ME 8594/ DYNAMICS OF MACHINES

UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION
 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
• First law

• Second law

• Third law
 Static force analysis

• If the magnitude of inertia forces are small compared to

externally applied load, inertia force can be neglected
during the analysis of mechanism. Such an analysis is
called as static force analysis.

• Example: Lifting cranes

• Applied force : Force acting externally on a body

• Constrained force : Forces are constrained to behave in a

particular manner.
 Static Equilibrium

• A body maintain its equilibrium state if it is remain in the

state of rest or uniform motion.
• Example: The earth rotating around sun .

• Condition
• Vector sum of all forces acting on a body is equal to
zero.
• Vector sum of all moments acting on a body is equal
to zero.

F 0

M 0
 Equilibrium of two force member

F1  F2

• A body under the action of two forces will be equilibrium if

• The forces are of same magnitude
• Forces act along same line
• Forces are in opposite direction
 Equilibrium of three force member
F1
F1  F2  F3

F2

F3 F1

F3 F2

A body under the action of three forces will be equilibrium if

 The resultant force is zero.
 Concurrent forces.
 Equilibrium of two forces & Torque
F1

T
T  F1  h  F2  h
F2

F3

• A body under the action of two forces & torque will be

equilibrium if

• The forces are equal ,parallel and opposite in direction.

 Dynamic Force Analysis

• If the magnitude of inertia forces are large compared to

externally applied load, inertia force can be included
during the analysis of mechanism. Such an analysis is
called as dynamic force analysis.

• Example: Rotor rotating at 80000 rpm

• D’Alembert’s Principle: It states that inertia forces and

couples, and external forces and torques on a body
together give statically equilibrium.

F  ma Fi  ma F  Fi  0
T  I Ti   I T  Ti  0
INERTIA, INERTIA FORCE , INERTIA TORQUE
• INERTIA – The property of matter offering
resistance to any change of its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line
• INERTIA FORCE –The inertia of the body opposes the
external force applied (F) and called inertia force.
Inertia force = -External force = - m .a
• INERTIA TORQUE - It is an imaginary torque when applied
upon the rigid body , brings it in equilibrium position.
Inertia torque = -External torque = - I . α
I – mass moment of inertia of body
α - Angular acceleration of the body
Dynamic analysis of Reciprocating engine
ANALYTICAL METHOD

ω
l
B B1
 I.D.C  O.D.C
o
x
l

• Consider a reciprocating steam engine mechanism OAB1.

• Let the crank OA rotates with angular velocity ω Rad/sec and
the connecting rod B1A makes angle φ with the line of stroke
B1O. Let x be the displacement of piston from initial point B
to B1, when the crank turns through an angle  from I.D.C
 Displacement of piston
l
n l
r B1
B
x  B1B  BO  B1O  
C’ o
𝑂𝐶 ′ + 𝐶′ 𝐵 − (OA1+A1B1)

 (l  r )  (l cos   r cos  ) cos   1  sin 2 

 ( nr  r )  (nr cos   r cos  )
 r sin  
2 2
y
 r  (n  1)  ( n cos   cos  )   1  1 
l2 l2

x  r (n  1)  ( n 2  sin 2   cos  )  sin 2 

  cos   1  2
 
n
x  r (1  cos  )  n  n 2  sin 2  
  1 2
 n  sin 2 
n
Velocity of piston
dx dx d
V 
dt d dt
V
d 

r (1  cos  )  n  n 2  sin 2  
d 

d
 dt
  1 
V  r (0  sin  )   0   2sin  cos   
  2 n  sin 
2 2

 sin 2 
V  r sin   
 2 n  sin  
2 2

 sin 2 
V  r sin  
 2n 
Acceleration of piston
dv dv d  cos 2 
a  a  r 2 cos  
ddt d dt sin 2   n 
a r sin    
d  2n 
Angular Velocity of connecting rod
l
From AOA1 , AB1A1 B B1
l sin β = r sin θ  
o
sin 
sin  
n
d 1 d
cos   cos 
dt n dt
d cos  Cos β = (1 - sin2 β )1/2
  = (1- sin2 θ )1/2
dt n cos 
cos 
n2
c   =1 (n2 - sin2 θ )1/2
1 2
n n  sin 2  n
n
cos 
c  
n 2  sin 2 
 Angular acceleration of connecting rod
d c d c d
c  
dt d dt


