Trait theories

Major personality theories

Perspective Behavior is the result of:
Unconscious conflicts between impulses & social
Psychoanalytic
restraints
Trait Consistent & enduring personality dispositions

Humanistic Inner drive toward growth & self-actualization

Behavioral Learning from the environment
Social cognitive Cognitive expectations, social learning/modeling
Genetic predispositions, brain structure/function,
Biological
evolution
Major trait theorists/Respective theories
Allport Cattel Eysenck Costa & McCrae
Trait theory 16 personality factors PEN theory “Big Five” or FFM
 Cardinal
 Openness
traits
 16 diverse  Psychosis  Conscientiousness
 Central
personality  Extroversion  Extraversion
traits
factors  Neuroticism  Agreeableness
 Secondary
 Neuroticism
traits

FFM = five factor model; PEN = psychosis, extroversion, neuroticism.

Trait theorists attempt to explain personality in terms of observable personality

characteristics, or traits, using objective criteria.  Traits can be defined as characteristic
ways one often perceives situations, feels, or acts.  There are several different trait theories,
based on a greater or lesser number of traits.  The studies in the passage use the "big five"
personality factors, also known as the five-factor model (FFM).

Trait theories are successful in objectively organizing behaviors into clearly defined groups,
such as "introverted," "agreeable," or "conscientious."  These theories are also relatively
accurate at predicting an individual's average behavior over time.  For example, someone
who reliably falls into the "introvert" category will also demonstrate predictable behaviors,
such as generally avoiding parties (average behavior).

However, trait theories are not very successful at predicting specific behaviors because
they do not account for the impact of situational factors on behavior.  For example, an
introvert who generally avoids parties would be more likely to attend his wife's retirement
party (specific behavior).  Furthermore, trait theories fail to explain why and how traits
develop.

Trait theorists would argue that personality traits are unlikely to change in a relatively
short time frame.  Therefore, they would most likely question whether the findings
reflected transient alterations in personality during intervention or permanent changes in
innate personality traits.

(Choices A and C)  Trait theories do not consider situational factors on behavior, so a trait
theorist is unlikely to be interested in analyzing which interventions are most effective or
how human interactions influence personality change.

(Choice D)  Trait theories do not consider why and how individuals develop the traits that
they do, so a trait theorist is unlikely to be interested in analyzing the reasons each
participant selected the personality trait chosen.

Educational objective:
Trait theory suggests that personality is the result of a combination of traits that are
relatively stable over time.  Trait theory does not account for external influences on
personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits.

Somatic symptom disorder

Diagnostic criteria for somatic symptom disorder
 One or more somatic (bodily) symptoms that cause
distress or significantly disrupt daily life
 Excessive thoughts and emotions related to somatic
symptoms (worry, anxiety)
 Excessive behaviors related to somatic symptoms
(researching symptoms, going to the doctor)

Somatic symptom disorder (SSD) is a type of somatic symptom and related disorder
(SSRD) characterized by extreme distress and concern regarding one or more actual
bodily/physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, pain).  The SSRDs are a group of disorders in which
bodily (somatic) symptoms or illnesses are associated with psychological factors.

Neuroticism, or emotional instability, is one of the "big five" personality traits. 

Neuroticism is characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions
(anxiety, anger, fear, sadness).  Individuals who score high on this personality factor tend to
find common challenges (eg, getting a flat tire) hopelessly difficult and are more easily
agitated by stressors.

Neuroticism has been linked to many different psychological disorders, including mood,
anxiety, and substance use disorders.  A researcher attempting to determine if there is a
correlation between neuroticism and SSD would be most likely to assess whether anxiety
about somatic symptoms (the major symptom of SSD) increases as emotional stability
scores (a measure of neuroticism) decrease.

(Choices A and B)  Delusions are irrational beliefs that are maintained despite evidence to
the contrary (eg, the neighbors are aliens).  Delusions are symptomatic of certain
psychological disorders (eg, schizophrenia), but the excessive worry about bodily
symptoms characteristic of SSD does not qualify as delusional thinking.  Therefore, this
researcher is unlikely to assess delusional symptoms.

(Choice C)  Agreeableness is not a measure of emotional instability or neuroticism. 

Therefore, this researcher is unlikely to assess if there is a correlation between
agreeableness and illness anxiety.

Educational objective:
Somatic symptom and related disorders (SSRDs) are a group of disorders in which bodily
(somatic) symptoms or illnesses are associated with psychological factors.  For example,
somatic symptom disorder (SSD) is an SSRD characterized by extreme distress and
concern regarding one or more actual bodily/physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, pain).

Counterbalancing for experiments

In research, counterbalancing is used to control for the potential effects that the order of
intervention administration may have on the results.  For example, if participants were
given two different interventions, A and B, a counterbalancing measure would involve
separating participants into two groups, one receiving intervention A first, and the other
receiving intervention B first.

In both Study 1 and Study 2, only one type of intervention was used; therefore,
counterbalancing measures would not be required.

