Chapter 2

Review of the Related Literature

This chapter is organized into three parts, namely: (1)

Personality, (2) Nutrition Status, (3) Science Performance

and (4) Synthesis.

The First Part, Personality, talks the different

studies concerning personality.

The Second Part, Nutritional Status, discusses about

relevant studies on nutritional status.

The Third part, Science Performance, describes the

studies on performance of students in science as related to

personality and nutritional status.

The Last Part, Synthesis, sums up the literatures

reviewed in the study.

Personality

Personality can be referred to the summation of the

ways a person thinks, acts feels and behaves typically which

makes them different from each other. The reason for

differences arises because of traits which are partly

genetic according to psychologist who conduct research on

identical twins (Tellegen et al.2003). These traits make a

person behave in a similar and consistent way across most

situations and are important characteristics that determine

our personality make-up.

Robbins (2001) viewed personality as “the sum total of

ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with

others”. Simply put, personality can be defined as a

compound of human characteristics and variables. For

instance, an employee considered to be “ambitious and smart”

by his superior has a personality formed by the compound of

these two characteristics. According to him, behavioural

scientists tend to agree that personality remains constant

throughout one’s life. Hence, it can be said that

personality comprises of human characteristics that do not

quickly vary and can be used to predict one’s short-term

behavioural models.

Personality traits may be related to preferences for

certain styles of behavior (Almund et al. 2011) or subject

matters. They therefore determine what individuals like and

enjoy and what kind of jobs they can imagine themselves

doing for the rest of their work-lives. Especially in

developed countries, preferences for subject matters, next

to cognitive skills, play an important role in college major

choice (Arciadacono, 2004) and personality traits have the

potential of capturing this impact.

 Psychosocial factors are important in education.

Numerous studies have shown that psychosocial factors are

correlated with school achievement. As early as preschool,

personality (conscientiousness) predicts achievement (Abe,

2005).

Several personality researchers (Roberts et al. 2009)

suggest a distinction between ability and personality traits

on the one hand, and motives, goals, and aspirations on the

other—being organized is distinguishable from the aspiration

to get organized (B. W. Roberts), for example.

Individual could possess different degrees of the Big

Five personality traits, like extraversion,

conscientiousness, openness to experience, neuroticism and

agreeableness. It is also possible that the person’s

prominent traits could determine a person’s inclination

towards certain faculties or subject selection or even a

career choice later on in life much more than the person’s

cognitive ability. Although, there exists few studies

conducted in foreign cultures on personality traits and

major choice very few studies have been conducted in the

Asian context particularly in Thailand and especially at the

university/college level. There is evidence that

personality traits have an impact on the extent to which a

person pursues studies like getting a school degree or

college degree (Cobb-Clark, 2010).

Several studies ignore the role of the Big Five

personality traits in determining a person’s choice of major

at the university/college level but Heckman, Stixrud & Urzua

(2006) found that personality traits can act as an advantage

for a person and help with productivity on tasks. Often

people envisage what they wish to become in life or what

activities they want to engage in during their lives based

on the behaviors they exhibit.

Research has found evidence that personality traits are

related to certain style of behaviors a person prefers

(Almlund et al. 2011).

Psychologist agrees that the subject an individual is

attracted to can impact the choice of major, next to

23
cognitive ability (Arciadacono, 2008).

Other studies show that even a person’s choice of

occupation can be determined from personality traits (Cobb-

Clark & Tan, 2011).

Meta-analyses have shown that there is overlap between

interests and personality (Larson et al. 2002).

Judge et al. (2007) found that Extraversion and

Neuroticism were consistent predictors of job satisfaction

and that 17% of the variance in job satisfaction could be

explained by personality traits.

According to Matthews, Whiteman et.al, (2003),

personality may also affect goals qualitatively, with, for

example, social affiliation goals relating to Agreeableness

and dominance goals to Extraversion.

