Chapter 3

BOILER FEEDWATER
A.  DEAERATION: 
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution.  Certain gases, such as carbon dioxide and
oxygen, greatly increase corrosivity.  When heated in boiler systems, Carbon dioxide (CO2) and
oxygen (O2) are released as gases and combine with water (H 2O) to form carbonic acid, (H2CO3).
 
    CO2 + O2 + H2O      >        H2CO3
Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from boiler feedwater is vital to
boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of operation.  Carbonic acid corrodes metal reducing the
life of equipment and piping.  It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates
and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes.  This scale not only contributes to reducing the life of the
equipment but also increases the amount of energy needed to achieve heat transfer.  This is
discussed in more detail in Chapter 5
 
The term given to the mechanical removal of dissolved gases is deaeration.  Mechanical deaeration
for the removal of these dissolved gases is typically utilized prior to the addition of chemical oxygen
scavengers.  Mechanical deaeration is based on Charles' and Henry's laws of physics.  Simplified,
these laws state that removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be accomplished by heating the
boiler feedwater which reduces the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
surrounding the feedwater.
The easiest way to deaerate is to force steam into the feedwater, this action is called scrubbing.
Scrubbing raises the water temperature causing the release of O 2 and CO2 gases that are then vented
from the system.  In boiler systems, steam is used to "scrub" the feedwater as (1) steam is essentially
devoid of O2 and CO2, (2) steam is readily available and (3) steam adds the heat required to complete
the reaction.  For efficient operation, deaerating equipment must satisfy the following requirements:
(1) Heating of the feedwater:  The operating temperature in the unit should be the boiling point of
water at the measured pressure.  The pressure/temperature relationship is important since boiling
must take place rapidly for quick and efficient removal of gases. If this temperature and pressure
cannot be economically achieved then it is important to get as close to it as possible.  (2) Agitation
decreases the time and heat energy necessary to remove dissolved gases from the water.  (3)
Maximization of surface area by finely dispersing the water to expose maximum surface area to the
steam.  This enables the water to be heated to saturation temperature quicker and reduces the
distance the gases have to travel to be liberated.  (4) The liberated gases must be vented to allow
their escape from the system as they are released.
 
While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels (.005cc/l or 5 ppb),
even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system.  Consequently, good
operating practice requires removal of that trace oxygen with a chemical oxygen scavenger such as
sodium sulfite or hydrazine.  Free carbon dioxide can be removed by deaeration, but this process
releases only small amounts of combined carbon dioxide.  The majority of the combined carbon
dioxide is removed with the steam of the boiler, subsequently dissolving in the condensate, frequently
causing corrosion problems.  These problems can be controlled through the use of volatile
neutralizing amines or filming amines.
TYPES OF MECHANICAL DEAERATORS:
1.  Tray Type Deaerators are composed of a
deaerating section and a feedwater storage section. 
Incoming water is sprayed through a perforated
distribution pipe into a steam atmosphere where it is
atomized.  There it is heated to within a few degrees
of the saturation temperature of the steam.  Most of
the non-condensable gases are released to the steam
as the water enters the unit.  The water then cascades
through the tray section, breaking into fine droplets,
which immediately contact incoming steam.  The
steam heats the water to the saturation temperature of
the steam and removes all but a trace of oxygen. 
Deaerated water falls to the feedwater storage section
below and is protected from recontamination by a
blanket of steam.  As the non-condensable gases are
liberated, they as well as a small amount of steam are
vented to atmosphere.  It is essential that sufficient
venting is provided at all times or deaeration will be
incomplete.
 2.  Spray Type Deaerators work on the same
general principle as the tray types.  The spray-type
deaerators do not use trays for dispersion of the
water.  In this case, spring loaded nozzles located in
the top of the unit spray water into a steam
atmosphere which is heated to within a few degrees of
the saturation temperature of the steam.  Most of the
non-condensable gases are released to the steam,
and the heated water falls to a water seal and drains
to the lowest section of the steam scrubber.
The water is scrubbed by large quantities of steam and heated to the saturation temperature
prevailing at this point.  The intimate steam to water contact achieved in the scrubber efficiently strips
the water of dissolved gases.  As the steam-water mixture rises in the scrubber, a slight pressure loss
causes the deaerated water temperature to remain a few degrees below the inlet steam saturation
temperature.  The deaerated water overflows from the steam scrubber to the storage section below.
The steam, after flowing through the scrubber, passes up into the spray heater section to heat the
incoming water.  Most of the steam condenses in the spray section to become part of the deaerated
water.  A small portion of the steam, vented to atmosphere, removes non-condensable gases from the
system.
3.  Spray/Tray Type Deaerators are a combination of the above with a
steam spray nozzle sending the water over the trays.
4.   Feedwater Tanks are another form of mechanical deaerators
normally found in small firetube and watertube boiler systems due to
cost considerations.  These less expensive systems are limited by
design as they are operated at atmospheric pressure with feedwater
temperatures ranging from 1800F - 2120F; while deaerators operate
under pressure allowing for higher temperatures and more efficient
oxygen removal.
Like deaerators, feedwater tanks operate by forcing steam into the
feedwater which scrubs oxygen and carbon dioxide gases that are then
vented to atmosphere.
Steam enters the bottom of the tank agitating the feedwater as it rises to the top of the tank, and
finally is vented along with the liberated gases.  The temperature is normally controlled as high as
possible without causing pump problems which occurs when the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is
too low.  Steam bubbles form and fill the pump cavity causing vibration, a condition know as
cavitation.  This condition may cause serious damage to the feedwater pump and jeopardize steam
production.  The most practical potential solution for cavitation is the installation of a slipstream, which
allows a portion of the high pressure feedwater to recirculate to the suction side of the pump where it
lowers the temperature and eliminates the boiling and cavitation.  The slipstream will not always work
leaving the choices of increasing the NPSH by increasing the distance between the tank and the
pump, or sizing a new pump properly. Practically speaking, most feedwater tanks are controlled
between 1800F - 2000F and rely more on the assistance of a chemical oxygen scavenger for complete
oxygen removal.  Pressurized deaerators must have the   stamp and be built under the regulations
of  The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Section VIII, Division I.
 