(Choice A)  In Study 2, posttest scores were more vulnerable to experimenter bias because
participants' personality traits were evaluated by the researchers.  Experimenter bias occurs
when researchers influence the results of the study (consciously or subconsciously) in favor
of the expected outcome.
(Choice C)  Study 2 would have been more expensive and difficult to implement because it
required personality analysis by trained researchers and certified therapists to train the
experimental group participants.

(Choice D)  The use of self-reports makes Study 1 more vulnerable to subjective
interpretation, because each participant may have a different interpretation of survey
questions.  Self-reports are often used in research because they are relatively inexpensive,
convenient, and require less time and labor than other methods.

Educational objective:
Self-reports are commonly used in research studies because they are relatively inexpensive
and easy to implement.  Studies based on self-reporting have low vulnerability to
experimenter bias but have high vulnerability to subjective interpretation, as each
participant may interpret the questions differently and bring personal bias to self-
evaluations.  This bias can influence the reliability or validity of self-reported studies.

Statistical analysis – Null hypothesis, false positives

The null hypothesis (H0) states that there is no difference between 2 groups.  In contrast, the
alternative hypothesis (HA) rivals the null by claiming that a difference does exist. 
Rejecting a true null hypothesis (type I error) leads to the incorrect conclusion that there
is a difference between groups (false positive).
In the statistical analyses for Study 1 and Study 2, change scores (posttest minus pretest
measurements) observed in the control group were compared to change scores in the
experimental group.  If researchers had underestimated pretest measurements for the
experimental group, this error would lead to larger observed changes in scores for this
group.  Therefore, comparatively larger change scores would be observed in the
experimental group relative to the control, suggesting that the experimental group improved
more than the control, resulting in a false positive.

(Choices B and D)  If both the experimental and control groups underestimated pretest
measurements or overestimated posttest measurements by the same amount, there would be
no effect on net differences observed between the groups.  Therefore, this would not
increase the likelihood of finding a false difference between the groups.

(Choice A)  An overestimate of baseline measurements in the experimental group would

decrease the observed effect of the intervention.  This would not increase the likelihood of
stating that the experimental group improved relative to the control.  If in reality the
experimental group did experience more change than the control group, this type of
measurement error could lead researchers to fail to reject a false null hypothesis (type II
error) with the erroneous conclusion that there is no difference (false negative).

Educational objective:
The null hypothesis (H0) states that there is no difference between 2 groups, and the
alternative hypothesis (HA) supposes that a difference does exist.  Erroneously rejecting a
true null hypothesis is a type I error, and failing to reject a false null hypothesis is a type II
error.  Errors in measurements can lead to study conclusions that do not accurately reflect
reality.

Psychoanalytic theory
 
According to psychoanalytic theory (most associated with Sigmund Freud), personality
results from the interaction between the id, ego, and superego.  The id is selfish,
compelling us to seek pleasure and avoid pain.  The ego is realistic, compelling us to
behave in ways that are socially acceptable, and acts as a mediator between the id and
superego.  The superego is moralistic and idealistic, compelling us toward perfection.
According to psychoanalytic theory, personality change is possible when a person has a
strong ego that can successfully mediate between one's impulsive, pleasure-seeking id and
the goals of the idealistic superego.

(Choice A)  Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego when it is
overwhelmed or otherwise weaker than the id.  Defense mechanisms help alleviate anxiety
or other suffering.  The superego does not engage in defense mechanisms.

(Choice B)  During personality change, the ego (not the id) addresses the reality principle.

(Choice D)  The id is always chaotic and irrational.  The ego's responsibility is to negotiate
the impulses of the id with rational and goal-directed behavior.

Educational objective:
Psychoanalytic theory proposes that personality is composed of the id (pleasure principle),
the ego (reality principle), and the superego (morality/perfection principle).  The rational
ego functions to mediate between external reality and the unconscious self, negotiating the
desires of the primitive, impulsive id and the moralistic superego.

Major psythotherapeutic theories

Major psychotherapeutic approaches

Humanistic therapy
Psychoanalytic therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (person-centered
("talk therapy")
therapy)
Attempts to uncover how
Attempts to change negative Attempts to empower
unconscious conflicts
thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) & individual to move toward
rooted in childhood shape
maladaptive behaviors self-actualization
behaviors
Various techniques
Various techniques (eg, free Unconditional positive
(desensitization, self-talk) used to
association, dream analysis) regard & empathy used to
replace destructive
used to analyze encourage client to reach
thoughts/behaviors with healthy
unconscious full potential
ones

The therapeutic strategies described in Study 2 (redirecting thought processes, emotional

responses, and behaviors) align with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).  CBT uses
principles from classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, and cognitive
therapy to treat various concerns including phobias, anxiety, and maladaptive personality
traits.
The primary objective of CBT is to replace negative thought patterns and destructive
behaviors with healthy, positive thoughts and behaviors.  A cognitive-behavioral
therapist treating a participant with extreme introversion and social anxiety would focus on
replacing negative thoughts (eg, "I'm no good in social situations") and avoidant behaviors
(eg, not attending a party) with more positive thoughts (eg, "I'm interesting and a great
listener") and sociable behaviors (eg, eating with others).

If relying on principles of classical conditioning, a CBT therapist might use a form of

systematic desensitization, in which this participant is methodically exposed to longer
periods of social engagement (Choice A).  A CBT technique that relies on principles from
operant conditioning is rewarding social behaviors (Choices B and C).

