surface (planed, rim sawn, band sawn) was tested on two moisture states of

wood specimens; oven dried and water saturated. In the case of different
surfaces of the steel, the value of the coefficient of friction was
approximately twice as high for a grinded steel surface as compared to a
polished surface on oven dried wood during exposure to different pressure.
For water saturated wood the value of the coefficient of friction was the
same or higher in comparison to the oven dried wood at all load levels.
Studying the effect of the wood surface on the friction characteristics it was
shown, that wood surface finishing has less impact on the coefficient of
friction. The irregularities on a coarse wood surface were deformed and
became smooth since the wood surface is much softer than the metal tool
surface. In every case, the value of the coefficient of friction tended to be
higher with water saturated wood than with oven dried wood.

In case of dowel connections used in structural engineering, a lot of previous

research has been done, e.g. by (Sjödin et al., 2008) and (Dorn, 2012).
(Sjödin et al, 2008) estimated the coefficient of friction between the dowel
and the surrounding timber for two groups of dowels – with a smooth
surface of the dowel and with a rough one. For joints with smooth dowel
surfaces, the value of the coefficient of friction µ was estimated to lie
between 0 and 0.3. For joints with a rough surface dowel µ, was estimated to
be between 0.3 and 0.5. Experimental investigations also show, that the
load-bearing capacity increases for single dowel joints when rough surface
dowels are used compared to when smooth dowels are used.

(Dorn, 2012) performed structural experiments on single dowel-type timber

connections using different roughness of the dowels and density of the wood
and studied the influences of the coefficient of friction and the effects on the
behavior and failure of the connection. The outcomes verified the expected
influence of increased dowel roughness on connection behavior: increase of
both maximum load and maximum displacement at failure. In finite
elements simulations of dowel connections, (Dorn, 2012) used variations of
the coefficient of friction from 0.0 up to 0.8 and observed the results being
significantly influenced; increased friction positively affected load bearing
capacity, while stiffness was less significantly influenced (see Figure 1.2).

6
Figure 1.2: Load-displacement curves and the stiffness course for variation
of frictional properties (Dorn, 2012).

7
2. Theory
The first two parts of the theory chapter is oriented towards mechanical and
physical properties of wood, such as behavior in compression with different
fiber directions as well as moisture influence on wood properties. The third
part describes friction itself and the coefficient of friction including formulas
necessary to obtain its value.

2.1 Mechanical properties of wood

The mechanical properties such as strength and stiffness of wood, in
compression parallel to the fiber direction and in compression perpendicular
to the fiber direction, are often given for "clear" wood. The term “clear”
refers to the fact that effects of growth features, such as spiral grain, knots,
splits or checks are not included. (Kretschmann, D., 1999) describes in wood
mechanics that clear wood specimens are considered as homogeneous.

2.1.1 Strength and stiffness of wood

(Kretschmann, D., 1999) says that wood may be described as an orthotropic

material which means that it has unique and independent mechanical
properties in different directions of the three mutually perpendicular axes
(Figure 2.1). The longitudinal axis L is parallel to the fiber (grain); the radial
axis R is perpendicular to the grain direction (normal to the growth rings);
tangential axis T is perpendicular to the grain but tangential to the growth
rings.

Radial R

Tangential T

Longitudinal L

Figure 2.1: Three principal axes of wood with respect to grain direction and
growth rings.

2.1.2 Compression parallel to the fiber direction

Loading wood parts parallel to the fiber direction is (together with bending)
the most common method of straining wooden constructions. It is necessary

8
 to take the difference between buckling pressure and simple pressure into
account.

There are some aspects that have to be taken into account in designing and
evaluating wood in compression parallel to the grain:

1. load capacity is calculated based on a linear relation between stress and

deformation,

2. strength and stiffness are dependent on moisture content, the rate of loading
and the duration of loading,

3. particular damages vary and depend on many factors, for example on the
layout of the volume of loaded particular cells among other things (i.e.
that kind of damage is hard to predict for untested specimens)

Characteristic strength of wood in compression parallel to the fiber direction

is given by standards and it is in turn referred to Eurocode 5.