B. ECONOMIZER:
An economizer removes additional Btu’s from the stack
gasses by circulating the deaerated boiler feedwater through
a series of bent tubes in the stack.  This translates into a
"free" source of energy from the boiler operation.  Finned
tube economizers are less costly and more efficient as the
"fins" are a source of heat transfer as well as the tubes. 
Economizers in watertube boilers typically increase the
efficiency of the boiler 4-10% which is usually less than a
one year payback.  Due to the higher efficiencies of firetube
boilers the payback is usually longer and therefore
economizers are not used as frequently on them.  An
economizer can also be a useful means of increasing the steam capacity of a boiler.
 
The use of high sulfur oils, particularly #6 oil, is very corrosive on the economizer tubes.  This can be
improved by increasing the temperature of the feedwater to the economizer and the use of soot
blowers but the life of an economizer in that environment is limited to about 2-3 years.  A bare tube
economizer is easier to keep free of the corrosive sulfur but requires more tubes to achieve the same
efficiency as a finned tube economizer.  Since the economizer is directly part of the boiler and has
contact from the gases of combustion it must also have the   stamp and be built under the
regulations of  The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Code Section I.

 
Chapter 1
 

INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS
 
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for
combustion heat to be transferred into water until it becomes
heated water or a gas (steam).  The steam or hot water under pressure is then usable for transferring
the heat to a process.  Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process.  When
water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gunpowder.  This causes the boiler to be an extremely dangerous item that must be
treated with utmost respect.
 
Boilers were used in crude fashions for several centuries but development was slow because
construction techniques were crude and the operation was extremely dangerous.  But by the industrial
revolution of the mid 1800’s boilers had become the main source of energy to power industrial
operations and transportation.  The use of water as a heat transfer medium has many advantages. 
Water is relatively cheap, it can be easily controlled, the gas in invisible, odorless, and extremely high
purity.
 
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches it's gaseous state is called evaporation.  Heat is
transferred from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a
hot body to a cold body through a conveying medium without physical contact, (2) convection, the
transfer of heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of heat by
actual physical contact, molecule to molecule.  The heating surface is any part of the boiler metal
that has hot gases of combustion on one side and water on the other.   Any part of the boiler metal
that actually contributes to making steam is heating surface.  The amount of heating surface a boiler
has is expressed in square feet.   The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has the more
efficient it becomes.  The measurement of the steam produced is generally in pounds of water
evaporated to steam per hour.
 
Gallons of water evaporated x    8.3 pounds/gallon water  =  Pounds of steam
 
In firetube boilers the term boiler horsepower is often used.  A boiler horsepower is 34.5 pounds of
steam.  This term was coined by James Watt a Scottish inventor.  The measurement of heat is in
British Thermal Units (Btu’s).   A Btu is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.  When water is at 32 oF it is assumed that its heat
value is zero.
 