Asking the participant to observe others who freely engage in social settings, while at times
used in CBT, is based more on the principles of observational learning than on those of
classical or operant conditioning.

Educational objective:
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a major therapeutic approach that replaces negative
thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors.  CBT may employ various
techniques, including desensitization, rewarding healthy behaviors, observing others, and
challenging and replacing maladaptive self-talk.
ABC’s of Attitude

The term attitude refers to a person's evaluation or disposition toward something (eg, a
person, an object, an event).  Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral and can change
over time.  Psychologists have identified three components of attitudes:

 The affective component relates to how a person feels about something, including
positive or negative evaluations or emotions (eg, anger, excitement).  For example,
a person might have strong negative feelings about a political candidate, causing her
to favor that candidate's opponent.
 The cognitive component relates to a person's beliefs and opinions about
something.  For example, a person might believe that a particular candidate has
characteristics or experiences that make that candidate well suited to hold office.
 The behavioral component relates to how a person acts toward something.  In the
above examples, voting for or against a candidate reflects the behavioral component
of attitude.

The study procedure requiring the fantasy/reality contrast condition and the positive fantasy
condition to fantasize about the positive aspects of losing weight is most likely attempting
to evoke the affective component of attitude because positive fantasies will likely generate
positive emotions in the participants.
(Choice B)  Even though reflecting on past failed weight loss attempts would likely evoke
the affective component of attitude, participants were never asked to do this as part of the
study procedure.

(Choice C)  Rating success on a scale of 1 to 7 evokes the cognitive aspect of attitude by
forcing the participant to think about a future event.  No affect is involved in this task.

(Choice D)  Participating in proactive weight loss strategies would be most associated with
the behavioral (not affective) component of attitude.

Educational objective:
Psychologists outline three components of attitude:  affective (feelings), cognitive
(thoughts, beliefs, opinions), and behavioral (actions).  Attitudes can be positive, negative,
or neutral and can change over time.

Expectancy theory of motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation proposes that individuals are motivated to act based
on the expected outcomes of their behavior.  According to this theory, motivation involves
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence:

 Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome. 
Asking participants to rate how successful they think they will be at losing weight is
a measure of expectancy.
 Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome. 
Asking participants to rate how much control they believe they have over their
success is a measure of instrumentality.
  Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome.  If the researchers also
asked participants to rate how much they wanted to lose weight, this would be a
measure of valence.

(Choice A)  The arousal theory of motivation suggests that individuals are motivated to
maintain an optimum level of arousal.  When underaroused, people seek activities to
increase stimulation (eg, if bored at home, one will go out dancing).  When overaroused,
people seek to decrease stimulation (eg, if overwhelmed at a party, one will step outside for
quiet).

(Choice C)  The incentive theory of motivation suggests that individuals are motivated
according to external rewards.  Therefore, people engage in the behavior that results in the
most desirable outcomes.  For example, people are motivated to go to work to make money.

(Choice D)  The humanistic theory of motivation suggests that, assuming more basic needs
(like hunger) have been met, individuals are ultimately motivated to seek self-actualization,
the ultimate fulfillment of their own potential.  The motivation to pursue a medical degree
is an example of wanting to fulfill one's potential.

Educational objective:
The expectancy theory of motivation proposes that motivation results from expectancy
(believing one is capable of achieving an outcome), instrumentality (believing one has
control over the outcome), and valence (believing the outcome is desirable).

Additional Information
Behavioral Sciences
Subject
Emotion, Attitudes, & Personality
Foundation
2. Scientific Reasoning and Problem-solving
Skill
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

In the Maslow hierarchy of needs, the desire to lose weight to look and feel healthy and
accomplished is an example of an esteem need, a psychological need that can be met after
basic needs are satisfied.  Maslow proposed that humans are motivated to achieve certain
needs, which are arranged in a hierarchy of importance:  basic needs must be met before
psychological needs can be addressed, and psychological needs must be met before self-
fulfillment needs can be addressed.

 Basic needs include physiological needs and safety needs.  Physiological needs are
the basic elements necessary for survival, such as sleep, water, food, and air.  Safety
needs involve protection from danger, a sense of security, law and order, and
freedom from fear.
 Psychological needs include love/belonging needs and esteem needs. 
Love/belonging needs include the need for connection with friends, family, and
 romantic partners with regard to affection, trust, and acceptance; they also involve
the need to feel integrated into a group, society, or culture.  Esteem needs involve
the desire to feel accomplished and productive within a society.  These involve the
need for feelings of achievement, independence, and respect.
 Self-actualization needs involve a desire to seek personal experiences that allow
one to reach full potential.  Although Maslow believed that every person was
capable of attaining self-actualization, he held that progress toward self-
actualization would be thwarted by failure to attain lower needs.

(Choice A)  According to Maslow's theory, physiological needs are at the bottom of the
pyramid and must be fulfilled before any other needs.  Therefore, successful weight loss is
not required before physiological needs can be met.

(Choice C)  A desire to eat food, however unhealthy, most closely corresponds to a
physiological need.  The desire for love and belonging, as conceptualized by Maslow,
pertains to intimate human interactions.

