Chapter 3

Micromechanical
Analysis of a Lamina
 Chapter Objectives
• Develop concepts of volume and weight fraction (mass
fraction) of fiber and matrix, density, and void fraction in
composites.
• Find the nine mechanical and four hygrothermal
constants: four elastic moduli, five strength parameters,
two coefficients of thermal expansion, and two
coefficients of moisture expansion of a unidirectional
lamina from the individual properties of the fiber and the
matrix, fiber volume fraction, and fiber packing.
• Discuss the experimental characterization of the nine
mechanical and four hygrothermal constants.
• In Chapter 2, the stress–strain relationships, engineering constants,
and failure theories for an angle lamina were developed using four
elastic moduli, five strength parameters, two coefficients of thermal
expansion (CTE), and two coefficients of moisture expansion (CME)
for a unidirectional lamina.
• These 13 parameters can be found experimentally by conducting
several tension, compression, shear, and hygrothermal tests on
unidirectional lamina (laminates).
• However, unlike in isotropic materials, experimental evaluation of
these parameters is quite costly and time consuming because they
are functions of several variables: the individual constituents of the
composite material, fiber volume fraction, packing geometry,
processing, etc.
• Thus, they need and motivation for developing analytical models to
find these parameters are very important.

26.07.2021 3
• In this chapter, we will develop simple
relationships for the these parameters in terms of
the stiffnesses, strengths, coefficients of thermal
and moisture expansion of the individual
constituents of a composite, fiber volume
fraction, packing geometry, etc.
• An understanding of this relationship, called
micromechanics of lamina, helps the designer to
select the constituents of a composite material
for use in a laminated structure.

26.07.2021 4
 Laminate Stacking Sequence

Nonhomogeneous Lamina Homogeneous Lamina

FIGURE 3.1
A nonhomogeneous lamina with fibers and matrix
Approximated as a homogeneous lamina.
 3.2 Volume and Mass Fractions,
Density, and Void Content
• Before modeling the 13 parameters of a unidirectional composite,
we introduce the concept of relative fraction of fibers by volume.
• This concept is critical because theoretical formulas for finding the
stiffness, strength, and hygrothermal properties of a unidirectional
lamina are a function of fiber volume fraction.
• Measurements of the constituents are generally based on their
mass, so fiber mass fractions must also be defined.
• Moreover, defining the density of a composite also becomes
necessary because its value is used in the experimental
determination of fiber volume and void fractions of a composite.
• Also, the value of density is used in the definition of specific
modulus and specific strength in Chapter 1.

6
 3.2.1 Volume Fractions
Consider a composite consisting of fiber and matrix. Take the
following symbol notations:
vc,f,m volume of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively
c,f,m density of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
Now define the fiber volume fraction V f and the matrix volume
fraction Vm as
vf
V f = , and (3.1a, b)
vc
V f +V m = 1

vf + vm = vc
3.2.2 Mass Fractions

wf wm
Wf= , and W m= (3.2a, b)
wc wc

W f +W m = 1

w f + wm = wc
Volume and Weight Fractions

wc =  c v c ,
w f =  f vf ,
(3.3a–c)
w m = ρ m v m,
and
wc  w f  wm
Volume and Weight Fractions
Substituting Equation (3.3) in Equation (3.2), the mass
fractions and volume fractions are related as

f m
Wf= V f , and Wm= Vm
c c
 Volume and Weight Fractions
in terms of the fiber and matrix volume fractions. In terms of
individual constituent properties, the mass fractions and volume
fractions are related by

f
m
Wf= Vf
f
V f +V m
m (3.5a, b)

1
W m= Vm
f
(1 - V m) + V m
m
 3.2.3 Density
The derivation of the density of the composite in terms of
volume fractions is found as follows. The mass of composite
wc is the sum of the mass of the fiber wf and the mass of the
matrix wm as w w w
c f m (3.6)

 c vc =  f vf +  m vm
vf v
c =  f + m m (3.7)
vc vc
 c =  f V f +  mV m (3.8)

1 Wf Wm
vf + vm = vc (3.9)
c
=
f
+
m
(3.10)
Example
Example 3.1

A Glass/Epoxy lamina consists of a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use

properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively to
determine the

a) density of lamina

b) mass fractions of the glass and epoxy

c) volume of composite lamina if the mass of the lamina is 4 kg.

d) volume and mass of glass and epoxy in part (c).

Example
Table 3.1 Typical Properties of Fibers (SI system of units)

Property Units Graphite Glass Aramid

Axial modulus GPa 230 85 124

Transverse modulus GPa 22 85 8

Axial Poisson's ratio --- 0.30 0.20 0.36

Transverse Poisson's ratio --- 0.35 0.20 0.37

Axial shear modulus GPa 22 35.42 3

Axial coefficient of thermal expansion μm/m/0C -1.3 5 -5.0

Transverse coefficient of thermal expansion μm/m/0C 7.0 5 4.1

Axial tensile strength MPa 2067 1550 1379

Axial compressive strength MPa 1999 1550 276

Transverse tensile strength MPa 77 1550 7

Transverse compressive strength MPa 42 1550 7

Shear strength MPa 36 35 21

Specific gravity --- 1.8 2.5 1.4

Example
Table 3.2 Typical Properties of Matrices (SI system of units)

