STRESS:

Whenever a member is subjected to external force it will be deformation,

the internal resistance offered by the member against external force per unit

area.
Stress () = P/a

STRAIN:

It is defined as the deformation per unit length is denoted by e (or) ∑

(epsilon) and strain is no unit.

e = change in length/original length

SHEAR FORCE:

It is defined as the force which acting tangential to resisting surface.

SHEAR STRESS:

The internal resistance offered by the member against shear force is

known as shear stress, shear stress will cause distortion to the member.

ELASTICITY:

The property of certain material of returning back to this original

position, after removing the external force is known as elasticity.

ELASTIC LIMIT:

The value of intensity of stress (or simply stress) corresponding to this

limiting force is called elastic limit of the material.

HOOKE’S LAW:

It states, “When a material is loaded, within its elastic limit, the stress is

proportional to the strain.”

Stress / Strain = E = Constant

It may be noted that Hooke’s law equally holds good for tension as well as

compression.

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (or) YOUNG’S MODULUS:

Whenever a material is loaded , within its elastic limit, the stress is

proportional to strain.
∞Є

=ExЄ

E=/Є

BULK MODULUS:

When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stress of equal

intensity, the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is

known as bulk modulus.

K = Direct stress / volumetric strain =  / (v/v)

POISSON RATIO:

It has been experimentally found that, if a body is stresses with in its

elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain.

Lateral strain/linear strain = (constant)

This constant is known as poisson’s ratio & is denoted by 1/m (or) 

Lateral strain = (1/m) x Є =  Є

The value of poisson’s ratio is the same in tension & compression.

The value of poisson’s ratio of material:-

Material Poisson’s ratio (1/m or )

Sl.no.
1. Steel 0.25 to 0.33

2. Cast iron 0.23 to 0.27

3. Copper 0.31 to 0.34

4. Brass 0.32 to 0.42

5. Aluminium 0.32 to 0.36

6. Concrete 0.08 to 0. 18

7. Rubber 0.45 to 0.50

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LINEAR & LATERAL STRAIN:

Whenever some external force acts on a body, it undergoes some

deformation. Now consider a circular bar subjected to a tensile force as shown

in fig.(a)

Let L = Length of the bar,

d = Diameter of the bar,

P = Tensile force acting on the bar, and

dL = Increase in the length of the bar, as a result of tensile force

The deformation of the bar per unit length in the direction of the force,

i.e.,l/l is known as primary or lateral or linear strain.

The deformation of the bar, we will find that bar has extended through a

length l, which will be followed by the decrease of diameter from d to (d-d) as
shown in fig.(b). Similarly, if the bar is subjected to a compressive force, the

length of the bar will decrease by l which will be followed by the increase of

diameter from d to (d+d).

It is thus obvious that every direct stress is always accompanied by a

strain in its own dimension and an opposite kind of strain in every direction at

right angles to it. Such a strain is known as secondary or lateral strain.

SHEAR MODULUS (or) MODULUS OF RIGITITY( C (or) G (or) N )

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 It has been experimentally found that within the elastic limit, the shear

stress is proportional to the shear strain.

C = τ /Φ
CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of a body is that point through which the resultant

of the system of parallel forces formed by the weight of all the particles of the

body passes, for all positions of the body, a given body has a definite centre of

gravity.

MOMENT OF AREA (or) FIRST MOMENT OF FORCE

This means the product of an area and its centroidal distance from the point.
(or)
The moment of a force (P) about a point is the product of the force and

perpendicular distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force

(i.e.,P.x) this moment is also called first moment force.

MOMENT OF INERTIA

If this moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance (x)

between the point and the line of action of the force i.e.,P.x.(x) = Px², then this

quantity is called moment of the moment of force or second moment of force or

moment of inertia.

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A LAMINA

Fig. shows a lamina of area A. The lamina may be

Split up into an infinite numbers of elemental

Components each of area ‘da’ suppose these infinite

C components be at distance y1, y2, y3 etc., from the

axis Ox the quantity,

day1²+day2²+day3²+……etc i.e.∑day² is called the

moment of inertia or the second moment of area or the second moment of area

of the lamina about the axis Ox.

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RADILI OF GYRATION

The radius of gyration of an area about an axis is the

P perpendicular distance from that axis of an imaginary

point(p) at which the whole is assumed to be concentrated

while it is rotating about that axis.

Moment of inertia = second moment of area

I = A x distance²

I = A x r²

r = I/A

SECTION MODULUS

Let ‘M’ be the moment of resistance of a section of the beam, and ‘I’ the

moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis.

The stress at any point on the section distant ‘y’ from the neutral axis is

given by,

f = M/I . y

The maximum stress occurs at the greatest distance from the neutral axis.

Let ‘ymax’ be the distance of the most distant point of the section from

the neutral axis, let ‘fmax’ be this stress at this distance we have,

fmax = M/I . ymax

(or)

M = fmax . I/ymax

= fmax . Z

Where, Z = I / ymax

Moment of inertia about the neutral axis

=
Distance of the most distant point from the neutral

M = fmax. Z

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PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEORUM

Moment of inertia of a plane area about its

polar axis (the axis perpendicular to the plane and

passing through the centroid) is equal to the sum of

moment of inertia of a area above the two mutually

perpendicular axis.

Let us consider an elemental area as shown in figure

Ixx = da.y²

Iyy = da.x²

Similarly, the second moment of element area about the polar axis,

i.e., Izz = da.Z²

Z =  x²+y²

Z² = x²+y²

Izz = da(x²+y²)

= da.x² + da.y²

Izz = Iyy + Ixx

POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE

Where the bending moment will change sign from negative to positive or

vice versa, such a point, where the bending moment changes sign is known as a

point of contraflexure.

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