ce, Ga and Nd are important in electronics and are used in the production of
LCD and plasma screens, fiber optics, lasers,[98] as well as in medical imaging. Additional uses
for rare-earth elements are as tracers in medical applications, fertilizers, and in water
treatment.[24]

REEs have been used in agriculture to increase plant growth, productivity, and stress resistance
seemingly without negative effects for human and animal consumption. REEs are used in
agriculture through REE-enriched fertilizers which is a widely used practice in China.[99] In
addition, REEs are feed additives for livestock which has resulted in increased production such
as larger animals and a higher production of eggs and dairy products. However, this practice has
resulted in REE bio-accumulation within livestock and has impacted vegetation and algae growth
in these agricultural areas.[100] Additionally while no ill effects have been observed at current low
concentrations the effects over the long term and with accumulation over time are unknown
prompting some calls for more research into their possible effects.[99][101]

Given the limited supply, industries directly compete with each other for resources, e.g. the
electronics sector is in direct competition with renewable energy use in windfarms, solar panels
and batteries.[102]

Environmental considerations

REEs are naturally found in very low concentration in the environment. Mines are often in
countries where environmental and social standards are very low, causing human rights
violations, deforestation and contamination of land and water.[102][103]

Near mining and industrial sites the concentrations can rise to many times the normal
background levels. Once in the environment REEs can leach into the soil where their transport is
determined by numerous factors such as erosion, weathering, pH, precipitation, ground water,
etc. Acting much like metals, they can speciate depending on the soil condition being either
motile or adsorbed to soil particles. Depending on their bio-availability REEs can be absorbed
into plants and later consumed by humans and animals. The mining of REEs, use of REE-
enriched fertilizers, and the production of phosphorus fertilizers all contribute to REE
contamination.[104] Furthermore, strong acids are used during the extraction process of REEs,
which can then leach out in to the environment and be transported through water bodies and
result in the acidification of aquatic environments. Another additive of REE mining that
contributes to REE environmental contamination is cerium oxide (CeO
2) which is produced
during the combustion of diesel and is released as an exhaust particulate matter and
contributes heavily to soil and water contamination.[100]

False-color satellite image of the Bayan Obo Mining District, 2006

Mining, refining, and recycling of rare earths have serious environmental consequences if not
properly managed. Low-level radioactive tailings resulting from the occurrence of thorium and
uranium in rare-earth element ores present a potential hazard[105] and improper handling of
these substances can result in extensive environmental damage. In May 2010, China announced
a major, five-month crackdown on illegal mining in order to protect the environment and its
resources. This campaign is expected to be concentrated in the South,[106] where mines –
commonly small, rural, and illegal operations – are particularly prone to releasing toxic waste
into the general water supply.[32][107] However, even the major operation in Baotou, in Inner
Mongolia, where much of the world's rare-earth supply is refined, has caused major
environmental damage.[108] China's Ministry of Industry and Information Technology estimated
that cleanup costs in Jiangxi province at $5.5 billion.[103]

It is however possible to filter out and recover any rare earth elements that flow out with the
wastewater from mining facilities. However, such filtering and recovery equipment may not
always be present on the outlets carrying the wastewater.[109][110][111]

Recycling and reusing REEs

Literature published in 2004 suggests that along with previously established pollution mitigation,
a more circular supply chain would help mitigate some of the pollution at the extraction point.
This means recycling and reusing REEs that are already in use or reaching the end of their life
cycle.[101] A research done in 2014 suggest a method to recycle REEs from waste nickel-metal
hydride batteries, the recovery rate is found to be 95.16%.[112]

Impact of REE contamination

On vegetation

The mining of REEs has caused the contamination of soil and water around production areas,
which has impacted vegetation in these areas by decreasing chlorophyll production which
affects photosynthesis and inhibits the growth of the plants.[100] However, the impact of REE
contamination on vegetation is dependent on the plants present in the contaminated
environment: some plants retain and absorb REEs and some don't. Also, the ability for the
vegetation to intake the REE is dependent on the type of REE present in the soil, hence there are
a multitude of factors that influence this process.[113] Agricultural plants are the main type of
vegetation affected by REE contamination in the environment, the two plants with a higher
chance of absorbing and storing REEs being apples and beets.[104] Furthermore, there is a
possibility that REEs can leach out into aquatic environments and be absorbed by aquatic
vegetation, which can then bio-accumulate and potentially enter the human food-chain if
livestock or humans choose to eat the vegetation. An example of this situation was the case of
the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in China, where the water was contaminated due to a
REE-enriched fertilizer being used in a nearby agricultural area. The aquatic environment became
contaminated with cerium and resulted in the water hyacinth becoming three times more
concentrated in cerium than its surrounding water.[113]