Property Units Epoxy Aluminum Polyamide

Axial modulus GPa 3.4 71 3.5

Transverse modulus GPa 3.4 71 3.5

Axial Poisson's ratio --- 0.3 0.30 0.35

Transverse Poisson's ratio --- 0.3 0.30 0.35

Axial shear modulus GPa 1.308 27 1.3

Coefficient of thermal expansion μm/m/0C 63 23 90

Coefficient of moisture expansion m/m/kg/kg 0.33 0.00 0.33

Axial tensile strength MPa 72 276 54

Axial compressive strength MPa 102 276 108

Transverse tensile strength MPa 72 276 54

Transverse compressive strength MPa 102 276 108

Shear strength MPa 34 138 54

Specific gravity --- 1.2 2.7 1.2

Example
Table 3.3 Typical Properties of Fibers (USCS system of units)

Property Units Graphite Glass Aramid

Axial Modulus Msi 33.35 12.33 17.98

Transverse modulus Msi 3.19 12.33 1.16

Axial Poisson's ratio --- 0.30 0.20 0.36

Transverse Poisson's ratio --- 0.35 0.20 0.37

Axial shear modulus Msi 3.19 5.136 0.435

Axial coefficient of thermal expansion μin/in/0F -0.7222 2.778 -2.778

Transverse coefficient of thermal expansion μin/in/0F 3.889 2.778 2.278

Axial tensile strength ksi 299.7 224.8 200.0

Axial compressive strength ksi 289.8 224.8 40.02

Transverse tensile strength ksi 11.16 224.8 1.015

Transverse compressive strength ksi 6.09 224.8 1.015

Shear strength ksi 5.22 5.08 3.045

Specific gravity --- 1.8 2.5 1.4

Example
Table 3.4 Typical Properties of Matrices (USCS system of units)

Property Units Epoxy Aluminum Polyamide

Axial modulus Msi 0.493 10.30 0.5075

Transverse modulus Msi 0.493 10.30 0.5075

Axial Poisson's ratio --- 0.3 0.30 0.35

Transverse Poisson's ratio --- 0.3 0.30 0.35

Axial shear modulus Msi 0.1897 3.915 0.1885

Coefficient of thermal expansion μin/in/0F 35 12.78 50

Coefficient of moisture expansion in/in/lb/lb 0.33 0.00 0.33

Axial tensile strength ksi 10.44 40.02 7.83

Axial compressive strength ksi 14.79 40.02 15.66

Transverse tensile strength ksi 10.44 40.02 7.83

Transverse compressive strength ksi 14.79 40.02 15.66

Shear strength ksi 4.93 20.01 7.83

Specific gravity --- 1.2 2.7 1.2

Example

Example
3.1
a) f = 2500 kg/ m
3
, and  m = 1200 kg/ m3

 c = (2500)(0.7 ) + (1200)(0.3)
= 2110 kg/ m3
 f = 2500 kg/ m3 .

Example

Example
3.1
b) 1200
2500
Wf =  0.7 Wm=  0.3
2110 , and 2110
= 0.8294 = 0.1706

W f + W m = 0.8294+ 0.1706
= 1.000
Example

Example 3.1
c) wc
νc 
c
4

2110

 1.896  10 3 m 3
Example

Example 3.1

d)
 f  V f c
 0.7 (1.896  10 3 )

 1.327  10 3 m 3
Example

Example 3.1

d)  m  Vm c
 0.3(0.1896  10 -3 )

 0.5688  10 -3 m 3
Example

Example 3.1

d) wf   f ν f

 (2500)(1.327103 )

 3.318 kg
Example

Example 3.1

d)
wm   m ν m
3
 (1200)(0.5688 10 )
 0.6826 kg
3.2.4 Void Content

FIGURE 3.2 Photomicrographs of cross-section of a

lamina with voids.
• During the manufacture of a composite, voids are
introduced in the composite as shown in Figure 3.2.
This causes the theoretical density of the composite to
be higher than the actual density. Also, the void
content of a composite is detrimental to its mechanical
properties. These detriments include Lower
• Shear stiffness and strength
• Compressive strengths
• Transverse tensile strengths
• Fatigue resistance
• Moisture resistance

26.07.2021 26
For composites with a certain volume of voids Vv the volume
fraction of voids Vv is defined as
νv
V v= (3.11)
νc
Then, the total volume of a composite (vc) with voids is
given by
νc = νf + ν m + ν v (3.12)

By definition of the experimental density ρce of a composite, the

actual volume of the composite is ν = w c

c
(3.13)
ce
and, by the definition of the theoretical density ρct of the
composite, the theoretical volume of the composite is
wc
νf + νm =
 ct
(3.14)
Then, substituting the preceding expressions (3.13) and (3.14)
in Equation (3.12),

wc wc
= + ν
 ce  ct

The volume of void is given by

wc   ct -  ce 
νν =
 ce   ct 
(3.15)
Substituting Equation (3.13) and Equation (3.15) in
Equation (3.11), the volume fraction of the voids is

νν
Vν =
νc (3.16)
 ct -  ce
=
 ct
Example

Example 3.2

A Graphite/Epoxy cuboid specimen with voids has

dimensions of and its mass is Mc. After putting it in a
mixture of sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, the
remaining graphite fibers have a mass Mf. From
independent tests, the densities of graphite and epoxy are ρf
and ρm, respectively. Find the volume fraction of the voids
in terms of a, b, c, Mf, Mc, ρf, and ρm.
Example

νc = νf + ν m + ν v
Example

Mf Mc - M f
νf = , and νm =
f m
Example

ν c = abc
Example

Mf Mc - M f
abc = + + νν
f m

ν 1 M f Mc - M f 
V = =1-  + 
abc abc   f  m 
Example
Alternative Solution

 ct =  f V 'f +  m (1 - V f )
volume of fibers
V f=
volume of fibers+ volume of matrix