Also, in a sample of nearly 6000 individuals going

through career transition, Lounsbury et al. (2003) found

that several individual personality traits were related to

career satisfaction, with one set of traits accounting for

17% of the variance in career satisfaction.

Latest studies illustrate that personality effects the

environments in which individuals are living (Chen et al.

2004) and plays a significant role to select the situation

in which individuals decide to stay in.

According to Barrick and Mount (2005) the preference

24
for organizational environments, the cycle of individuals

one choose to interact with and the kind of activities one

enjoys strongly relies on one's personality.

Personality has been a tough quality for parents and

teachers to mold into the individual especially if the

career in question is not in agreement with the student. In

addition contacts are a major job seeking method. The

student’s personality must match the criteria for their

chosen career (Borchert 2002).

Lounsbury et al. (2005) found that persons feel more

genuine when they identify with their traits and act in

accordance with these traits. Higher job performance can be

contingent upon a person’s occupational interest and

realized occupational choice, according to a study by

Neumann et al. (2009).

The studies above clearly indicate that personality

traits definitely have a relationship with our choices not

only of major subjects in university but also of major life

choices.

Nutritional Status

The potential for health to improve cognitive function,

learning and academic achievement in children has received

attention by researchers and policy makers. It is widely

accepted that health and well-being are essential school,

attending college, and obtaining a college degree (Cobb-

Clark et al. 2010).

The potential for health to improve cognitive function,

learning and academic achievement in children has received

attention by researchers and policy makers. It is widely

accepted that health and well-being are essential elements

for effective learning. It is also seen that education is a

strong predictor of lifelong health and quality of life in

different populations, settings, and time. But as to how

education leads to better health and longer life expectancy

are still not clearly understood. It is widely held,

however, that education, health, and social outcomes are

very closely interdependent.

http://www.tojned.net/pdf/v03i03/v03i03-05.pdf

Malnutrition is a major problem across the world, both

in developed and developing countries and deficiencies in

some nutrients have been reported to cause diseases which

could lead to impaired cognitive development. Many other

studies have related lifestyle of students, particularly

breakfast consumption, to their cognitive abilities as

reflected in their academic performance. But sadly, most of

these studies have failed to include young adults or even

adolescents studying in the tertiary institution.

Undernourished children have been shown to have decreased

attendance, attention, and academic performance as well as

experience more health problems compared to well-nourished

children. More recently, studies have examined the impact of

breakfast on cognition, behavior, and academic performance

of school-age children. (Gosh and Saha, 2000)

 Behavior Survey conducted in 20 countries, did not

explore the associations between health and academic

achievement. Conversely, most studies of the factors

associated with students’ educational attainment were mainly

concerned with educational and/or demographic variables and

did not concurrently explore the students’ health-related

parameters. Geographically, the majority of research

conducted assessed the associations between health/health

programs and academic achievement and were undertaken in the

USA, with fewer studies from the UK or elsewhere. Also the

associations between health/health programs and academic

attainment were mostly examined in elementary, middle or

high school children, rather than university/college

students. Low anthropometric measurements (height-for-age,

weight-for height and head circumference) have been

frequently associated with poor school outcomes. In fact, in

several of the studies, the relationship remained

significant, even after controlling for socioeconomic

variables. Iron-deficiency anemia, missing breakfast and

helminthic infections have also been reported to affect

school performance. Eating disorders create a variety of

medical conditions that occur more frequently in the

college-age population.
 According to Gardner and Grantham-McGregor (2000) the

mechanisms which link under nutrition and poor development

in children are not well understood, although children who

were moderately to severely malnourished during their early

childhood show delayed development. Studies of nutrition and

academic performance have typically focused on hunger,

malnutrition, and micronutrient deficiency. The predominant

approach to studying diet has focused on the role of

individual nutrients or foods. However; individuals do not

consume single nutrients but combinations of foods. In

recognition of the multidimensional nature of diet, studies

of the interrelations of nutrition and health have examined

the effects of overall diet quality using summary measures

of food and nutrient intake. Academic performance influences

future educational attainment and income, which, in turn,

affect health and quality of life.