On human health

REEs are a large group with many different properties and levels in the environment. Because of
this, and limited research, it has been difficult to determine safe levels of exposure for
humans.[114] A number of studies have focused on risk assessment based on routes of exposure
and divergence from background levels related to nearby agriculture, mining, and
industry.[115][116] It has been demonstrated that numerous REEs have toxic properties and are
present in the environment or in work places. Exposure to these can lead to a wide range of
negative health outcomes such as cancer, respiratory issues, dental loss, and even death.[38]
However REEs are numerous and present in many different forms and at different levels of
toxicity, making it difficult to give blanket warnings on cancer risk and toxicity as some of these
are harmless while others pose a risk.[114][116][115]
What toxicity is shown appears to be at very high levels of exposure through ingestion of
contaminated food and water, through inhalation of dust/smoke particles either as an
occupational hazard or due to proximity to contaminated sites such as mines and cities.
Therefore, the main issues that these residents would face is bioaccumulation of REEs and the
impact on their respiratory system but overall, there can be other possible short term and long-
term health effects.[117][100] It was found that people living near mines in China had many times
the levels of REEs in their blood, urine, bone and hair compared to controls far from mining sites.
This higher level was related to the high levels of REEs present in the vegetables they cultivated,
the soil, and the water from the wells, indicating that the high levels were caused by the nearby
mine.[115][116] While REE levels varied between men and women, the group most at risk were
children because REEs can impact the neurological development of children, affecting their IQ
and potentially causing memory loss.[118]

The rare earth mining and smelting process can release airborne fluoride which will associate
with total suspended particles (TSP) to form aerosols that can enter human respiratory systems
and cause damage and respiratory diseases. Research from Baotou, China shows that the
fluoride concentration in air near REE mines is higher than the limit value from WHO, which can
affect the surrounding environment and become a risk to those that live or work nearby.[119]

Residents blamed a rare-earth refinery at Bukit Merah for birth defects and eight leukemia cases
within five years in a community of 11,000 — after many years with no leukemia cases. Seven of
the leukemia victims died. Osamu Shimizu, a director of Asian Rare Earth, said "the company
might have sold a few bags of calcium phosphate fertilizer on a trial basis as it sought to market
byproducts; calcium phosphate is not radioactive or dangerous" in reply to a former resident of
Bukit Merah who said that "The cows that ate the grass [grown with the fertilizer] all died."[120]
Malaysia's Supreme Court ruled on 23 December 1993 that there was no evidence that the local
chemical joint venture Asian Rare Earth was contaminating the local environment.[121]

On animal health

Experiments exposing rats to various cerium compounds have found accumulation primarily in
the lungs and liver. This resulted in various negative health outcomes associated with those
organs.[122] REEs have been added to feed in livestock to increase their body mass and increase
milk production.[122] They are most commonly used to increase the body mass of pigs, and it
was discovered that REEs increase the digestibility and nutrient use of pigs' digestive
systems.[122] Studies point to a dose response when considering toxicity versus positive effects.
While small doses from the environment or with proper administration seem to have no ill
effects, larger doses have been shown to have negative effects specifically in the organs where
they accumulate.[122] The process of mining REEs in China has resulted in soil and water
contamination in certain areas, which when transported into aquatic bodies could potentially
bio-accumulate within aquatic biota. Furthermore, in some cases animals that live in the REE-
contaminated areas have been diagnosed with organ or system problems.[100] REEs have been
used in freshwater fish farming because it protects the fish from possible diseases.[122] One
main reason why they have been avidly used in animal livestock feeding is that they have had
better results than inorganic livestock feed enhancers.[123]

Remediation after pollution

After the 1982 Bukit Merah radioactive pollution, the mine in Malaysia has been the focus of a
US$100 million cleanup that is proceeding in 2011. After having accomplished the hilltop
entombment of 11,000 truckloads of radioactively contaminated material, the project is
expected to entail in summer, 2011, the removal of "more than 80,000 steel barrels of radioactive
waste to the hilltop repository."[78]

In May 2011, after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, widespread protests took place in
Kuantan over the Lynas refinery and radioactive waste from it. The ore to be processed has very
low levels of thorium, and Lynas founder and chief executive Nicholas Curtis said "There is
absolutely no risk to public health." T. Jayabalan, a doctor who says he has been monitoring and
treating patients affected by the Mitsubishi plant, "is wary of Lynas's assurances. The argument
that low levels of thorium in the ore make it safer doesn't make sense, he says, because
radiation exposure is cumulative."[120] Construction of the facility has been halted until an
independent United Nations IAEA panel investigation is completed, which is expected by the end
of June 2011.[124] New restrictions were announced by the Malaysian government in late
June.[79]

IAEA panel investigation is completed and no construction has been halted. Lynas is on budget
and on schedule to start producing 2011. The IAEA report has concluded in a report issued on
Thursday June 2011 said it did not find any instance of "any non-compliance with international
radiation safety standards" in the project.[125]

