LITERATURE REVIEW

Sand can be found in a variety of places, sources, and habitats. Sand is formed as rocks are weathered
and eroded over thousands, if not millions, of years. Quartz (silica) and feldspar, in particular, extract a
long period to decompose. Rocks float down rivers and streams gradually, many thousands of miles
from the sea, continuously collapsing along the way. (Administration, 2021)

Gravity aids material movement down streams, rivers, and cliff faces. Rock fracturing occurs when
rocks are smashed with each other. Wind, like gravity, leads to material movement by powering
waves, tides, and exterior erosion. The wind even transports fine sand to multiple places. Those are a
few of the most likely reasons for sand formation, nevertheless others, including certain animal
interaction, can occur based on region. These conditions create the Continental surface to decompose,
resulting in sediments deposited known as sand. Sand may have a variety of appearances focusing on
where we are. Sands from various places are made up of various materials (Camp, 2020).

Concrete sand, also known as River sand, is a coarse-textured, somewhat brown-colored natural sand.
It's mainly utilized in manufacturing, nevertheless, it can be used for minor projects by landlords as
well. Concrete Sand is utilized mainly to blend concrete, as the name implies. It is found in riverbeds
or along riverbanks and is harvested spontaneously. River sand is cheap and effortlessly obtainable,
and it is widely used in buildings. Crushed sand has an angular and cubical appearance, as well as a
gritty texture, making it ideal for concrete. The building industry's utilization of river sand is rising as
public confidence in infrastructure grows, as does sand competition. This sand is being used as fine
aggregate in plaster concrete, with natural river sand being the most common alternative. This sand is
enhancing increasingly insufficient. This sand is far preferable to all other sand used in the building
than almost any sand (Rajput, 2021).

It should be very light grey and clear of any contaminants left from the river if it's unstained and set to
employ as construction materials. Sand is used in construction to give building products substance
rather than using more costly or less easily accessible materials to produce mass. River sand is present
in riverbeds and riverbanks. It is made up of spherical crystals that are free of impurities and mud. This
material has less water leakage in asphalt, less honey scouring, and high resistance to hostile
conditions. It uses less water, has a finer feel, and is more formed. Because of the water stuck within
the particles, it's ideal for concrete. Because of the minimum allowable silt content of about 3%, it is
commonly used in the construction sector. It's ideal for plastering, RCC, and blockwork, and also
stonework (Gupta, 2019).

River sand is easily accessible in many other parts of the country, making it simple to obtain. It may as
well be used to make lightweight mortar, cement, brickwork, asphalt, and other filler content. It is well
respected in the building industry due to its high strength and reliability. The substance in question is
most widely used to produce asphalt, concrete, and mortar. It makes concrete and mortar easier to deal
with. This sand is widely regarded as the best fine aggregate material, and it is an important raw
material in the building industry. Sand is required for internal plastering to achieve stabilization,
strength, and longevity (Gupta, 2019).

River sand is a kind of sand that is mined from streams and rivers and used in construction and
property development. It's normally cubical or rounded, with a smooth texture that makes it easy to
deal with. Since this sand naturally materializes, it appears in a variety of shapes, making it easy to
rate. This sand has a low salt content and is void-free. Its rough surface polished crystals and organic
material construct are ideal for plastering and concreting. Furthermore, the dust in the sand is swept out
by the floodwater, saving both effort and resources (Gupta, 2019).

The global phenomenon of wide-reaching sand mining from river environments for construction
activities is well-known. Sand extraction without discrimination has some physical, biological, and
social, and economic consequences for river basins. Besides that, the mining of this granular substance
is inevitable since the building sector's long-term viability is strongly reliant on it. Construction quality
sand is used in rivers in a variety of places, including natural waterways, riverbeds, and river terraces.
Within dry (above water table) and/or wet (underneath water table) circumstances, specific mining
techniques (mechanical or manual) are used to remove sand from these sites. The various origins,
techniques, and hydrogeological bearings of sand and gravel mining processes in river environments
are narrowly covered in this section (Gupta, 2019).