Mf

f
V =f
Mf Mc- M f
+
f m
Example
Alternative Solution

volume of fibers
V f=
volume of fibers+ volume of matrix
Mf

f
V =f
Mf Mc- M f
+
f m

M
 ce = c
abc
Example
Alternative Solution

1 M f Mc - M f 
Vv=1-  + 
abc   f  m 
Example
Alternative Solution

wc
c = w
wc - wi
Example
Alternative Solution

wc
c = w
wc + ws - ww
 Elastic Moduli

26.07.2021 40
Strength of Materials Approach

A f = t f h,

Am = t m h, and

Ac = t c h
Strength of Materials Approach

A m
Af V m=
Vf= Ac
Ac
tm
tf =
= tc
tc
= 1-V f
Strength of Materials Approach
3 2

tc

Lc

tm/2

tm/2
tf
FIGURE 3.3
tc
Representative volume
 Strength of Materials Approach

h
c
c

tm/2
tf
tm/2
tc

FIGURE 3.4
A longitudinal stress applied to the representative volume
element to calculate the longitudinal Young’s modulus for a
unidirectional lamina.
 Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

Fc= F f + Fm

F c =  c Ac ,  c = E1  c ,
F f =  f A f , and  f = E f  f , and
F m =  m Am  m = Em  m
 Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

E 1  c Ac = E f  f A f + E m  m Am

If ( c =  f =  m), then :

Af Am
E1 = E f + Em E1 = E f V f + E m V m
Ac Ac
 Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

E1 = E f V f + E m V m

F c =  c Ac ,  c = E1  c ,
F f =  f A f , and  f = E f  f , and
F m =  m Am  m = Em  m

Ff Ef
= Vf
Fc E1
Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

FIGURE 3.5
Fraction of load of composite carried by fibers as
 Example
Example 3.3

Find the longitudinal elastic modulus of a

unidirectional Glass/Epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber
volume fraction. Use the properties of glass and
epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. Also,
find the ratio of the load taken by the fibers to that of
the composite.
 Example
Example 3.3

Ef = 85 Gpa

Em = 3.4 GPa

E 1 = (85) (0.7 ) + ( 3.4) (0.3)

= 60.52 GPa
 Example
Example
3.3

FIGURE 3.6
Longitudinal Young’s modulus as function of fiber volume
 Example
Example 3.3

Ff 85
= (0.7 ) = 0.9831
F c 60.52
Transverse Young’s Modulus
c

c
tm/2
tf
tm/2
tc

FIGURE 3.7
A transverse stress applied to a
representative volume element used to
calculate transverse Young’s modulus of a
unidirectional lamina.
 Transverse Young’s Modulus
 c= f = m
 c =  f +  m

c = c,
c = t c  c , E2
f
 f = t f  f , and f= , and
Ef

m = t m  m m

= m
Em
Transverse Young’s Modulus

1 1 tf 1 tm
= + , and
E2 E f tc Em tc

1 V f Vm
= +
E2 E f Em
 Example
Example 3.4

Find the transverse Young's modulus of a Glass/Epoxy

lamina with a fiber volume fraction of 70%. Use the
properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively.
 Example
Example 3.4

E f = 85 GPa
Em = 3.4 GPa

1 0.7 0.3
= +
E 2 85 3.4

E 2 = 10.37 GPa
 Transverse Young’s Modulus

FIGURE 3.8
Transverse Young’s modulus as a function of fiber
Transverse Young’s Modulus

1
d  4V f  2
= 
s   

d  2 3 V f  2
=
s   
Transverse Young’s Modulus

d
(a)

d
FIGURE 3.9
(b) Fiber to fiber spacing in (a) square
packing geometry and (b)
 Transverse Young’s Modulus

FIGURE 3.10 Theoretical values of transverse Young’s

modulus as a function
of fiber volume fraction for a boron/epoxy unidirectional
lamina (Ef = 414 GPa, vf = 0.2, Em = 4.14 GPa, vm = 0.35)
 Transverse Young’s Modulus
h
1
1

tm/2
tf
tm/2
(a) tc

tm/2

tc + cT tf + fT tf tc

tm/2

Lc

(b)

FIGURE 3.11
A longitudinal stress applied to a representative
 Major Poisson’s Ratio

  f m
T
=
c
T
+ T

 Tf
 = T
f ,
tf

 T
 = , and tc  t f  f tm  m
T m T T T
m c= +
tm
 T
 T c
c =
tc
 Major Poisson’s Ratio

 T

 f =- L ,
f

f

 , and
T
- t c  12  cL = - t f  f  Lf - t m  m  mL
m
m
= -
L
m

 T
 12 = -
c

 L
c
 Major Poisson’s Ratio

- t c  12  cL = - t f  f  Lf - t m  m  mL

If  c =  f =  m , then :
L L L

t c  12 = t f  f + t m  m

tf tm
 12  f
= + m  12 = f V f + m V m
tc tc
 Example
Example 3.5

Find the Major and Minor Poisson's ratio of a

Glass/Epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction.
Use the properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1
and 3.2, respectively.
 Example
Example 3.5

 f = 0.2
 m = 0.3

 12 = (0.2) (0.7 ) + (0.3) (0.3)

= 0.230
 Example
Example 3.5

E1 = 60.52 Gpa

E2 = 10.37 GPa
 Example
Example 3.5

E2
 21 =  12
E1
10.37
= 0.230
60.52
= 0.03941
 In-Plane Shear Modulus

c
c
tm/2
tf
tm/2
tc

FIGURE 3.12
An in-plane shear stress applied to a
representative volume element for
finding in-plane shear modulus of a
In-Plane Shear Modulus

 c =  f + m

 c =  c tc ,

 f =  f t f , and

 m =  m tm
 In-Plane Shear Modulus

 c =  f + m

 c= c ,
G12  c =  c tc ,
f
f= , and  f =  f t f , and
Gf

m = m  m =  m tm
Gm
c f m
tc = tf + tm
G12 Gf Gm
In-Plane Shear Modulus
c f m
tc = tf + tm
G12 Gf Gm