The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is
called its sensible heat.  In the teapot illustration to the left the 70 oF
water contains 38 Btu’s and by adding 142 Btu’s the water is brought
to boiling point.
 
In the illustration to the left, to change the liquid (water) to its
gaseous state (steam) an additional 970 Btu’s would be required.  
This quantity of heat required to change a chemical from the liquid to
the gaseous state is called latent heat.
 
The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of
pressure and rises when pressure increases.  When water under
Sensible Heat pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises above 212 oF.
  This occurs in the boiler. In the example below the boiler is operating Lat
at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a steam temperature of 338 oF or 1185 Btu’s. ent
  Hea
When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with liquid, its temperature is said to be t
superheated.  The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above saturation, is
referred to as the degrees of superheat.
 
  BOILER TYPES:
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit into one of two
categories: (1) Firetube or as an easy way to remember "fire in tube" boilers, contain long
steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the water to
be changed to steam circulates, and (2) Watertube or "water in tube" boilers in which the
conditions are reversed with the water passing through the tubes and the furnace for the hot
gasses is made up of the water tubes.  In a firetube boiler the heat (gasses) from the
combustion of the fuel passes through tubes and is transferred to the water which is in a
large cylindrical storage area.  Common types of firetube boilers are scotch marine, firebox,
HRT or horizontal return tube. Firetube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more
fuel efficient and easier to operate but they are limited generally to capacities of 50,000pph Firetub
and pressures of 250 psig.  The more common types of watertube boilers are "D" type, "A" e
type, "O" type, bent tube, and cast-iron sectional. All firetube boilers and most watertube Scotch
boilers are packaged boilers in that they can be transported by truck, rail or barge.  Large Marine
watertube boilers used in industries with large steam demands and in utilities must be Boiler
completely assembled and constructed in the field and are called field erected boilers.
 
 
 

Watertube Boiler D-Type 

 Watertube Boiler  "A Type" Watertube Boiler  "O Type" Miura Watertube Boiler

Field Erected Boiler With Superheater By B&HES at Thomaston, GA

 
 
 
Vertical tubeless boilers are used for small loads but really do not fit into either category as they do
not have tubes.
 
Boilers and pressure vessels are built under requirements of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers or ASME referred to as the "ASME Code."  High pressure boilers are fired vessels for an
operation greater than 15 psig and 160 oF and are built in accordance with Section I of the ASME
Code with the   stamp.  Vessels with design pressures below 15 psig steam and 180 oF hot
water are low pressure and are built to Code Section IV.  All unfired vessels are built in accordance
with Code Section VIII, Division I .   Repairs to all boilers and pressure vessels are governed by
the state boiler jurisdictions which for the US and Canada have universally adopted the National
Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspectors (National Board Code) and affixed with the
stamp.
 
  STEAM BOILER SYSTEMS:
The feedwater system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the demand
for steam.  Valves provide access for maintenance and repair.  The steam system collects and
controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through piping to the point of use. 
Throughout the system steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure
gauges.   The steam and feedwater systems share some components.  The fuel system includes all
equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat.  The equipment required in the fuel
system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.  All fuels are combustible and dangerous if
necessary safety standards are not followed.  Fuels commonly used are nuclear fusion, electricity, the
wastes of certain processes and fossil fuels.  The approximate heat value of certain fossil fuels:
 

         Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/Cubic foot

          #2 Oil 142,000btu/gallon

         #4 oil 148,000btu/gallon

         #5 oil 149,000btu/gallon

         #6 oil 152,000btu/gallon

         Coal 12,500btu/ton

         Wood (Dry) 8,000btu/ton

         Wood (Wet) 4,000btu/ton

In a fuel oil fired boiler plant, fuel oil leaves the tank through a suction line and duplex strainer
traveling then to the fuel oil pump.  The fuel oil is then forced through the pump and then through the
discharge line.  From the discharge line some fuel oil is burned and some returned to the tank through
a regulating valve.
 
In a natural gas fired plant gas is supplied at a set pressure which varies depending on the gas
source.  Gas systems are low pressure or high pressure.  In a low pressure gas system city gas
pressure is reduced from pounds to inches of pressure by passing through a gas regulator.  Through
the regulator gas is drawn into the burner and mixed with air supplied by a blower.  This mixture is
directed to the burner where it is ignited with the pilot light.  In a high gas pressure system, gas
passes through the regulator and gas is reduced to the proper pressure for the burner.  Some boilers
have combination burners which can burn gas or fuel oil or a combination of both gas and fuel oil.
 