1. Types of sand extraction

Sand and gravel concentrations are mostly collected from two primary reservoirs in the river
environment: productive rivers and floodplain zones, as well as overbank zones like terraces (Maya,
2014) (GM, 1994a).
 1.1 Instream Mining
Instream sand mining is used to extract sand and gravel from a river's active path. Instream (in-
channel) sand needs less handling than other types of sand. Instream sand mining occurs in a variety of
fluvial subsystems, including barriers, point bars, and active channels. Sand mining from instream is
usually achieved first, followed by sand harvesting from other alluvial origins (GM, 1994b).

1.2 Floodplain Mining

The floodplain is the land immediately below the levee that is often filled with water throughout
floods. Floodplains are typically formed by sediment accumulation during the migratory processes of
the stream channel. Floodplain sedimentary rocks are made up of channel sand at the foundation,
floodplain silt and clay at the top, and floodplain sand at the bottom. Floodplain extraction is the
removal of sand from the soil that represents channel sand in floodplain regions.

1.3 Terrace Mining

Sand extraction from terraces is very popular in several rivers around the globe.

2. Methods of Sand Extraction

Many methods are used for sand mining (GM, et al., 2002).

2.1 Active Channels

2.1.1 Bar scalping or skimming

The mining of riverbed substances, mainly sand and gravel, from the tops of the walls is known as bar
scalping or sifting. This method would clean any ground deviations in the sand bar, and product
abstraction will be restricted to what can be obtained above an imaginary line sloping upwards and
away from the water concerning a given level (GM, et al., 2002). Depending on the speed of sediment
deposition, bar skimming is normally done once a year. The favored form of bar skimming is currently
to keep the top one-third of the bar untroubled to preserve the hydraulic power exerted upstream by the
riffle head. Extraction is limited to two-thirds of the length of the bar at the downstream edge.

2.1.2 Dry pit channel mining

Mechanical (bulldozers, excavators, launchers) or manual sand extraction inside the upper reservoir of
dry power converters or intangible stream beds. Upstream boundaries of dry pits are frequently sudden.
Throughout high-flow seasons, these sudden thresholds act as head splits, propagating upstream and
generating disruption to organic and artificial structures/features aligned with watercourses.

2.1.3 Wet pit channel mining

Wet pit extraction entails digging a mine in an intertidal zone underneath the groundwater level of a
permanent stream or below the sedimentary groundwater table. This method of extraction generally
necessitates the utilize of a drift line or mechanical incinerator to remove sand and gravel from under
the surface of the water.

2.1.4 Bar excavation

At the downdraft end of the bar, a hole is dug as a supply of gravel and a place to store sand and
gravel. The pit should be attached to the river at its downdraft end later the sand and gravel mining is
finished to produce side-channel protection.

2.1.5 Instream sand and gravel traps

For biodiversity improvement, sand and gravel cages or bed load cages have been used to limit sand
transport in watershed channels. If the amount obtained is commercially feasible, these cages may be
possible origins of commercial accumulation. The cage has the benefit of concentrating extraction
effects at one location, where large machinery can clear sand and gravel despite causing any damage to
the vegetative cover or other genuine channel properties. Sand and gravel production can be done
yearly until the gravel cages are established.

2.1.6 Channel-wide instream mining

Throughout the dry season, channel-wide floodplain extraction involves extracting sand and gravel
from the whole intertidal zone. This type of extraction is done in streams of varying flow systems. The
bed is leveled and lowered evenly. Due to worries about biodiversity effects, several developing
countries do not support this approach.
Figure 1: Different methods of sand mining. Mechanical sand mining from ephemeral (a) and perennial (b) rivers; Manual mining from
active channels (c, d); Manual mining from point bar deposit (e); Wet pit mining from floodplain (f)

2.2 Floodplains and Terraces

Floodplains and river terraces are two other common alluvial sand sources. In these root groups, two
methods of mining are used. Wet pit extraction and dried pit extraction are the two types of mining.
The depth of the extraction pit in wet field mining exceeds the groundwater table, while in dry pit
extraction, sand production is restricted to the higher dry bed.