If  c =  f =  m , then :

1 1 tf 1 tm
= +
G12 G f t c G m t c

1 V f Vm
= +
G12 G f G m
 Example
Example 3.6

Find the in-plane shear modulus of a Glass/Epoxy lamina

with a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use properties of
glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively.
 Example
Example 3.6

E f = 85 GPa  f = 0.2

Ef
Gf =
2 (1 + f )

85
=
2 (1 + 0.2)

= 35.42 GPa
 Example
Example 3.6

E m = 3.4 GPa  m = 0.3

Em
Gm =
2 (1 + m )

3.40
=
2 (1 + 0.3)

= 1.308 GPa
 Example
Example 3.6

1 0.70 0.30
= +
G12 35.42 1.308

G12 = 4.014 GPa

 In-Plane Shear Modulus

FIGURE 3.13 Theoretical values of in-plane shear modulus as a

function of fiber volume fraction and comparison with
experimental values for a unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina (Gf =
30.19 GPa, Gm = 1.83 GPa). Figure (b) zooms figure (a) for fiber
Longitudinal Young’s Modulus

E1 = E f V f + E m V m

E2 = 1+   V f
Em 1 - V f

( E f / E m) - 1
=
( E f / E m) + 
 Example
Example 3.7

Find the transverse Young's modulus for a Glass/Epoxy

lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use the
properties for glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively. Use Halphin-Tsai equations for a circular
fiber in a square array packing geometry.
 Example
2
Example 3.7

2

FIGURE 3.14
Concept of direction of loading for
 Example
Example 3.7

=2 Ef = 85 GPa Em = 3.4 GPa

(85/3.4) - 1
=
(85/3.4) + 2

= 0.8889
 Example
Example 3.7

E 2 = 1 + 2(0.8889)(0.7 )
3.4 1  (0.8889)(0.7 )

E 2 = 20.20 GPa
 Transverse Young’s Modulus

FIGURE 3.15 Theoretical values of transverse Young’s modulus

as a function of fiber volume fraction and comparison with
experimental values for boron/epoxy unidirectional lamina (Ef =
414 GPa, νf = 0.2, Em = 4.14 GPa, νm = 0.35). Figure (b)
zooms figure (a) for fiber volume fraction between 0.45 and
0.75. (Experimental data from Hashin, Z., NASA tech. rep.
contract no. NAS1-8818, November 1970.)
 3.3.2.3 Major Poisson’s Ratio
The Halphin–Tsai equation for the major Poisson’s ratio, ν12,
is the same as that obtained using the strength of materials
approach — that is,

 12 = f V f + m V m (3.59)
3.3.2.4 In-Plane Shear Modulus
The Halphin–Tsai6 equation for the in-plane shear
modulus, G12, is

G12 1 +   V f
= (3.60)
Gm 1 - V f

where

(G f / G m) - 1
= (3.61)
(G f / G m ) + 
 3.3.2.4 In-Plane Shear Modulus
The value of ξ = 1 for circular fibers in a square array gives
reasonable results only for fiber volume fractions of up to 0.5.
For example, for a typical glass/epoxy lamina with a fiber volume
fraction of 0.75, the value of inplane shear modulus using the
Halphin–Tsai equation with ξ = 1 is 30% lower than that given by
elasticity solutions.
Hewitt and Malherbe suggested choosing a function,

 = 1 + 40 V 10f (3.62)
 Example
Example 3.8

Using Halphin-Tsai equations, find the shear modulus of a

Glass/Epoxy composite with a 70% fiber volume fraction.
Use the properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and
3.2, respectively. Assume the fibers are circular and are
packed in a square array. Also get the value of the shear
modulus by using Hewitt and Malherbe’s8 formula for the
reinforcing factor.
 Example
Example 3.8
For Halphin–Tsai’s equations with circular fibers in a square
array, the reinforcing factor ξ = 1.
From Example 3.6, the shear modulus of the fiber is
G f = 35.42 GPa
and the shear modulus of the matrix is
G m = 1.308 GPa
From Equation (3.61),
(35.42/1.308 ) - 1
=
(35.42/1.308 ) + 1

= 0.9288
 Example
Example 3.8
From Equation (3.60), the in-plane shear modulus is

G12 1 + (1) (0.9288) (0.7 )

=
1.308 1  (0.9288) (0.7 )

G12 = 6.169 GPa

For the same problem, the value of G12 = 4.013 GPa was found by
the mechanics of materials approach
 Example
Example 3.8
Because the volume fraction is greater than 50%, Hewitt and
Mahelbre suggested a reinforcing factor

 = 1 + 40 V 10f
= 1 + 40 (0.7 )10
= 2.130
 Example
Example 3.8

Then, from Equation (3.61),

(35.42 / 1.308) - 1
=
(35.42 / 1.308) + 2.130
= 0.8928
 Example
Example 3.8

From Equation (3.60), the in-plane shear modulus is

G12 1 + (2.130) (0.8928) (0.7 )

=
1.308 1 - (0.8928) (0.7 )

G12 = 8.130 GPa

Ultimate Strengths of a Unidirectional
Lamina
As shown in Chapter 2, one needs to know five ultimate
strength parameters for a unidirectional lamina:

In this section, we will see whether and how these parameters can
be found from the individual properties of the fiber and matrix by
using the mechanics of materials approach.
94
 3.4.1 Longitudinal Tensile Strength
A simple mechanics of materials approach model is presented (Figure
3.24).
Assume that
• Fiber and matrix are isotropic, homogeneous, and linearly
elastic until failure.
• The failure strain for the matrix is higher than for the fiber,
which is the case for polymeric matrix composites. For
example, glass fibers fail at strains of 3 to 5%, but an epoxy
fails at strains of 9 to 10%.
Now, if
(σf)ult = ultimate tensile strength of fiber
Ef = Young’s modulus of fiber
(σm)ult = ultimate tensile strength of matrix
Em = Young’s modulus of matrix
Longitudinal Tensile Strength
Fiber

( f) ult

Stress,  Composite

Matrix
( m) ult

( f ) ult Strain,  ( m ) ult

FIGURE 3.24
Stress–strain curve for a unidirectional composite
under uniaxial tensile load along fibers.
 Longitudinal Tensile Strength
then the ultimate failure strain of the fiber is

( f ) ult (3.162)
( f ) ult = ,
Ef
and the ultimate failure strain of the matrix is
( m )ult
( m )ult = (3.163)
Because the fibers carryE m most of the load in polymeric matrix
composites, it is assumed that, when the fibers fail at the strain
of (εf)ult, the whole composite fails. Thus, the composite tensile
strength is given by

( T1 )ult = ( f )ult V f + ( f )ult Em (1 - V f ) (3.164)

Once the fibers have broken, can the composite take more load? The
stress that the matrix can take alone is given by (σmult) (1 – Vf). Only if
this stress is greater than (Equation 3.164), is it possible for the
composite to take more load. The volume fraction of fibers for which
this is possible is called the minimum fiber volume fraction,
(Vf)minimum, and is

( m )ult [1 - (V f )minimum] > ( f )ult (V f )minimum + ( f )ult E m [1 - (V f )minimum]

( m )ult - E m ( f )ult
(V f )minimum < (3.165)
( f )ult - E m ( f )ult + ( m )ult
It is also possible that, by adding fibers to the matrix, the composite
will have lower ultimate tensile strength than the matrix. In that case,
the fiber volume fraction for which this is possible is called the critical
fiber volume fraction, (Vf)critical, and is

( m )ult > ( f )ult (V f )critical + ( f )ult E m [1 - (V f )critical]

( m )ult - E m ( f )ult
(V f )critical < (3.166)
( f )ult - E m ( f )ult
 Example
Example 3.13

Find the ultimate tensile strength for a Glass/Epoxy

lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction. Use the
properties for glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively. Also, find the minimum and critical fiber
volume fractions.
 Example
Example 3.13
From Table 3.1,
E f = 85 GPa, and ( f )ult = 1550 MPa

Thus, 1550 106

(ε f ) ult =
85  109
= 0.1823 10-1
 Example
Example 3.13

From Table 3.2,

E m = 3.4 GPa, and ( m )ult = 72 MPa

Thus,
72  106
( ε m )ult =
3.4  109
= 0.2117  10-1
 Example
Example 3.13

Applying Equation (3.164), the ultimate longitudinal tensile

strength is

( T1 )ult = (1550 106 )(0.7 ) + (0.1823 10-1)(3.4  109 )(1 - 0.7 )

= 1104 MP
 Example
Example 3.13

Applying Equation (3.165), the minimum fiber volume

fraction is
72  106 - (3.4  109 )(0.1823 10-1)
(V f )minimum =
1550 106 - (3.4  109 )(0.1823 10-1) + 72  106

= 0.6422 10- 2

= 0.6422%
 Example
Example 3.13
This implies that, if the fiber volume fraction is less than
0.6422%, the matrix can take more loading after all the fibers
break. Applying Equation (3.166), the critical fiber volume
fraction is
72  106 - ( 3.4  109 )( 0.1823  10-1 )
( V f )critical =
1550  106 - ( 3.4  109 )( 0.1823  10-1 )

= 0.6732  10- 2

= 0.6732%
This implies that, if the fiber volume fraction were less than
0.6732%, the composite longitudinal tensile strength would be
less than that of the matrix.
 Longitudinal Tensile Strength
FIGURE 3.25
Tensile coupon mounted in the
test frame for finding the
tensile strengths of a
unidirectional lamina. (Photo
courtesy of Dr. R.Y. Kim,
University of Dayton Research
Institute, Dayton, OH.)

Experimental evaluation: The general test method recommended

for tensile strength is the ASTM test method for tensile properties of
fiber–resin composites (D3039) (Figure 3.25).
 Longitudinal Tensile Strength
Tab Length = 38mm

60o

Tab Thickness = 3.2mm

T
t

Gage Length = 153mm

w
Length = 229mm
FIGURE 3.26
Geometry of a longitudinal tensile strength specimen.
A tensile test geometry (Figure 3.26) to find the longitudinal tensile
strength consists of six to eight 0° plies that are 12.5 mm (1/2 in.) wide
and 229 mm (10 in.) long. The specimen is mounted with strain gages
in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Tensile stresses are
applied on the specimen at a rate of about 0.5 to 1 mm/min
FIGURE 3.27
Stress–strain curve for a [0]8 laminate under a longitudinal
tensile load.
A total of 40 to 50 data points for stress and strain is taken until a
specimen fails. The stress in the longitudinal direction is plotted as a
function of longitudinal strain, as shown in Figure 3.27.
The data are reduced using linear regression. The longitudinal Young’s
modulus is the initial slope of the σ1 vs. ε1 curve.
From Figure 3.27, the following values are obtained:

E 1 = 187.5 GPa, ( T
1 )ult = 2896 MPa,

and
( T1 )ult = 1.560%

Failure of a unidirectional ply under a longitudinal

tensile load takes place with
1. Brittle fracture of fibers
2. Brittle fracture of fibers with pullout
3. Fiber pullout with fiber–matrix debondin
 (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 3.28
Modes of failure of unidirectional lamina under a longitudinal tensile load.