(Choice D)  Losing weight to improve health is a basic, physiological need, whereas losing
weight for social acceptance is a higher, psychological need.

Educational objective:
The Maslow hierarchy of needs proposes that basic needs (physiological and safety) must
be met before psychological needs (love and belonging, esteem) can be attained.  All lower
needs must be addressed before one can reach the pinnacle of the hierarchy:  self-
actualization.

Drive reduction theory of motivation

Drive-reduction theory proposes that motivation is a result of a disruption of
homeostasis, which generates a biological need.  The biological need generates a drive to
fulfill that need, which prompts action.  For example, when blood glucose levels drop, an
organism feels hungry and engages in food-seeking behaviors.  Therefore, eating slowly
and mindfully and stopping when full is a strategy that addresses a physiological need and
is most consistent with drive-reduction theory.

(Choice A)  Keeping a food journal does not directly address the reduction of a
physiological drive.

(Choice B)  Secondary reinforcers (eg, new clothes) do not address the reduction of a drive;
this strategy more closely aligns with incentive theory.

(Choice C)  Exercise disrupts homeostasis.  Although this disruption is positive and leads
to healthy physiological adaptations, this strategy is the opposite of drive-reduction theory.
Educational objective:
According to drive-reduction theory, motivation is the result of a disruption in homeostasis,
which produces a physiological need (eg, hunger), which leads to a drive (eg, desire to
eat).  Homeostasis is reestablished once the drive is reduced.

Learned helplessness and self efficacy

Learned helplessness describes feelings of extreme powerlessness along with a perceived

lack of control, often resulting from a series of failures or trauma.  When an individual
starts to feel that his efforts are futile and stops trying altogether, learned helplessness has
occurred.  Learned helplessness has been associated with an external locus of control and
low self-efficacy.

Locus of control is defined by whether an individual believes her actions will impact the
outcome of a situation.  An individual with an internal locus of control feels that she has
power to influence the outcome; an individual with an external locus of control feels that
the outcome is due to luck or fate, which she cannot influence.

Self-efficacy describes a person's beliefs about his own competence or ability at a certain
task.  Self-efficacy can vary from task to task.  For example, someone with high self-
efficacy for math may have low self-efficacy for playing soccer.  Self-efficacy can also
change over time.  For example, after attending a soccer camp, the individual's self-efficacy
for soccer may be high.

The expectation of success score reflects self-efficacy, whereas the control of success score
reflects locus of control. Those who selected "not successful" (low self-efficacy for weight
loss) and "no control" (external locus of control for weight loss) are the most likely to
experience learned helplessness (Choices A, B, and C).
Educational objective:
Learned helplessness describes feelings of powerlessness and loss of control, often
occurring after a series of failures or trauma.  Learned helplessness is tied to low self-
efficacy (personal beliefs about one's abilities) and an external locus of control (personal
beliefs about whether one can influence the outcome of a situation).

Escape learning vs avoidance learning (operant and classical

conditioning)

In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement is the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus

(eg, ongoing electric shock) following a behavior, which increases the likelihood that the
behavior will occur again.  Negative reinforcement can lead to escape and/or avoidance
learning.

Escape learning occurs when an organism learns how to terminate an ongoing

unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous
electric shock).  Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when an organism prevents
coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to
avoid the electric shock before it occurs).

Because the researchers are counting the number of trials each dog needs until it jumps
over the partition before the shock is administered (ie, avoid the shock), they are studying
avoidance learning.

(Choice A)  Escape learning is demonstrated by the dog jumping over the partition to
terminate the electric shock, an ongoing unpleasant stimulus.  Because the researchers are
counting how many trials each dog needs until it jumps over the partition before the shock
was administered, they are studying avoidance (not escape) learning.

(Choice C)  Habituation is a type of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus

results in a decrease in the strength of a response (eg, after a few minutes one becomes
accustomed to a flickering overheard light and no longer notices it).

(Choice D)  Sensitization is a type of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus

results in an increase in the strength of a response (eg, instead of becoming accustomed to a
flickering overhead light, one becomes extremely irritated).

Educational objective:
Escape learning occurs when an organism learns how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant
stimulus.  Avoidance learning occurs when an organism learns how to prevent coming into
contact with an unpleasant stimulus before it occurs.

Token Economy
Operant conditioning occurs when the likelihood of an individual repeating a behavior is
influenced by the outcome of that behavior (ie, reinforcement or punishment).

Positive reinforcement increases/maintains behavior through the application of a desirable

stimulus (ie, reinforcer).  Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, candy),
whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable (eg, money).

A token economy positively reinforces certain behaviors through the use of tokens, which
are secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for a desirable reward.  For example, a
teacher gives each child a gold star (ie, token) for completing homework, and 5 gold stars
can be exchanged for candy.

The encouragement of certain behaviors through the use of secondary reinforcers (that can
be exchanged for rewards) illustrates a token economy.

(Choice A)  Modeling describes when an individual learns how to perform a behavior by
watching someone else (eg, toddler combs hair after watching father comb hair).  The
scenario does not describe observation/modeling of certain behaviors.