d cos   n 2  sin 2  1/2  
d  
 
  2   cos   n 2  sin 2    2sin  cos     n 2  sin 2   (  sin  ) 
1 3/2 1/2

 2 
 cos2    n 2  sin 2   
  2 sin   
  n  sin   
2 2 3/2

 

 c   sin  
2  n 2
 1 

  n  sin   
2 2 3/2

 
FORMULAS FOR ANALYTICAL METHOD
• Displacement of piston   
x  r (1  cos  )  n  n 2  sin 2  


 sin 2 
• Velocity of piston V  r sin  
 2n 
 cos 2 
• Acceleration of piston a  r 2 cos  
 n 
• Angular Velocity
cos 
of connecting rod
c   ωc= ω Cosθ
n 2  sin 2  n
• Angular acceleration of connecting rod

 c   2 sin  
 n 2
 1 

αc = - ω2 Sinθ [(n2)]= - ω Sinθ
2

  n 2  sin 2   
3/2
n3 n
 
 PROBLEM-1
• In a slider crank mechanism, the length of the crank
and connecting rod are 100mm and 400mm
respectively. The crank rotates uniformly at 600r.p.m
clockwise when the crank has turned through 450
from the inner dead centre. Find the analytical
method: 1) Velocity and acceleration of the slider
and 2) Angular velocity and angular acceleration of
the connecting rod.
 SOLUTION
Given data: r=100mm =0.1m,
l=400mm=0.4m, N=600rpm, θ =450 ,
ω = 2πN = 62.83 rad/sec, obliquity ratio, n =l/r =4
60 sin 2  = 5.227m/s

V  r sin  
1. Velocity of slider  2n 
2. Acceleration of piston a  r 2 cos   cos 2  = 279.14 m/s2
 n 
cos 
3. Angular Velocity of connecting rod c   2
n  sin 2 
4. Angular acceleration of connecting rod = 11.1 rad/s

 c   2 sin  
 n 2
 1 

 2n 2  sin 2   
3/2


= 697.84rad/s 
 PROBLEM-2
• In a reciprocating engine mechanism, the crank and the
connecting rod are 300mm and 1m long respectively and the
crank rotates at a constant speed of 200rpm. Determine
analytically:
i) The crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs and
ii) The maximum velocity of the piston
Given data: r =300mm=0.3m, l=1m, N=200rpm.
Solution : ω =2πN = 20.94 rad/sec, obliquity ratio, n =l/r =3.33
60
i) Crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs:
Let θ = crank angle from I.D.C at which the maximum
velocity occurs,
 sin 2 
The velocity of the piston, V  r  sin  
2n 
dv =0 or d {ωr(sinθ +sin2θ)} =0
dθ dθ n
ωr[cosθ +2cos2θ] =0
2n
ncosθ +2cos2θ -1 =0
(since cos2θ = 2cos2θ -1) , 2cos2θ + 3.33cosθ -1 =0
cos θ =0.26 , θ =750
ii) max. Velocity of the piston , Vmax = 6.54m/s
 GRAPHICAL METHOD

• To construct velocity profile using klien’s

construction.
• To construct acceleration profile using klien's
construction.
Klien’s Construction
The velocity and acceleration of various part of
machines are obtained in the configuration diagram
itself without drawing separate velocity and
acceleration diagram .This type of construction
introduced by klien’s.
 M
vPC p1
C c1
vPO c
vCO
vCO vPC