The three failure modes are shown in Figure 3.28. The mode of
failure depends on the fiber–matrix bond strength and fiber volume
fraction.
• For low fiber volume fractions, 0 < Vf <0.40, a typical
glass/epoxy composite exhibits a mode (1) type failure.
• For intermediate fiber volume fractions, 0.4 < Vf < 0.65, mode
(2) type failure occurs.
• For high fiber volume fractions, Vf> 0.65, it exhibits mode (3)
type of failure.
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength
The model used for calculating the longitudinal tensile strength for a
unidirectional lamina cannot also be used for its longitudinal
compressive strength because the failure modes are different. Three
typical failure modes are shown in Figure 3.29:

• Fracture of matrix and/or fiber–matrix bond due to

tensile strains
• in the matrix and/or bond
• Microbuckling of fibers in shear or extensional mode
• Shear failure of fibers
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength
Ultimate tensile strains in matrix failure mode: A mechanics of
materials approach model based on the failure of the composite in the
transverse direction due to transverse tensile strains is given next.20
Assuming that one is applying a longitudinal compressive stress of
magnitude σ1, then the magnitude of longitudinal compressive strain is
given by
| 1 | (3.167)
|  1 |=
E1
Because the major Poisson’s ratio is ν12, the transverse strain is
tensile and is given by

| 1 |
|  2 |=  12 (3.168)
E1
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength

(a) Fiber Microbuckling Extensional Mode

Fiber Microbuckling Shear Mode

(b)

Transverse Tensile Failure of Matrix

(c)

Shear Failure
(d)

FIGURE 3.29
Modes of failure of a unidirectional lamina under a longitudinal
compressive load.
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength

Using maximum strain failure theory, if the transverse strain

exceeds the ultimate transverse tensile strain, the lamina is
considered to have failed in the transverse direction. Thus,

E 1 ( 2 )ult
T
( 1c )ult = (3.169)
 12
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength
The value of the longitudinal modulus, E1, and the major
Poisson’s ratio, v12, can be found from Equation (3.34) and
Equation (3.49), respectively. However, for the value of ( T2 )ult
one can use the empirical formula,

( T2 )ult = ( Tm )ult (1 - V f1/ 3 ) (3.170)

or the mechanics of materials formula,

 d Em 
( ) = ( )  (
T
2 ult
T
m ult- 1) + 1
s Ef  (3.171)
where
( Tm) ult = ultimate tensile strain of the matrix
d = diameter of the fibers
s = center-to-center spacing between the fibers
Shear/extensional fiber microbuckling failure mode: local
buckling models for calculating longitudinal compressive
strengths have been developed. Because these results are
based on advanced topics, only the final expressions
are given:
( 1c )ult = min[ S 1c , S c2],
where

c E m V f Em E f
S = 2[V f + (1 - V f )
1 ] ,
Ef 3(1 - V f ) (3.173a)
and

c Gm
S =
2
1-V f (3.173b)
Shear stress failure of fibers mode: A unidirectional composite
may fail due to direct shear failure of fibers. In this case, the
rule of mixtures gives theb shear strength of the unidirectional
composite as

( 12 )ult = ( f )ult V f + ( m )ult V m (3.174)

where
(τf)ult = ultimate shear strength of the fiber
(τm)ult = ultimate shear strength of the matrix
( 1c )ult = 2[( f )ult V f + ( m )ult V m] (3.175)
 Longitudinal Compressive Strength
Table 3.6.
Comparison of experimental and predicted values of
longitudinal compressive
strength of unidirectional laminae, Vf =0.50. (Source: Table
7.2 in Introduction to Composite Materials by D. Hull, 1981,
8 Cambridge University Press, 1981, Reprinted with the
permission of Cambridge University Press)
Material Experimental Strength Equation 3.78(a) Equation (3.78b)

MPa MPa MPa

Glass/Polyester 600-1000 8700 2200

Type I Carbon/Epoxy 700-900 22800 2900

Kevlar 49/Epoxy 240-290 13200 2900

 Example
Example 3.14

Find the longitudinal compressive strength of a

Glass/Epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber volume fraction.
Use the properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and
3.2, respectively. Assume fibers are circular and are in a
square array.
 Example
Example 3.14.

From Table 3.1 From Table 3.2

E f = 85 GPa, E m = 3.4 GPa,
 f = 0.20,  m = 0.30,
( f )ult = 1550 MPa, ( m )ult = 72 MPa,
and and
( f )ult = 35 MPa ( m )ult = 34 MPa
 Example
Example 3.14.
From Example 3.3, the longitudinal Young’s modulus of the
unidirectional
lamina is
E 1 = 60.52 GPa  12 = 0.23
 Example
Example 3.14.

1
d  4(0.7) 2
=
s   

= 0.9441
 Example
Example 3.14.

72  106
( m )ult =
3.40  109
= 0.2117 10-1
 Example
Example 3.14.

  3.4  109  
( ) = 0.2117  10 0.9441
T -1
- 1 + 1
 85  10
2 ult
 
9


= 0.1983 10- 2
 Example
Example 3.14.

( T2 )ult = (0.2117 10-1) (1 - 0.71/ 3 )

= 0.2373 10- 2
 Example
Example 3.14.

(60.52  10
9
) (0.1983 10
-2
)
( 1C )ult =
0.23

= 521.8 MPa
 Example
Example 3.14.