(Choice B)  Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that did not previously elicit a
meaningful response (ie, neutral stimulus) takes on the properties of a biologically arousing
stimulus (ie, unconditioned stimulus) after being paired (eg, infant fears a white rat after it
is paired with a loud noise).  The scenario does not describe a neutral stimulus taking on the
properties of an unconditioned stimulus.
(Choice D)  In classical conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned
response is elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (eg, infant who is
conditioned to fear white rats also fears white cats).  The scenario does not describe the
generalization of a learned response.

Educational objective:
Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, food), whereas secondary reinforcers are
conditioned to be desirable (eg, money).  A token economy uses tokens (eg, gold stars) as
secondary reinforcers to encourage certain desired behaviors.  Tokens can be exchanged for
something the individual wants (eg, candy).

Reinforcement schedules

Schedules are used in operant conditioning to train and/or maintain learned behaviors
through reinforcement or punishment.  Continuous schedules provide a reward or
punishment after every behavior, which produces the fastest learning using reinforcement
and is the most effective way to stop unwanted behavior using punishment.

Partial reinforcement schedules are most often used to maintain learned behaviors, and
include:
  Fixed ratio:  Behavior rewarded after a consistent number of responses.  For
example, a customer loyalty program awards a free coffee after ten coffee
purchases.
 Variable ratio:  Behavior rewarded after an inconsistent number of responses,
usually after some averagenumber of responses, as in Study 1.  The AVG3 schedule
might provide a reward after four correct responses, then after two, then after three,
and so on.
 Fixed interval:  Behavior rewarded after a consistent amount of time, regardless of
how many behaviors have occurred.  For example, employees who are paid a
weekly salary receive the same amount of money each Friday regardless of how
hard they have worked during the week.
 Variable interval:  Behavior rewarded after an inconsistent amount of time,
regardless of how many behaviors have occurred.  For example, when awaiting an
email, the frequency with which users refresh their in-boxes does not affect when a
new email arrives.

The reinforcement schedule used by Study 1 was a variable ratio schedule, because the
reward was provided after some average number of correct responses.  The reinforcement
schedule used for the experimental group in Study 2 was a fixed interval schedule, because
rewards occurred on a weekly basis.

(Choice A)  A variable interval schedule provides rewards after unpredictable time
increments.  Study 2 provided reinforcement (money) on a fixed time schedule.

(Choices C and D)  A fixed ratio schedule provides a reward for a set number of correct
responses.  Study 1 provided rewards after an average number of correct responses,
consistent with a variable ratio schedule.

Educational objective:
Reinforcement schedules can be continuous (reward given every time) or partial.  Partial
schedules include fixed or variable ratio (reward given after consistent or inconsistent
number of behaviors) and fixed or variable interval (reward given after consistent or
inconsistent amount of time).
Each schedule of reinforcement produces characteristic behavioral response patterns.  The
ratio schedules, which provide reinforcement after a consistent (fixed) or inconsistent
(variable) number of behavioral responses, both produce rapid response rates.  The
interval schedules, which provide reinforcement after a consistent (fixed) or inconsistent
(variable) amount of time, both produce slower response rates.

Fixed interval schedules (eg, providing a weekly weight-loss incentive) tend to produce
increased behavioral responses just before the reward and a decreased pattern of
responding just after the reward is received.  For example, people tend to work harder and
faster at the end of the week, just before receiving their weekly paychecks, and tend to be
slower and more sluggish at the beginning of the week, after receiving their weekly
paychecks.

Therefore, participants in the Study 2 experimental group who are on a fixed interval
schedule should demonstrate similar behaviors.  They should be most diligent with their
diet and exercise regimens just before their weekly weigh-ins and least diligent with dieting
and exercise right after the weekly weigh-in, regardless of whether they have earned or lost
money (Choices A and B).

(Choice D)  Variable interval schedules of reinforcement tend to produce slow and steady
behavioral responses because the subject has no idea when the next reward is coming and
the reward is not linked to behavior.  For example, people tend to check email sporadically
but consistently throughout the day (a slow and steady rate), because new email (a
reinforcer) is received at unpredictable times that do not correspond to how often a person
checks for email.

Educational objective:
Reinforcement schedules produce characteristic behavioral response patterns:  Ratio
schedules produce rapid response rates, whereas interval schedules produce slower
response rates.  Fixed interval reinforcement schedules tend to produce increased behavior
just before the reward and decreased behavior just after.
Primary vs secondary reinforcements and punishments

In operant conditioning, reinforcers encourage behavior whereas punishers discourage

behavior.  Reinforcers and punishers can be primary (innate) or secondary (learned).

Primary reinforcers fulfill a biological urge and are naturally rewarding.  Examples of
primary reinforcers are food, comforting physical contact, and praise.  Secondary
reinforcers are not inherently rewarding but are conditioned to be desirable through
associative learning.  For example, if a child brings home good grades, the parent may
reinforce this behavior with praise or candy (primary reinforcers) so the child feels happy. 
The child then associates feeling good with good grades, resulting in grades becoming a
secondary reinforcer.