θ
O vPOo p
P
1. First of all draw OM perpendicular to OP such that it intersects the
line PC at point M
2.In Δ OCM, CM is parallel to PC.
From similar triangles ocp and oc1p1
oc1 = op1 =c1p1 =ω (a constant)
OC OM CM
vCO = vPO = vPC =ω
OC OM CM

vCO = ω x OC , vPO = ω x OM, vPC = ω x CM

KLIEN’S ACCELERATION DIAGRAM
For crank
vCO = ω x OC For connecting rod
K M at point D
D1 For piston vD = ω x OD1
C vPO = ω xOM a = ω2 x OD
D 2
Q For connecting rod
D vPC = ω x CM
D2
L For crank
θ a CO =ar CO = ω2 x OC
O
P N For connecting rod
For piston at PC= ω2 x CQ
a PO = at PO= ω2 x NO ar PC = ω2 x QN
a PC = ω2 x CN
1. Take C as centre and CM as radius draw a circle.
2. Take PC as diameter and draw second circle to intersect the first circle at
points K and L
3. Extend KL to N to be located on OP. Join KN , KN intersects PC at Q
4. Join OCQN which forms a quadrilateral and known as Klien’s acceleration
diagram.
 Acceleration of various points can be
determined easily without drawing
separate acceleration diagram
o’c’ = c’x = xp’ =o’p’ = ω2
OC CQ QN NO
ar CO = ar PC = at PC = a PO = ω2
OC CQ QN NO
ar CO = ω 2 x OC , ar
PC = ω 2 x CQ,

at PC = ω2 x QN , a PO = ω2 x NO
Velocity of point D, vD = ω x OD1
Acceleration of point D, aD = ω2 x OD2
The crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating engine are 150mm and
600mm respectively. The crank makes an angle of 600 with the inner dead
centre and revolves at a uniform speed of 300rpm.
Find by klien’s construction,
1. Velocity and acceleration of the piston,
2. Velocity and acceleration of the mid-point of the connecting rod.
3. The angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod
r =150mm =0.15m
l =600mm =0.6m Scale factor:
θ =600 1cm =100mm
N =300rpm
To find: K
C D1 C M
D Q M
1. VP , aP
D2
2. VD , aD L 60o
O O
3. ωPC ,αPC P N
Step 1 : Draw a configuration diagram as per
given data.
Step 2 :Draw OM perpendicular to PO.
Step 3 : Draw CM parallel to PC.
Step 4 :OCM form a velocity diagram.
Step 5 : Draw a circle of radius CM and dia
PC as shown in diagram.
Step 6 : The quadrilateral CQNO form an
acceleration diagram

Solution :
ω =2πN = 2π x 300 =
60 60
1.By measurement , OM=1.46 x100 =146mm =0.146m
NO =0.62x100 = 62mm =0.062m
Velocity of piston, vP = ω x OM =
Acceleration of piston, aP = ω2 x NO =
2. By measurement , OD1 =145mm =0.145m
OD2 =95mm =0.095m
Velocity of mid-point of connecting rod,
VD = ω x OD1
Acceleration of mid-point of connecting rod,
aD = ω2 x OD2
3. Velocity of connecting rod, VPC = ω x CM =
Angular Velocity of connecting rod , ωPC = VPC / PC =
By measurement , QN=1.3 x100 =130mm =0.13m,
Tangential component of acceleration of connecting rod , atPC = ω2 x QN
Angular acceleration of connecting rod PC
αPC = atPC /PC
 Forces on the reciprocating parts of an
engine, neglecting the weight of the
connecting rod
WR FT
(i) Piston effort or Driving force FP FQ FB
w.k.t acceleration of reciprocating parts
 cos 2  φ 
a  r 
2
cos  
n 
aR =
Accelerating force or inertia FP
force
FN
FI = mR x aR Let mR = mass of the reciprocating parts
= mR .ω2r[cosθ +cos2θ] WR =mR x g
n FP =piston effort
a) Horizontal reciprocating FN =Thrust on sides of cylinder walls
engine FL = Net load on the piston
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI FQ = Force acting along the connecting rod
=FL + FI-RF FT = Crank-pin effort
b) Vertical reciprocating FB = Thrust on crankshaft bearings
engine
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI
=FL + FI+‾WR
 Forces on the reciprocating parts of an N
engine, neglecting the weight of the FB
connecting rod FT
90-(θ+φ) M
R
C φ
(i) Piston effort or Driving force FP FQ 
w.k.t acceleration of reciprocating parts WR FB
cos 2 
(90-θ)
 