2.1.3 Compression perpendicular to the fiber direction

Compression perpendicular to the fiber direction is a very common kind of

loading. Current knowledge about this type of loading is based on long-time
experience and rules are empirically determined. These are used in
contemporary standards and design rules for wooden constructions.

For deriving and assessing wood loaded in compression perpendicular to the

fiber direction it is necessary to take the following aspects into account:

1. strength and stiffness is dependent on the moisture content and its changes,
and on the duration of loading as well,

2. loading capacity is given by a relation between stress and deformation, which

is non-linear.

The maximum stress level in compression loading perpendicular to the grain

is between 3 and 5 MPa and failure stress is defined as the stress level that
gives 10% remaining deformations (Johansson et al. 2011). There is a
difference in the amount of deformation depending on the orientation of the
annual rings – the modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the grain is higher
in the thick-walled latewood than in the thin-walled earlywood.

2.1.4 Compression stresses at an angle to the grain

Being a strongly orthotropic material angle of loading in relation to the fiber

direction must be taken into account in design.

9
 According to (Johansson et al., 2011), the strength of the wood material
changes considerably depending on the angle between the applied load and
the grain direction. A correlation for calculating compression strength
depending on angle (α) was proposed by Hankinson. The relationship
between the failure strength and the angle (α) according to Hankinson is
shown in Figure 2.2.

f0

α
f90
0° 90°

Figure 2.2 - The relationship between the failure strength f and the angle α
between the fiber direction and the force direction according to Hankinson
(Johannson et al, 2011).

2.1.5 Orthotropic elasticity

Applying the theory of orthotropic elastic materials involves several

assumptions. The tree log is for instance idealized to have the shape of a
perfect cylinder, of which the longitudinal axis is identical to the fiber
direction. Another idealization is the assumed concentric orientation of the
annual rings.

Orthotropic solid occurs when the three mutually perpendicular symmetric

planes of elastic properties go through each point of its body. If there is such
a case in a solid, it holds true that there are three mutual perpendicular axis
directions, e.g. longitudinal (L), radial (R) and tangential (T). Hooke's law
establishes a linear relation between each stress component and all the strain
components. The relation between stresses and strains can then be written
as:

10
 (1)

In simple linear elasticity symmetry gives

(2)

From where it is concluded that: (3)

Due to the symmetry, nine independent constants define the compliance

matrix:

EL, ER, ET, GLR, GRT, GLT, υLR, υRT, υLT.

The moduli of elasticity in tension and compression, EL, ER, ET, the shear
moduli GLR, GRT, GLT, and Poisson’s coefficients υLR, υRT, υLT

2.1.6 Stress at an angle to the grain - Hankinson's formula

There is no general formula describing cracking of wood. Empirical

relations for the determination strength boundaries have been used until
now. These can give relatively accurate results. One of these methods is
Hankinson's formula for plane stress giving the strength at angle α to the
grain:

11
 , . ,
= (4)
, ,

Where:

, ... Compression strength parallel to the grain.

, ... Compression strength perpendicular to the grain.

... Deviation of grain from the axis system given by two mutual
perpendicular planes.

n … Exponent which value can be determined experimentally, for the

time being the most common value used is n = 2.

2.2 Physical properties of wood

There are a number of physical properties of wood that influence the
behavior of wooden materials and they have to be taken into account. The
well-known are moisture content, density, shrinkage and swelling.

2.2.1 Moisture and wood

Wood is a hygroscopic material; therefore the moisture content plays a very

important role. The amount of water absorbed in wood is determined
primarily by the relative moisture of the surrounding environment.

The mechanical properties of wood are affected by the moisture content

therefore its influence is usually taken into account in design code by
reducing strength values for timber used in environments where high
moisture content can occur (Johannson et al. 2001).

There are two kinds of water in wood, bounded water and free water. Free
water does not influence strength or elasticity or other aspects, while
bounded water has a significant effect on entire characteristics including all
kinds of strength. Bound water is the moisture absorbed within the cell wall;
this water is molecularly bound to the wood molecules of the cell (Figure
2.2) (Department of Natural Resources, 2013).