Coal fired boilers use mechanical feeders or stokers to feed fuel to the burner at a consistent rate. 
For example, in a chain grate stoker coal is fed through the hopper and regulated before passing
under the ignition arch.   The coal continues on a conveyor which carries the ignited coal slowly under
the heating surface. Ash, slag and unburned parts or clinkers are discharged at the other side of the
conveyor.
 
The draft system regulates the flow of air to and from the burner.  For fuel to burn efficiently the right
amount of oxygen must be provided.   Air must also be provided to direct the flow of air through the
furnace to direct the gases of combustion out of the furnace to the breaching.  A forced draft system
uses a fan to force (or push) air through the furnace.  An induced draft system uses a fan to draw (or
pull) air through the furnace.  A combination or balanced draft system uses forced and induced draft
fans.   Gases of combustion enter the stack from the breaching and are released to the atmosphere.
 
COMBUSTION:
Is the method of combining the fuel and air systems in a source of heat at sufficient temperature to
produce steam.  Combustion may be defined as the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the
combustible elements of a fuel.  Only three combustible, chemical elements are of any significance:
carbon, hydrogen and sulfur.  The boiler combustion furnace in which the fuel burns provides a
chamber in which the combustion reaction can be isolated and confined so that it can be controlled. 
In a scotch marine boiler it is referred to as a Morrison tube or in other boilers the firebox area.  The
convection surfaces are the areas to which the heat travels that is not transferred in the combustion
furnace.  Here additional heat is removed.  The burner is the principal device for the firing of oil
and/or gas.   Burners are normally located in the vertical walls of the furnace.  Burners along with the
furnaces in which they are installed, are designed to burn the fuel properly.
 
STEAM TO WATER CYCLE:
In a steam heating system steam leaves the main steam line and enters the main steam header. 
From the main header piping directs the steam to branch lines.  Branch lines feed steam through a
riser to the steam heating equipment.  At the heating equipment heat is transferred to the building
space.   As the steam releases heat to the building space and is cools it turns back to water or
condensate.  The condensate is separated from the steam by a steam trap. The steam trap allows
condensate to pass but not the steam.  The condensate passes through the condensate return line
and is collected and directed back to the boiler to repeat the steam to water process.
 
Referring back to the teapot example, after repeated use it began to acquire a "buildup" of solids from
the water.  The same separation of solids in the water occurs in the boiler but since it is operating
continuously and at higher temperatures this "buildup" can occur very rapidly.   When this occurs the
heat transfer can not be achieved as readily which requires more fuel to produce the steam. If
continued unchecked damage to the metals in the boiler shell and tubes will result.
 
Pretreatment equipment such as softeners, de-mineralizes, etc. are used to remove as much of the
dissolved solids as possible before they get to the boiler.  To remove the solids that continue to the
boiler chemicals are added to react with the solids creating a sludge.  This sludge is then periodically
removed by opening valves from the bottom of the boiler and relieving it to the drain.  This process is
called blowdown.
 
Waterside problems can also shorten boiler life from corrosion brought on by the oxygen content in
the feedwater.  Pretreatment for the removal of oxygen is performed in a deaerator but here again the
removal is not complete and chemical additions are made to aid in improving the oxygen removal
process.
 
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feedwater.  The two sources of
feedwater are: (1) Condensate. or condensed steam returned from the processes and (2) Makeup
water (usually city water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes.  For
higher boiler efficiencies the feedwater can be heated, usually by economizers.
 
 

Chapter 6

COMBUSTION & CONTROLS

 

Combustion is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen (O 2) with the combustible

elements of a fuel that results in the release of heat.  Air is the source of oxygen for
boilers.  Fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil and coal, biomass and electricity are
primary types of boiler fuel.  The primary elements in the fuel, significant to combustion,
are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S); these are called
hydrocarbons.  
 10 Air (O2) + 1 Gas     =     CO2 + 2H2O + 8N2 + Heat

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel.  This is
accomplished by controlling the "three T's" of combustion which are (1)  temperature
high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) turbulence or mixing of the
fuel and oxygen, and (3) time sufficient for complete combustion.   Not all of the Btu's in
the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed by the steam generation equipment.  
Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned and most boiler fuels, allowable with
today's air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur.  So the main challenge in
combustion efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or incompletely
burned gas) which forms CO instead of CO2.