Primary punishers are naturally undesirable and cause negative emotions such as pain or
fear.  Examples of primary punishers include an electric shock or a loud noise.  Secondary
punishers are not inherently negative but are conditioned to be undesirable through
associative learning.  For example, if a child brings home bad grades, the parent may
punish this behavior with a scolding (primary punisher) so the child feels bad.  The child
then associates feeling bad with bad grades, resulting in grades becoming a secondary
punisher.

Both studies use money, a secondary reinforcer, as a reward.

(Choice A)  Study 1 uses a food reward as a primary reinforcer.  Study 2 does not include
any primary reinforcement.

(Choice C)  Neither study employs a primary punisher, such as a painful or fear-inducing
stimulus.

(Choice D)  Study 1 does not use any form of punishment.  Study 2 uses the removal of a
desirable stimulus (money) as a form of punishment, but this is referred to as negative
punishment, not as a secondary punisher.

Educational objective:
Reinforcers encourage behavior; punishers discourage behavior.  Reinforcers and punishers
can be primary (innate) or secondary (learned).  Primary reinforcers are innately desirable
(eg, food), whereas secondary reinforcers are made desirable through learning (eg, good
grades).  Primary punishers are innately undesirable (eg, electric shock), whereas secondary
punishers are made undesirable through learning (eg, bad grades).

Additional Information
Behavioral Sciences
Subject
Learning, Memory, & Cognition
Foundation
2. Scientific Reasoning and Problem-solving
Skill

Taste Aversion
A learned taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that
occurs when an organism becomes ill after consuming something (eg, food, alcohol). 
Whatever was consumed prior to the illness becomes associated with the illness (even if it
did not cause the illness) and is avoided by the organism afterward.

Unlike other forms of typical classical conditioning, which require two stimuli to be paired
together repeatedly before the organism learns to associate the two, a taste aversion
develops after just one pairing.  In other words, an organism needs to become ill only once
to associate the food consumed with the illness.

Similarly, whereas typical classical conditioning requires the two stimuli to be presented
within a very short time frame for the organism to learn to associate them, taste aversions
occur despite hours passing between the consumption of a food and subsequent illness.

Finally, whereas typical classical conditioning rapidly extinguishes when the two stimuli
are no longer paired, taste aversions have long durations.  In other words, once becoming
ill, the organism will likely never consume the associated food again.
(Choice A)  Although it is possible that the research participant might associate her
participation in the study with becoming ill, she is most likely to associate her illness with
the food, not the study or studies in general.

(Choice B)  It is unlikely that the participant will associate the illness with the computer
game.  Taste aversions almost always link illness with foods (or smells), which is thought
to be an evolutionary adaptation.

(Choice D)  Taste aversions are long-enduring associations; they are not short-term.

Educational objective:
Taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just
one instance of becoming ill following the consumption of something.  Taste aversions can
develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness and are long-lasting.

Experimental study design and confounding variables

The purpose of Study 1 was to assess how weight corresponds to the type of reward a
subject selects.  The participants received rewards for correct answers during a computer
game, with subsequent rewards becoming more challenging to earn for those who selected
the food reward.  The researchers manipulated the reward schedule (independent variable)
to measure selection of the food or money reward (dependent variable).

Hunger might impact whether a participant was more likely to select a food reward, so
hunger level was a potential confounding variable, one that might affect the results if not
controlled for or eliminated by the researcher.  Therefore, motivational state was controlled
for by ensuring that levels of hunger were not significantly different among participants,
assessed using self-report measures.  If hunger levels had not been the same, any findings
could be attributed to varying baseline levels of hunger rather than BMI.

(Choice B)  The purpose of Study 2 was to assess how earning or losing money
(independent variables) might impact weight loss (dependent variable).  Therefore, if
motivation were used to assign participants to the control or experimental group, this would
result in groups that were fundamentally different, with results that could not be compared. 
To compare results, participants need to be assigned randomly (as they were in Study 2),
such that average motivation levels between groups are similar.

(Choice C)  Study 1 did not contain an experimental and control group; all participants
were given a choice of reward, a decision that was correlated to BMI.

(Choice D)  Motivation was not directly assessed in either study, although it could be
inferred that participants in Study 2 were motivated by monetary rewards to lose weight. 
However, because obese participants were randomly assorted into two groups, it is not
possible to correlate BMI with motivation, as the average BMI of each group should be
comparable.

Educational objective:
Potential confounding variables, such as motivation, must be controlled for at the outset of
a study.  Subjective states like hunger can be measured.  If the groups do not vary in terms
of the potential confounding variable, then any significant differences may be attributed to
the independent variable(s).

Looking glass self concept

The looking-glass self is a symbolic interactionist concept that suggests that our
interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept (beliefs about
ourselves).  In addition, our interpretation of what others think about us is more important
than what they actually think.  For example, a coach may provide feedback to the most
talented player, but that player may interpret (and then internalize) this as an indication that
the coach doesn't think she is very good.

The concept of the looking-glass self best explains the business owner's shift in self-
concept (ie, doubting his ability to run his business) as a result of his interpretation of the
perceptions of others after his accident.