Moreover, as increased levels of educational attainment

and income facilitate increased understanding of nutrition

messages and access to healthy food. This relationship has

been observed as steady across different levels of

socioeconomic status.

(http://www.tojned.net/pdf/v03i03/v03i03-05.pdf, 9/27/14)
 Wolfe and Burkman (2000) cited research that confirmed

proper nutritional support is important to allow the brain

to function at its highest ability and to enhance learning.

Wolf and Burkman suggested that it didn’t take much

complication or obscurity through expensive foods and

supplements to help students reach their potentials;

healthful nutritional habits learned early in life help

endure normal physiological and neurological growth and

development, which translated into students’ achieving

optimal learning, defined as the abilities to recall

information, to problem solve, and to think critically.

Every lunch must contain at least one-third of the

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for specific key

nutrients, and every breakfast must contain one-fourth of

the RDA for specific nutrients. School meals must conform to

the U.S. Dietary Guidelines and on a weekly average, no more

than thirty percent of the calories can be from fat. To sum

up Wolfe and Burkman’s findings, the performance

possibilities of children are very dependent upon their

health and well-being; minds that have been given the proper

nutrition will perform better on tests and general classroom

tasks.
 Lahey and Rosen (2010) furthered the research that

nutrition affects learning and behavior and suggested that

diet can influence cognition and behavior in many ways,

which include the condition of not enough nutrition or the

condition of the lack of certain nutrients. About one-third

of children who completed a food-habit questionnaire had

inadequate fruit and vegetable intake. These students also

showed poor school performance as compared to those students

who had an adequate intake of fruits and vegetables.

Zhang et. al. (2005) looked specifically at fats in the

American diet, as the customary diet of American children

and adults is high in total fat, saturated fat, and

cholesterol. They sought to identify associations with fat

intake and psychosocial and cognitive functioning in U.S.

school-aged children, since it had been unclear whether and

how specific fats may affect social and cognitive

development. Data was used from the Third National Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Medical and

cognitive examinations and interviews were conducted with

children and proxy respondents. A total of 5,367 children

aged 6-16 participated in the Household Youth Interview.

After attrition, a total of 3,666 children remained for the

analyses.
 In the study of Alaimo, et. al. (2001) Data on 5,344

children age 6-16 years were studied for families who

reported not getting enough food to eat as compared to those

families who were food sufficient. Regression analysis was

conducted to test this food insufficiency against cognitive,

academic, school attendance, suspensions, and other

measures. Results showed that Regression analysis (and

adjustment for confounding socioeconomic and other factors)

showed that food insufficiency was significantly associated

with arithmetic scores, grade repetition but not associated

significantly with cognitive outcomes, and reading scores.

Another study by Mukudi (2003) wherein data were

collected from 851 students from 5 elementary schools

included height, weight, attendance records, and raw scores

from standardized tests. Results showed that 29% of students

fell below 90% cutoff of acceptable weight for height. The

measure of weight for height was the second strongest

predictor of achievement on standardized tests.

Science Performance

Science is accumulated and established knowledge, which

has been systematized and formulated with reference to the

discovery of general truths or the operation of general

laws; knowledge classified and made available in work, life

or the search for truth; comprehensive, profound or

philosophical knowledge. According to Carin and Sund (in

Oktavianus 2011), science is “a systematic and structured

knowledge on a regular basis, apply a general and a

collection of data from observation and experimentation”.

Stated in DepEd discussion paper 2010, the poor quality

of basic education is reflected in the low achievement

scores of Filipino students. Many students finish basic

education do not possess sufficient mastery of basic

competencies. One reason is that students do not get

adequate instructional time or time on task. The National

Achievement Test (NAT) for grade 6in S.Y. 2009 – 2010

passing rate is only 69.21%. Although this is already a 24%

improvement over the school S.Y. 2005 – 2006 passing rte,

further reform are needed to achieve substantial

improvement. The NAT for high school is 46.38% in S.Y. 2009

– 2010, a slight decrease from 47.40% in S.Y. 2008 – 2009.