a  r 
2
cos   P φ
n 
aR = O
Accelerating force or inertia FP B
FN
force
FI = mR x aR Let mR = mass of the reciprocating parts
= mR .ω2r[cosθ +cos2θ] WR =mR x g
n FP =piston effort
a) Horizontal reciprocating FN =Thrust on sides of cylinder walls
engine FL = Net load on the piston
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI FQ = Force acting along the connecting rod
=FL + FI-RF FT = Crank-pin effort
b) Vertical reciprocating FB = Thrust on crankshaft bearings
engine
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI - RF
=FL + FI+‾WR
TO FIND NET LOAD ON THE PISTON (FL) Cosφ = FP
i) For single cylinder single acting engine: FQ
Net load , FL = p x π D2 FQ= FP
4 Cosφ
ii) For single cylinder double acting engine:
Net load , FL = p1A1 – p2A2 = p1A1 – p2(A1-a)
p1 p2
FORCE ACTING ALONG THE CONNECTING ROD
(FQ) D d
C
FQ

φ
FP B
FT = FP Sin (θ+φ)
Cos φ
(I) PISTON EFFORT OR DRIVING FORCE (FP)
a) Horizontal reciprocating engine
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI
=FL + FI-RF
b) Vertical reciprocating engine
Piston effort, FP= FL+ FI - RF
=FL + FI+‾WR
(II) TO FIND NET LOAD ON THE PISTON (FL)
a) For single cylinder single acting engine:
Net load , FL = p x π D2
4
b) For single cylinder double acting engine:
Net load , FL = p1A1 – p2A2 = p1A1 – p2(A1-a)

(III) THRUST ON SIDES ON CYLINDER WALLS (FN)

FN = FP Tan φ
(IV) CRANK PIN EFFORT (FT)
FT = FP x Sin (θ+φ)
Cos φ

(V) THRUST ON CRANKSHAFT BEARING (FB)

FB = FP x Cos (θ+φ)
Cos φ

(VI) TURNING MOMENT (OR) CRANK EFFORT (OR)

TORQUE ON THE CRANKSHAFT (T)
T = FP [ sinθ + sin 2θ ] r
2 √ n2 – sin2θ
• If k is not known then the position of the second mass
may be obtained by considering the body as a
compound pendulum.
• For simple pendulum, periodic time
tp= 2π (l/g)
• For compound pendulum, periodic time
tp= 2π k 2 + h 2
• hg
1. A Connecting rod of length 375mm between centers has a mass of 4
kg. The center of gravity is 250mm from the small end and the radius of
gyration about an axis through the centre of gravity perpendicular to
the plane of motion is 120mm. Determine dynamically equivalent
system having one mass at the centre of small end and the other at a
point somewhere in between the centre of big end and the centre of
gravity
2. The length of a connecting rod of an engine is 500mm measured between the
centers and its mass is 18kg. The centre of gravity is 125mm from the crank pin
centre and the crank radius is 100mm . Determine dynamically equivalent
system keeping one mass at the small end .The frequency of oscillation of the
rod, when suspended from the centre of small end is 43 vibrations per minute.
500mm

375mm

500 mm

h =375mm
T = I α = mk2 α
T1 = I α = mk 12 α
TC = T1 –T
= mk12 α - mk2 α
= m(k12 -k2 ) α
We know that l1 .l3 = k12 and l1 .l2 = k2

Substitute we get TC = m (l1 .l3 - l1 .l2 ) α = ml1 (l3- l2) α

1. A small connecting rod 220mm long between centers has a mass

of 2 kg and a moment of inertia of 0.02kg-m2 about its center of
gravity. The center of gravity is located at a distance of 150mm from
the small end center. Determine the dynamically equivalent two
mass systems when one mass is located at the small end center.
If the connecting rod is replaced by two masses located at
the two centers , find the correction couple that must be applied for
complete dynamical equivalence of the system when the angular
acceleration of the connecting rod is 20000 rad/s2 anticlockwise.
 TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR SINGLE CYLINDER
DOUBLE ACTING ENGINE
• The turning moment diagram is the graphical
representation of turning moment for various position of
crank.

Area of T = Area of T mean

Tmean = Area OABCDEFGH
2π
TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM for 4 stroke IC engine
 Pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the
atmospheric pressure during suction stroke, therefore a
negative loop is formed initially.