If the proper safety standards are followed, REE mining is relatively low impact. Molycorp (before
going bankrupt) often exceeded environmental regulations to improve public image.[126]
In Greenland there is a significant dispute on whether to start a new rare earth mine in
Kvanefjeld due to environmental concerns.[127]

Geo-political considerations

Global rare-earth-oxide production trends, 1956-2008 (USGS)

China has officially cited resource depletion and environmental concerns as the reasons for a
nationwide crackdown on its rare-earth mineral production sector.[46] However, non-
environmental motives have also been imputed to China's rare-earth policy.[108] According to The
Economist, "Slashing their exports of rare-earth metals… is all about moving Chinese
manufacturers up the supply chain, so they can sell valuable finished goods to the world rather
than lowly raw materials."[128] Furthermore, China currently has an effective monopoly on the
world's REE Value Chain.[129] (all the refineries and processing plants that transform the raw ore
into valuable elements[130]). In the words of Deng Xiaoping, a Chinese politician from the late
1970s to the late 1980s, "The Middle East has oil; we have rare earths ... it is of extremely
important strategic significance; we must be sure to handle the rare earth issue properly and
make the fullest use of our country's advantage in rare earth resources."[131]

One possible example of market control is the division of General Motors that deals with
miniaturized magnet research, which shut down its US office and moved its entire staff to China
in 2006[132] (China's export quota only applies to the metal but not products made from these
metals such as magnets).

It was reported,[133] but officially denied,[134] that China instituted an export ban on shipments of
rare-earth oxides (but not alloys) to Japan on 22 September 2010, in response to the detainment
of a Chinese fishing boat captain by the Japanese Coast Guard.[135][48] On September 2, 2010, a
few days before the fishing boat incident, The Economist reported that "China...in July
announced the latest in a series of annual export reductions, this time by 40% to precisely
30,258 tonnes."[136][48]

The United States Department of Energy in its 2010 Critical Materials Strategy report identified
dysprosium as the element that was most critical in terms of import reliance.[137]

A 2011 report "China's Rare-Earth Industry", issued by the US Geological Survey and US
Department of the Interior, outlines industry trends within China and examines national policies
that may guide the future of the country's production. The report notes that China's lead in the
production of rare-earth minerals has accelerated over the past two decades. In 1990, China
accounted for only 27% of such minerals. In 2009, world production was 132,000 metric tons;
China produced 129,000 of those tons. According to the report, recent patterns suggest that
China will slow the export of such materials to the world: "Owing to the increase in domestic
demand, the Government has gradually reduced the export quota during the past several years."
In 2006, China allowed 47 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 12 Sino-foreign rare-
earth producers to export. Controls have since tightened annually; by 2011, only 22 domestic
rare-earth producers and traders and 9 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers were authorized. The
government's future policies will likely keep in place strict controls: "According to China's draft
rare-earth development plan, annual rare-earth production may be limited to between 130,000
and 140,000 [metric tons] during the period from 2009 to 2015. The export quota for rare-earth
products may be about 35,000 [metric tons] and the Government may allow 20 domestic rare-
earth producers and traders to export rare earths."[138]

The United States Geological Survey is actively surveying southern Afghanistan for rare-earth
deposits under the protection of United States military forces. Since 2009 the USGS has
conducted remote sensing surveys as well as fieldwork to verify Soviet claims that volcanic
rocks containing rare-earth metals exist in Helmand Province near the village of Khanashin. The
USGS study team has located a sizable area of rocks in the center of an extinct volcano
containing light rare-earth elements including cerium and neodymium. It has mapped 1.3 million
metric tons of desirable rock, or about ten years of supply at current demand levels. The
Pentagon has estimated its value at about $7.4 billion.[139]

It has been argued that the geopolitical importance of rare earths has been exaggerated in the
literature on the geopolitics of renewable energy, underestimating the power of economic
incentives for expanded production.[140][141] This especially concerns neodymium. Due to its role
in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that neodymium will be one of
the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this
perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines have gears and
do not use permanent magnets.[141]

See also

Rare-earth mineral

Rare-earth magnet

List of elements facing shortage

Material passport: lists used materials in products

Digital Product Passport: renewed in function of the Circular Economy Action Plan

Pensana Salt End

References

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External links

Media related to Rare earth elements at Wikimedia Commons

 External media

Audio

"Rare Earths: The Hidden Cost to Their Magic" (https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcas

t/rare-earths-the-hidden-cost-to-their-magic) , Distillations Podcast and transcript, Episode 242, June
25, 2019, Science History Institute

Video

“10 ways rare earth elements make life better” (https://www.sciencehistory.org/rare-earth-elements-

project) , animation, Science History Institute

Rare Earth Elements: The Intersection of Science and Society (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a

glMNj4hld0) , presentation and discussion led by Ira Flatow, Science History Institute, September 24,
2019

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