C  3.4  109  (0.7 )(3.4  109 )(85  109 )

S = 2 0.7 + (1 - 0.7 )
85  109 
1
 3(1 - 0.7 )

= 21349 MPa
 Example
Example 3.14.

G m = 1.308 GPa

C 1.308  10
9
S2 =
1 - 0.7

= 4360 MPa
 Example
Example 3.14.

( 1C )ult = min(21349,4360) = 4360 MPa

 Example
Example 3.14.

( 1C )ult = 2 [( 35  106 )(0.7 ) + (34  106 )(0.3)]

= 69.4 MPa
Longitudinal Compressive Strength

Example 3.14.

FIGURE 3.30
IITRI fixture mounted in a test
frame for finding the compressive
strengths of a lamina. (Data
reprinted with permission from
Experimental Characterization of
Advanced Composites, Carlsson,
 Example
Example 3.14.

c
E = 199 GPa,
1

( 1c )ult = 1908 MPa,

and

( 1c )ult = 0.9550%
 Laminate Stacking Sequence
w

FIGURE 3.31
Geometry of a longitudinal
compressive strength
L2 L1 Strain Gage specimen. (Data reprinted
with permission from
Experimental
Characterization of
Advanced Composites,
Specimen Dimensions Carlsson, L.A. and Pipes,
R.B., Technomic
L1 , mm L2 , mm w* , mm
Publishing Co., Inc., 1987,
12.7  1 127  1.5 12.7  0.1 or p. 76. Copyright CRC
6.4  0.1
Press, Boca Raton, FL.)
 Transverse Tensile Strength

FIGURE 3.32
Stress–strain curve for a [0]24 graphite/epoxy laminate under
a longitudinal compressive load. (Data courtesy of Dr. R.Y.
 Transverse Tensile Strength
2

Matrix

Fiber d

Matrix s

Fiber d

Matrix FIGURE 3.33

Representative
2
volume element to
calculate transverse
Transverse Tensile Strength

 c =  f + m
where :

c= s c,
 f =d  f ,
and
 m = (s - d )  m
 Transverse Tensile Strength
d  d
 c =  f + 1 -  m
s  s
 d E m  d 
E f  f = Em  m c=  +  1 -   m
 s E f  s 

 d E m  d  T
( ) = 
T
2 ult +  1 -  ( m )ult
 s E f  s 

( T2 )ult = E 2 ( T2 )ult
 Example
Example 3.15

Find the ultimate transverse tensile strength for a

unidirectional Glass/Epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber
volume fraction. Use properties of glass and epoxy from
Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, respectively. Assume the fibers
are circular and are arranged in a square array.
 Example
Example 3.15

( T2 )ult = 0.1983 10-2 E 2 = 10.37 GPa

( T2 )ult = (10.37  109 )(0.1983 10-2 )

= 20.56 MPa
 Example
Example 3.15

E 2 = 9.963 GPa,

( T2 )ult = 53.28 MPa, and

( T2 )ult = 0.5355%
 Transverse Tensile Strength
Example 3.15

FIGURE 3.34
Stress–strain curve for a [90]16 graphite/epoxy laminate under
a transverse tensile load. (Data courtesy of Dr. R.Y. Kim,
Transverse Compressive Strength

( C2 )ult = E2 ( C2 )ult , where

 d Em  d   C
( ) = 
C
2 ult  1   ( m )ult
 s E f  s 
 Example
Example 3.16

Find the ultimate transverse compressive strength of a

Glass/Epoxy lamina with 70% fiber volume fraction. Use
the properties of glass and epoxy from Table 3.1 and
Table 3.2, respectively. Assume the fibers are circular and
are packed in a square array.
 Example
Example 3.16

E f = 85 GPa,
E m = 3.4 GPa,
( Cm )ult = 102 MPa ,

E 2 = 10.37 GPa,
and
d
= 0.9441
s
 Example
Example 3.16

102  10
6
( Cm )ult =
3.4  109

= 0.0300
 Example
Example 3.16

 3.4  109 
( ) = 0.9441
C
+ (1 - 0.9441)  (0.03)
85  10
2 ult
 
9

= 0.2810 10- 2
 Example
Example 3.16

( C2 )ult = (10.37 109)(0.2810 10-2) = 29.14 MPa

 Example
Example 3.16

FIGURE 3.35
Stress–strain curve for a [90]40 graphite/epoxy laminate
 Example
Example 3.16
c
E = 93 GPa,
2

( c2 )ult = 198 MPa, and

( c2 )ult = 2.7%
In-Plane Shear Strength

c =  f +  m
where :

c = s( 12 )c ,
 f = d ( 12 ) f , and

m = (s - d )( 12 )m
 In-Plane Shear Strength

d  d
( 12 )c = ( 12 ) f +  1 - ( 12 )m
s  s

( 12 )m G m = ( 12 ) f G f
( 12 )ult = G12 ( 12 )ult
 d G m  d   d G m  d 
( 12 )c =  +  1 -  ( 12 )m
= G12  +  1 -  ( 12 )m ult
 s G f  s 
 s G f  s 
 d G m  d 
( 12 )ult =  +  1 -  ( 12 )m ult
 s G f  s 
 Example
Example 3.17

Find the ultimate shear strength for a Glass/Epoxy

lamina with 70% fiber volume fraction. Use properties
for glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively. Assume the fibers are circular and are
arranged in a square array.
 Example
Example 3.17

G f = 35.42 GPa
G m = 1.308 GPa
G12 = 4.014 GPa
d
= 0.9441
s
( 12 )m ult = 34 MPa
 Example
Example 3.17