International tests implies like 2003 Trends in

International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rank the

Philippines 34th out of 38th participating countries in Math

and 43rd out of 46 countries in science. In 2008, even with

only the science high schools participating in the Advanced

Mathematics category, the Philippines ranked lowest. (Rivas,

2014)

Von Secker (2004) identified several protective factors

that promote academic resilience among disadvantaged youth

in regard to science education, including: students’

positive attitudes and beliefs toward education and their

ability to do well, enriched home learning environments,

educational opportunities at school, and parental education

level. Students' relationships with their teachers, parental

monitoring, student mental health, ethnic identity, and peer

values have also been shown to play a moderating role in

disadvantaged youth's academic achievement (Spencer, 2005).

Thus, although much attention has been given to student risk

factors, it is clear that closing this gap without targeting

other, more positive, moderating factors may prove

unsuccessful. Although the moderating relationship of two

other protective factors —access to healthy foods and

physical activity have not been explicitly examined in the

literature with respect to student achievement, these

variables may in fact serve as important areas to target in

closing the achievement gap.

The nutritional status and physical activity serves

both for a learner to understand the lesson and for better

learning of thinking. Healthy individuals can better

understand the lesson in school and be more successful in

life.

Based on the findings of Tufts University, Center on

Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy, undernourishment

impacts the behavior of children, their school performance,

and their ability to concentrate and perform complex tasks.

Inadequate nutrition during childhood can have lasting

effects and compromise cognitive development and school

performance.

Iron deficiency is one of the most prevalent

nutritional problems of children in the United States. Iron

deficiency can increase fatigue, shorten attention span,

decrease work capacity, reduce resistance to infection and

impair intellectual performance. Consequently, anemic

children tend to do poorly on vocabulary, reading and other

tests (Trocolli, 2004).

Schools that offer intense physical activity programs

see positive effects on academic achievement, including

increased concentration; improved mathematics, reading, and

writing test scores; and reduced disruptive behavior, even

when time for physical education classes reduces the time

for academics. (Symons and Kolby, 2001)

Providing more opportunity for physical activity (by

reducing class time) leads to increased test scores. In one

program, a reduction of 240 minutes per week in class time

for academics to enable increased physical activity led to

higher mathematics scores. (Sallis, et al. 2000)

The California Department of Education in their study

conducted entitled “The Relationship between Physical

Fitness and Academic Achievement”. The relationship between

academic achievement and fitness was greater in mathematics

than in reading, particularly at higher fitness levels.

Synthesis

Personality type has a great impact on students’

academic performance. Students must know themselves, their

personality type in order for them to boost their self-

confidence and others may understand them. All individuals

must know themselves and use that self-knowledge as a tool

when making a choice. Base on the studies presented, there

are evidences that personality traits have an effect on the

extent to which a student react and interact to the teacher

and other classmates in school that would affect their

academic performance.

Improved nutritional status has a positive and direct

impact on academic achievement. When children’s basic

nutritional and fitness needs are met, they have the

cognitive energy to learn and achieve. Schools continue to

be a core place for students to learn and practice healthy

eating habits. Research shows that healthy, well-nourished

children are more prepared to learn, more likely to attend

school and class, and able to take advantage of educational

opportunities.

Science education should be the vehicle for students to

learn about oneself and the natural surroundings. Science

education should be given importance by the students,

teachers, parents and community in order to increase

performance, gain more knowledge and skills in science

subject.

Personality type and nutritional status of students are

one of the big factors that affect science performance.

These are the factors that are sometimes taken for granted

in the studying learning. These factors should be given

attention because these are the basic needs of humans that

are very important.