(Choice A)  Strain theory suggests that when individuals are unable to attain socially
acceptable goals (eg, having a nice car) through legitimate means (eg, a job), the resulting
strain may lead to deviant behavior (eg, stealing).  Strain theory does not address how self-
concept is shaped by the interpretations of others' perceptions.

(Choice C)  The dramaturgical approach explains behavior using a theater metaphor:  How
we behave in front of others (the "audience") is a "performance" meant to manage their
impression of us.  The dramaturgical approach does not address an individual's
interpretation and internalization of others' perceptions.
(Choice D)  Psychosexual theory of development states that personality develops through
five psychosexual stages that begin in childhood; conflict in any of these stages can lead to
psychological issues (eg, anxiety) in adulthood.  The impact of interpreting others'
perceptions on self-concept is not explored in this theory.

Educational objective:
The concept of the looking-glass self is part of the symbolic interactionism perspective and
states that an individual's self-concept is shaped by that person's interpretation of others'
perceptions, regardless of the accuracy of those interpretations.

Formal vs hidden curriculum

Formal vs. hidden curriculum

Formal curriculum Hidden curriculum
 Explicit, official content taught  Implicit, unofficial information conveyed
through the educational system through the educational system
(eg, algebra, physics, chemistry) (eg, "Boys are better at math than girls")

Social institutions (eg, family, religion) are enduring, organized systems that outline
behavioral norms and fulfill a purpose in society.  The education system, a social
institution that meets society's need to transfer knowledge and skills, is composed of both a
formal and a hidden curriculum.

The formal curriculum includes the explicit, official content taught to students (eg, how to
solve algebra equations).  The hidden curriculum includes the implied, informal
mechanisms by which certain values and behaviors are promoted; for example, an
algebra teacher who calls mainly on male students is reinforcing a stereotype that boys are
better at math than girls.

Survey results indicating that the surgical specialty has a "masculine" subculture, such that
"masculine characteristics" are needed for success, best reflect the hidden curriculum of
surgical medical education.

(Choice A)  Teacher expectancy occurs when a teacher's beliefs about a student (eg, "she is
smart," "he is lazy") result in the student meeting those expectations (eg, excelling or
performing poorly).  This is thought to occur as a result of the teacher's behavior toward the
student.  The survey results do not reflect teacher expectancy.

(Choice B)  Functionalism, a macro-sociological theory comparing society to a biological

organism, contends that social institutions have manifest (intended) and latent (unintended)
functions.  The survey results reflect a latent (not manifest) aspect of surgical medical
education.

(Choice D)  Material culture refers to the physical items a group of people create, use,
and/or interact with (eg, clothing, technology), whereas symbolic (nonmaterial) aspects of
culture (eg, language, values) are intangible.  The survey results reflect symbolic (not
material) aspects of surgical subculture.

Educational objective:
The education system's hidden curriculum includes implied, informal mechanisms by
which certain values and behaviors are reinforced, whereas the formal curriculum includes
explicit, official content taught to students.

Intelligence and Attention

The cognition and focus studies examined alterations in intelligence and attention in
individuals of advanced age.  Intelligence is the ability to learn and apply new
information and skills, adapt to the environment, and reason through complex situations. 
Attention is defined as the cognitive processes that filter some sensory inputs in order to
focus on others.  Both intelligence and attention can be further subdivided into types:

 Types of intelligence:  Fluid intelligence is the ability to use logic and creativity to
solve novel problems and identify patterns in new situations.  Crystallized
intelligence is the ability to apply skills and knowledge that have already been
learned.  Fluid intelligence is thought to peak in early adulthood and decline with
age, whereas crystallized intelligence is thought to increase with age.
 Types of attention:  Selective attention is the ability to focus on one stream of
information while ignoring other stimuli.  Divided attention is the ability to attend
to more than one stimulus or task at a time.
In the cognition studies, older adults performed poorly compared with younger adults on
novel puzzles, suggesting a decline in fluid intelligence.  During the focus studies,
participants were asked to focus on reading a printed story while ignoring the story on their
headphones (distraction condition), which is an example of a selective attention task, on
which the older adults performed worse than the younger adults.

(Choices A and B)  In the cognitive studies, knowledge of vocabulary and grammar was
used as a measure of crystallized intelligence.  Older adults performed just as well as the
younger adults on this task.

(Choice C)  The focus studies did not include any divided attention tasks.  In general,
research shows that subjects of all ages perform poorly on divided attention tasks.

Educational objective:
Intelligence is the ability to learn, apply, adapt, and reason; fluid intelligence involves logic
and creativity whereas crystallized intelligence involves knowledge and skills.  Attention is
the ability to filter certain stimuli and focus on others; selective attention is focusing on one
stimulus or task and divided attention is focusing on more than one.

Memory retrieval

Memory involves three steps:  encoding, storage, and retrieval.  Retrieval refers to
accessing the encoded information from storage.  There are three types of memory retrieval
processes:  recall, recognition, and relearning.

 Recall is the retrieval of information previously encoded.  Free recall involves

remembering without a hint or prompt, whereas cued recall involves remembering
with the help of a hint or prompt.  Immediate recall involves the retrieval of
information immediately after it was learned, whereas delayed recall involves
retrieval of information after some time has passed.
 Recognition involves the correct identification of information that one has been
exposed to.
  Relearning involves re-encoding information that was previously learned but
forgotten.  Typically, relearning happens much faster than learning something for
the first time.