34  106
( 12 )m ult =
1.308  109

= 0.2599 10-1
 Example
x
Example 3.17

45o

45o

x

45o
Strain-Gage Rosette
1 45o
2

3 FIGURE 3.36
 Example
Example 3.17

 1.308  10
9

( 12 )ult = (4.014  109 ) 0.9441 + (1 - 0.9441)  (0.2599  10
-1
)
 35.42 109


= 9.469 MPa
 Example
Example 3.17

( x )ult
( 12 )ult = , and
2

( 12 )ult = (|  x | )ult + (|  y | )ult

 Example
Example 3.17

G12 = 5.566 GPa,

( 12 )ult = 87.57 MPa, and

( 12 )ult = 2.619%
 Example
Example 3.17

FIGURE 3.37
Shear stress–shear strain curve obtained
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion

161
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion

1
1= ( f E f V f +  m E m V m)
E1

 2 = (1 + f )  f V f + (1 + m )  m V m -  1 12
Longitudinal Thermal Expansion Coefficient

F 1 =  1 Ac = 0 =  f A f +  m Am

 f V f + m V m = 0

where :
 f = E f ( f   f  T ) , and

 m = E m ( m   m  T )
Longitudinal Thermal Expansion Coefficient

 f E f V f +  m EmVm
f= T
E f V f + EmV m

 1 =  1 T

 f E f V f +  m EmVm
1=
E f V f + EmV m
Longitudinal Thermal Expansion Coefficient

1
1= ( f E f V f +  m E m V m)
E1

 f Ef   E 
 1   V f   m m Vm
 E1   E1 
 Transverse Thermal Expansion Coefficient

m  f 1

 
f 1  E f  f   m 1  Em m 1
1

 E f 1  E m 1

 E f 1   f T  E m  m   1 T

 Transverse Thermal Expansion Coefficient

 f  f   m  m 1
 
f 2
  f T  1
m 2   m T 
Ef Em

2   f 2 V f  m 2 Vm

  f E f  1   f T 
2   f T  V f
 Ef 

  m E m  m   1 T 
  m T  Vm
 Em 
Transverse Thermal Expansion Coefficient

2   2 T
 2  [ f  f (1   f )]V f  [ m  m ( m  1 )]Vm

 12   f V f  mVm

 2  1  f  f V f  1  m  mVm  1 12
 Example
Example 3.18

Find the coefficients of thermal expansion for a

Glass/Epoxy lamina with 70% fiber volume fraction. Use
the properties of glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively.
 Example
Example 3.18

E f = 85 GPa  m = 0.3

 f = 0.2  m = 63  10-6 m/m/ C

f = 5  10
6
m/m 0
/ C E 1 = 60.52 GPa.

E m = 3.4 GPa  12 = 0.2300

 Example
Example 3.18
1
1= [( 5  10-6 ) (85  109 ) (0.7 ) + (63  10-6 ) (3.4  109 ) (0.3)]
60.52  109

= 5.978  106 m/m / 0 C

and

 2 = (1 + 0.2) (5.0  106 ) (0.7 ) + (1 + 0.3) (63  106 ) (0.3)  (5.978  106 ) (0.23)

= 27.40  106 m/m / 0 C

 Example
Example 3.18

FIGURE 3.38
Longitudinal and transverse coefficients of thermal
 Example
Example 3.18

FIGURE 3.39
Unidirectional
graphite/epoxy specimen
with strain gages and
temperature sensors for
finding
coefficients of thermal
expansion.
 Example
Example 3.18

 1 = - 1.3  10-6 m/m / 0 C, and

2 = 33.9  10
-6
m/m 0
/ C
 Example
Example 3.18

FIGURE 3.40
Induced strain as a function of temperature to
Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

176
 Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

 f  C f V f E f +  m  Cm V m Em
 1= c
E 1 ( C f  f V f +  C m  m V m)

V f (1 + f )  C f  f + V m (1 + m)  C m  m
2=  c -  1 12
(V m  m  C m + V f  f  C f )
Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

E m c
 1= m
E1  m

c
 2 = (1 + m)  m -  1 12
m
 Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

c
 1  0, and  2  (1 + m) m
m

F 1 =  1 Ac = 0 =  f A f +  m Am , and  f V f + m V m = 0

 f = E f ( f -  f  C f ) , and  m = E m ( m -  m  C m)

 f  C f V f E f +  m  Cm V m Em
f=
E f V f + Em V m
 Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

 1 =  1  Cc
 f  C f V f E f +  m  Cm V m Em
 1=
( E f V f + E m V m)  C c

 C c wc =  C f w f +  C m wm
  Cc =  C f W f +  C m W m
 f  C f V f E f +  m  Cm V m Em
 1=
( E f V f + E m Vm ) ( C f W f +  C m W m)
 f  C f V f E f +  m  Cm V m Em
1= c
E 1 (  C f  f V f +  C m  m V m)
 Example
Example 3.19

Find the two coefficients of moisture expansion for a

Glass/Epoxy lamina with 70% fiber volume fraction.
Use properties for glass and epoxy from Tables 3.1 and
3.2, respectively. Assume glass does not absorb
moisture.
 Example
Example 3.19

 f = 2500 kg/m3  m = 0.3

 m = 1200 kg/m3  c= 2110 kg/m3
 m = 0.33 m/m/kg/kg E 1= 60.52 GPa
E m = 3.4 GPa  12 = 0.230
 Example
Example 3.19
3.4  109 2110
 1= (0.33)
60.52 10 1200
9

= 0.3260 10-1 m/m/kg/kg

 Example
Example 3.19

2110
 2 = (1 + 0.3) (0.33) - (0.3260 10-1) (0.230)
1200
= 0.7468 m/m/kg/kg