3. Manual and Mechanical Mining

Extraction for river sand is done both manually and mechanically. Extraction by hand is more
environmentally conscious, and the amount of extraction is virtually non-existent. Many developing
countries and developed countries with mini rivers and restricted river bed infrastructure use this
process. In physical mining operations, country vessels and specifically built related sand scoopers are
typically used to collect sand. Sand is extracted from effective river channels and floodplains using
high-powered jet pumps and industrial equipment in mechanical extraction (Maya, 2014).
4. Sieve Analysis

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a technique or method utilized in civil engineering and chemical
engineering to measure the particle size distribution (also known as gradation) of a granular substance
by passing it along a sequence of sieves of increasingly mini mesh size and measuring the volume of
material halted by every other sieve as a fraction of the total weight. Sieve analysis is one of the most
commonly used techniques for calculating particle size because of its ease of employment, cheap
financial cost, and high precision (Lucka, 2016). 

Sieving is a process that uses mechanical force to divide the material into different particle sizes. The
direction, speed, and form of force are determined by the sieving system selected. The sample is either
horizontally or vertically transferred. Both gestures are overlaid in tap sieve blenders. A unique
phenomenon is air-jet sieving, in which the specimen is distributed by an air jet released from a
spinning nozzle.

The following factors need to be considered to choose a suitable sieving method (Lucka, 2016).

4.1 Particle-size -Traditional dry sieving is the preferred technique if the appropriate measurement
range is between 40 microns and 125 mm. Wet sieving will increase the variation to 20 microns,
and air-jet sieving can reduce 10 microns.

4.2 Sample properties - It is essential to consider whether the samples form agglomerates, the
substance's size and whether it is electrostatically activated.

4.3 Standards - The DIN norm 66165 describes sieving processes. If there are industry-specific
research protocols or guidelines, they will also influence the approach chosen.
 4.4 Number of fractions - Is it necessary to use many fractions? Is it enough to know what
proportion of a sample is smaller or larger than a predetermined particle diameter? Since the
sample is divided into two parts, the procedure for extracting the above knowledge is known as a

Figure 2: Grain Size Distribution curve of a medium-fine sand

sieve cut.

5. Slump Test

Slump testing is a laboratory or on-site method of determining concrete quality. The slump measure
indicates the consistency of concrete in various batches. The form of the concrete slumps reveals
details about the concrete's robustness and consistency. Several tamping or strikes with a tapping rod
on the base plate may also be used to assess concrete properties in terms of segregation inclination.
Because of the ease of the instrument and technique, this measure has been used since 1922. The
Slump cone's form demonstrates concrete's durability (Hoang & Pham, 2016).

The slump amount of concrete is simply a gravity flow concept on the concrete cone's exterior that
shows the quantity of water applied to it, indicating how feasible this concrete combination is. 

An empty frustum of a cone and a measure as a measurement instrument are used in the slump test
component (see Figure 3: Concrete slump test). The cone measures 30 cm in height. The cone's upper
and bottom diameters are 10 cm and 20 cm, respectively. Raw concrete is poured onto the cone, which
is then raised upwards. The slump value is the height differential between the cement and the cone.
 Figure 3: Concrete slump test

6. Compressive Strength Test

A compressive strength test is a mechanical test that determines how much compressive strain a
structure can withstand before cracking. A slowly applied load compresses the test specimen, typically
in the shape of a square, prism, or cylinder, between the platens of a compression-testing unit (Shang,
et al., 2012).

The concrete cube test's compressive strength gives us an understanding of all the properties of
concrete. This particular measure can be used to determine whether or not concrete has been correctly
installed. For essential building, concrete compressive strength ranges from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30
MPa (4400 psi) and more significant in commercial and residential structures.

While material properties like rock, mortar, cast iron, and concrete have high compressive capabilities,
they eventually break. Concrete's compressive strength, measured by splitting a cube and often referred
to as cube strength, is about 3 tons per square inch, granites are around 10 tons per square inch, and
casting iron's is between 25 and 60 tons per square inch (Shang, et al., 2012).