In the memory studies, participants were tested on their abilities to recall common objects
and to recognize a group of faces.  According to Figure 1, older adults demonstrated better
recognition of faces with positive expressions than younger adults, suggesting improved
recognition of certain faces.

(Choice A)  The results in Figure 1 suggest an overall age-related decline in recognition of
faces but improved recognition of faces showing positive expressions.  Delayed recall of
faces was not assessed in this study.

(Choices B and C)  The first memory study showed that free recall of common objects
declines with age.  This study did not assess cued recall or recognition of common objects.

Educational objective:
Memory retrieval involves recall, recognition, and relearning.  Recall is the retrieval of
previously learned information without a prompt (free recall) or with a prompt (cued recall)
and can be subdivided into immediate recall and delayed recall.  Recognition involves
identifying information that one has already been exposed to.  Relearning involves re-
encoding information that was previously learned but forgotten.

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of personality

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of personality development includes eight stages that
represent the human life span.  Each stage is associated with an age-related crisis, which is
an opportunity for individual growth and social development.  Resolution does not
necessarily occur in each stage before an individual moves onto the next (unresolved
conflict forms the basis for adult psychopathology and other maladaptive behaviors).

 Trust vs. mistrust:  Infants (0–1 years) with sensitive and attentive caregivers
develop a sense of trust; those with inconsistent care do not.
 Autonomy vs. shame/doubt:  Toddlers (1–3 years) who are encouraged will develop
independence; those who are scolded for failure will feel shame (Choice A).
 Initiative vs. guilt:  Children (3–6 years) who successfully interact with others will
develop a sense of initiative; those who are criticized will experience guilt.
 Industry vs. inferiority:  Children (6–12 years) who successfully develop new skills
will feel industrious; those who are not encouraged will feel inferior (Choice B).
 Identity vs. role confusion:  Adolescents (12–20 years) who successfully interact
with peers develop a sense of self-identity; those who do not, experience role
confusion.
 Intimacy vs. isolation:  Adults (20–40 years) who can commit to and love others
develop a sense of intimacy; those who do not, feel isolated (Choice D).
  Generativity vs. stagnation:  Adults (40–65 years) who successfully contribute to
society feel productive; those who do not, feel stagnant.
 Integrity vs. despair:  Older adults (>65 years) who feel accomplished gain a sense
of integrity; those who do not, feel depressed and hopeless.

The older adult study participants, with a mean age of 78.2, should be dealing with the
integrity vs. despair conflict associated with the final psychosocial stage of this theory.

Educational objective:
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of personality development includes eight stages that
encompass the human life span.  Each stage is associated with a crisis involving a conflict
that provides an opportunity for growth.  Successful resolution of stages results in healthy
personality; unsuccessful resolution leads to psychopathology.

Types of Memory

Aging affects different types of memory in various ways.  Aging has been associated with
declines in certain types of memory, including episodic, flashbulb, and source
memory (Choices A, B, and D).

Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events, such as the name of the street

one grew up on.  Flashbulb memory is a type of episodic memory that is especially vivid
and detailed.  A flashbulb memory is a snapshot of the time and place when one received
important historical or emotionally charged autobiographical news (eg, September 11,
2001).  Source memory is remembering what source the information being remembered
came from (eg, learning about an event from the newspaper or a friend).

Semantic and procedural types of memory appear to remain relatively stable with age. 
Semantic memory is the memory for words, facts, and concepts that have been acquired
over the lifetime (eg, color names).  Procedural memory involves motor skills that one has
acquired (eg, riding a bike, driving a car).

Educational objective:
Aging has been associated with declines in certain types of memory, including episodic,
flashbulb, and source memory.  Semantic and procedural types of memory appear to remain
relatively stable with age.

Context-dependent memory refers to the fact that individuals are better able to remember
information when they are in the same context in which that information was learned. 
Context refers to the physical environment in which the original learning took place or
the original memory was encoded.  Context-dependent memory helps to explain why, when
you meet people in one context (eg, in class) and then run into them in another context (eg,
at Starbucks), you may have trouble remembering their names or how you know them.

In this example, if participants are first exposed to images of faces in one room, they are
more likely to recognize those same faces if they are in the same room rather than if they
are in a different room.  This design must be performed on participants from both age
groups so that this effect can be compared between the older and the younger participants. 
In this way, context-dependent memory effects in the younger adults will serve as a
baseline to determine the influence of aging on context-dependent memory effects.

(Choice A)  Breaking the older group into two groups would allow for the determination of
context-dependent memory effects in the older group.  However, if this design is not
repeated in the younger group, there will be no baseline to determine how age influences
context-dependent effects.

(Choices C and D)  Background information or context provided about the pictures
themselves would not influence context-dependent memory, which applies to the context in
which memory is acquired and retrieved.

Educational objective:
Context-dependent memory is the process whereby information is more easily recalled
when an individual is in the same context (eg, room, setting) where he or she first learned
the information.  To determine the influence of aging on context-dependent memory, a
comparison between older and younger participants is needed.