The burner is the principal device for the firing of the fuel.   Burners are
normally located in the vertical walls of the furnace.  Burners, along with
the furnaces in which they are installed, are designed to burn the fuel
properly by making the proper combination of the "three T's." 
Combustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air
supply, (fuel to air ratio), and removal of gases of combustion to
achieve optimum boiler efficiency.  The amount of fuel supplied to the
burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity of
steam required.  The combustion controls are also necessary as safety
devices insuring the boiler not only operates but operates safely.

A drop in steam pressure necessitates an increase in the fuel supplied to the burner. 
Conversely, an increase in steam pressure necessitates a decrease in the fuel
supplied.  Any change in the amount of fuel supplied requires a corresponding change
in the air for combustion supplied to the burner.

To maintain high combustion efficiency, the air to fuel ratio must be balanced from the
lowest firing rate to the highest firing rate.  If there is an imbalance in the air to fuel ratio,
smoking, flame failure, wasted fuel and in extreme cases an explosion could result.

Combustion controls also regulate the removal of gases of combustion by maintaining a

consistent furnace pressure throughout different firing rates.  By maintaining a
consistent firing rate, combustion  controls improve regulation of feedwater and
superheat temperature.  A consistent firing rate reduces fluctuation of the boiler water
level and increases the life of the boiler drum and tubes.

The programmer is the mastermind that controls the starting sequence and firing cycle
of a burner.  The programmer controls the operation sequence of the blower, burner
motor, ignition system, fuel valve, and all other components of the ON/OFF control
system.  The programmer also provides a suitable purge period before ignition and after
burner shutdown when explosive combustibles are removed.  The programmer is
designed to deenergize all fuel valves within 4 seconds after loss of the flame signal.  In
addition, the programmer automatically restarts a new cycle each time the pressure
control closes or after a power failure, but locks out and must be reset manually after
any flame failure.  A burner must always start in low fire and shut down in low fire which
prevents wasting fuel and reduces the possibility of a flareback when excess fuel
accumulates in the furnace.  
 The pressure control (pictured right)
regulates the operating range of the
boiler by modulating the burner on
boiler steam pressure demand.  The
pressure control is installed using a
siphon to protect the bellows from the
high temperature of steam.  The pressure control sends
signals to the modulating motors.   Modulating motors
(pictured left) use conventional mechanical linkage or
electric valves to regulate the primary air, secondary air,
and fuel supplied to the burner.  The modulating
pressure control is installed using a siphon to protect the
bellows from the high temperature of steam.

The boiler water level control is a safety feature which will shut
the boiler off if the water level drops to an unacceptable level. 
Boilers have two water level controllers as a safety feature in case
one fails.  The two level controllers are also set at different levels
with the controller at the higher level sounding an alarm and the
controller at the lower level actually shutting down the boiler.  The
boiler governing codes require the reset of the boiler to be done
manually by an operator for safety and not automatically.  Boiler
level controls may be a float type as pictured at right or a probe type
which operates by testing for conductivity to determine if the water level is adequate.
The Control firing sequence occurs at cold startup or when the steam pressure drops,
the pressure control completes an electric circuit, which starts a timer motor cam turning
in the programmer.  The first contact on the timer motor cam closes and starts the
burner motor that rotates the primary air fan.  The primary air fan blows air into the
furnace to purge any unburned fuel present in a gaseous condition.  This process in
called prepurging the furnace.  By prepurging the furnace before pilot ignition, the
danger of a furnace explosion is reduced.  Depending upon the size of the furnace the
purge cycle takes approximately 30 seconds but may take as long as 60 seconds.  The
programmer is still operating and when the second contact closes, the circuit of the
ignition transformer is completed.  This causes a spark in front of the gas pilot tube.  At
the same time, a solenoid valve is opened in the gas pilot line, allowing gas to flow
through the gas pilot tube and be ignited by the spark.  The scanner is located on the
front of the boiler and is used to sight the pilot.  Sighting the pilot through the scanner
will verify that the pilot is lit.  This process is referred to as proving pilot.   The next step
is to close the contact which completes the circuit to the main fuel valve, which opens
only after the scanner has proved pilot.  With the main fuel valve open the fuel enters
the furnace and is ignited by the pilot.  The scanner is then used to prove the main
flame.  The programmer continues to operate for a few more seconds, securing circuits
to the ignition transformer and the gas pilot.  After the circuits are secured, the
programmer stops.  The burner is now regulated by the pressure control and the
modulating pressure control.  If the scanner senses a flame failure, the system is purged
and secured.  The programmer is then manually reset to the start cycle.