6.1 Compressive Strength Test Procedure

According to the scale of the average, either 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm cubes or
10cm X 10cm x 10cm cubes are utilized for the cube evaluation. Cubical molds of 15cm x 15cm x
15cm are generally utilized for the majority of the projects.
 
This concrete is streamed into the cast and appropriately modified to eliminate any voids. Molds are
discarded after 24 hours, and research specimens are immersed in water to cure. These specimens' top
surfaces should be even and smooth. This is accomplished by applying cement paste to the specimen's
entire surface and smoothing it out evenly.
 
After seven days or 28 days of cure, these specimens were subjected to a compression measuring unit.
Specimens can be loaded progressively at a pace of 140 kg/cm2 per minute before they malfunction.
The compressive strength of concrete is calculated by dividing the weight at collapse by the sample

Figure 4: The concrete specimen on the testing machine

region.

7. Importance of Sand Quality in Construction Work

Among the most significant components of concrete is sand. Sand (excellent cluster) is mostly used in
concrete to find flaws between the rough aggregate. And cement is used to fill the revokes between the
fine aggregate. Sand adds weight to the concrete which makes it easier to deal with. The crumbling of
rocks produces sand. As per the supply, various locations make use of a range of sands (Pit sand, River
sand, Sea Sand) in the building. A high-quality fine aggregate can be utilized in building all pieces
that have nearly the same measurements (Krishna, 2020).
For building material, there are a variety of techniques for measuring sand content on the worksite. It
must be solid, sturdy, completely stable, sterile, and free of adhesive coatings, organic material, and
undesirable contaminants, and it must not include any significant volume of clay balls or a wad of
indigestible material. The number of all harmful content amounts shall not surpass 5%. Chemical
particulates such as decomposed plant humps, fly ash, and other organic impurities must be tested in
fine aggregate.

8. Sand Quality Testing at a Building Site

The standards for sand on a building site are mentioned below.

8.1 Organic impurities test - Per each 20 cum or portion whatsoever, this test is performed on the
ground (Constructor, 2009).

8.2 Silt content test - This is indeed a field test that will be carried out every 20 cumulations.

8.3 Particle size distribution- For every 40 kilograms of sand, this testing can be per on-site or in
a
lab.

8.4 Bulking of sand - For every 20 kilograms of sand, this procedure is carried out on site.
Appropriate water to cement ratio for construction at the worksite is determined predicted on the
bulking of the sand.

Construction material product testing is critical for constructing solid, long-lasting, and cost-efficient
buildings (A, 2012). While planning a building project, building materials should be chosen to perform
the roles that are required of them. Impoverished building materials (such as gravel, cluster, or water)
consequence in poor-quality buildings, which can collapse, causing accidents, deaths, and
underinvestment for investors. Although several tests have demonstrated that low standard materials
are one of the leading causes of building crumble, no study of these components has been done to
determine the effect of contaminants in constructures sands on the total properties of concrete. To
avoid building collapse, it is critical to carefully choose construction materials, such as river sands, to
secure that they follow the necessary construction requirements. Sand particulates have a detrimental
effect on strength properties and bond solidity between metal concrete and reinforcement, which can
lead to building collapse (Ngugi, et al., 2014). 

There has been no thorough investigation, study, or analysis of these rivers and extraction sites, taking
into account their particle sizes. It is suggested that the river sand extraction positions and particle
dimensions distribution be documented in this study. Even by responding to the results, the Engineers
will be able to choose on sand resources.

References

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A, S., 2012. Importance of Quality Assurance of Material for Construction Work, s.l.: Buiding Material Research
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Camp, C. S., 2020. Catalina Sea Camp. [Online]

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GM, K., 1994a. Geomorphic and environmental effects of instream gravel mining.. p. 225–243.

GM, K., 1994b. Environmental planning in the regulation and management of instream. pp. 185-199.

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Available at: https://file.scirp.org/Html/7-1880259_49799.htm#:~:text=Use%20of%20poor%20quality
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