12
 Figure 2.2 – Anatomy of longitudinal cells, in relation to moisture loss
(Department of Natural Resources, 2013).

There is no effect on strength of wood in the loss of free water, however

when wood loses its bounded water, most strength properties increase
(Department of Natural Resources, 2013). Therefore it is important to relate
e.g. all mechanical tests to the moisture content (MC). This is usually
expressed as a percentage and can be calculated from

= . (100%) (6)

Where mwater is the mass of water in wood and mwood is the mass of the
ovendry wood.

The moisture content of a given piece of wood can be calculated by

= . (100%) (7)

Where mwet is the mass of the specimen at given moisture content and mdry is
the mass of the ovendry specimen.

2.2.2 Density

Wood is a porous material made of cells of various kinds; therefore

depending on the nature of these cells, some wood have more or less solid
wood substance for a given sized piece. Density is determined by the
amount of wood substance for a given volume. Density is dependent on
volume and weight, which are in turn dependent on the moisture content; it
is also an indicator of wood strength – the higher the density the stronger the
wood (Department of Natural Resources, 2013).

13
 Values of density for wood are usually determined for moisture content 12%
which is referred to as a standard condition. The density of wood varies
significantly between species; between about 320 and 721 kg/m3 (Glass et
Zelinka, 1999).

2.2.3 Shrinkage and swelling

With respect to dimensional stability, wood is an anisotropic material. It

shrinks (swells) most in the direction of the annual growth rings
(tangentially), about half as much across the rings (radially), and only
slightly along the grain (longitudinally) (Glass et Zelinka, 1999).

Shrinkage occurs when the moisture content is reduced; the micro fibrils
(surface of cells where water is bonded) come closer to each other. The
shrinkage is usually very small but for large lengths this can be necessary to
take into account (Johannson et al. 2011).

2.3 Description of friction and the coefficient of friction

There are several types of friction, but only dry static friction is relevant for
this thesis since it is a study of solid surfaces in contact (wood and steel).

According to (Wikipedia, 2014), dry friction is defined as the force resisting

a relative motion between two solid surfaces and it is subdivided into static
friction (between non-moving surfaces) and kinetic friction (between
moving surfaces).

Friction converts kinetic energy into heat whenever relative movement

between two surfaces in contact occurs. Another inevitable consequence
whenever friction occurs is wear, which may lead to damage of the surfaces
exposed to friction and/or performance degradation.

According to (Persson B.N.J., 2000) friction is not itself a fundamental force

but arises from fundamental electromagnetic forces between the charged
particles constituting the two contacting surfaces. The interactions between
these particles results in the calculation of friction from first principles being
impractical, thus use of empirical methods for analysis and the development
of theories are required.

The coefficient of friction, denoted μ, is defined as the ratio between the

friction force F and the normal force N, both acting in the contact surface
(Figure 2.3), resulting in

= = (8)

14
 L

Figure 2.3 - The friction force F and the normal force N

As can be seen from the equation (8), there is no area that would influence
the friction, meaning that for a small block of wood, the calculated
coefficient of friction will be the same as for a larger one, if the ratio of
acting forces remains the same. Further observations made in (Persson
B.N.J., 2000) show that the coefficient of friction is also often almost
independent of velocity, except for extreme cases of low or high velocity.
The coefficient of friction is also nearly independent of the surface
roughness, except for extreme cases, where either of the surfaces is smooth
or rough.

The friction force equals the shear stress integrated over the area of real
contact. Because of surface roughness, the area of real contact is usually
much smaller than the apparent area of contact.

Macroscopic bodies always have rough surfaces, at least on a microscopic

level, and if one places two solid materials in contact, some regions on their
surfaces will be so close together that the surface atoms of one material
"touch" the surface atoms of the other material, while in other regions, the
surface atoms are separated by relatively large distances. The regions of
contact are referred to as junctions, and the sum of all the junctions is called
the area of real contact. The rest of the apparent area of contact is usually
much larger than the real area of contact, but plays essentially no part in
determining the sliding friction.

The real area of contact in most practical cases can be estimated accurately
by assuming that plastic deformation has occurred at each junction and that
all the junctions are in a state of incipient plastic flow. This assumption
gives

∆ = / (9)

where N is the load and σc (the penetration hardness) the largest compressive
stress that the materials can bear without plastic yielding.

15