 During compression stroke the work is done on the gases

therefore higher negative loop is formed.

 During the working stroke fuel burns and the gases expand,
therefore a large positive loop is obtained.

 During the exhaust stroke, the work is done on the gases,

therefore negative loop is formed.
TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM FOR
MULTI CYLINDER ENGINE
TURNING MOMENT FOR COMMON
ENGINES
 USES OF TURNING MOMENT
DIAGRAMS
1. To determine the work done per cycle and
power developed.
2. To determine the mean torque and the
fluctuation of energy.
3. To find the diameter of the crankshaft
4. To design the flywheel.
Flywheel:

 It is an energy absorbing device.

 It stores energy during the period when supply of energy

is more than requirement and release it during the period
when the requirement of energy is less than supply.

• The excess energy developed during power stroke is absorbed

by flywheel and releases it to crank shaft during other stroke.
Hence crank shaft rotates at uniform speed in all stroke.
• The variations of energy above and below the mean
resisting torque line are called fluctuations of energy.

• The difference between the maximum and the minimum

energies is known as maximum fluctuation of energy.
• coefficient of fluctuation of energy may be defined as the ratio of
the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
E
CE 
workdone per cycle
1.Workdone/cycle = Tmean x θ
2. Tmean = P x 60 = P
2π N ω
3.Workdone /cycle = Px 60
n
4.The difference between the maximum and minimum
speeds during a cycle is called the maximum fluctuation of
speed.
ΔS = maximum speed - minimum speeds
5.The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the
mean speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
N1  N2
Cs 
N
6. Co –efficient of steadiness (m) =1/Cs
 Energy
Energy Stored stored in Flywheel
in Flywheel
1 1
ΔE = E1 – E2  I 12  I 22
2 2
1
 I (1  2 )(1  2 )
2

 I  (1  2 )
E  I  2Cs
1. The mass of flywheel of an engine is 6.5 tonnes and the
radius of gyration is 1.8 metres. It is found from the turning
moment diagram that the fluctuation of energy is 56 kNm. If
the mean speed of the engine is 120 rpm, find the maximum
and minimum speeds.
m  6500kg
N1  ?
k  1.8m
N2  ?
E  56000 Nm
N1  N 2
N  120rpm
2
Δ E = I ω (ω1 – ω2) E  I  2 C s
2
E  mk 2 N ( N1  N 2 )
9002

56000  6500  1.82  120( N1  N 2 )
900
N1  N 2  2 N1  121rpm N 2  119rpm
2. A horizontal cross compound steam engine develops 300 kW at 90
rpm. The coefficient of fluctuation of energy as found from the turning
moment diagram is to be 0.1 and the fluctuation of speed is to be
kept within ± 0.5% of the mean speed. Find the weight of the flywheel
required, if the radius of gyration is 2 metres.
P  300000W m?
CE  0.1 E  workdone  CE
1  2  0.5%    1%   E  20000 Nm
k  2m;   9.426rad / s E  I  2Cs  mk 2 2Cs
N  90rpm C  1  2  0.01 20000  m  2 2  9.4262  0.01
P  60 
s

workdone  m  5630kg
N
300000  60
workdone 
90
workdone  200000 Nm
3. The turning moment diagram for a petrol engine is drawn to the following
scales : Turning moment, 1 mm = 5 N-m ; crank angle, 1 mm = 1°. The
turning moment diagram repeats itself at every half revolution of the engine
and the areas above and below the mean turning moment line taken in order
are 295, 685, 40, 340, 960, 270 mm2. The rotating parts are equivalent to a
mass of 36 kg at a radius of gyration of 150 mm. Determine the coefficient of
fluctuation of speed when the engine runs at 1800 r.p.m.
EA  E
EB  E  295
EC  E  295  685  E  390
ED  E  390  40  E  350
EE  E  350  340  E  690
EF  E  690  960  E  270

EF  E  270  270  E 1mm  1mm  5 
180

mm 2  Nm
36
 E  max E  min E

E  ( E  295)  ( E  690)

E  985mm 2

E  985mm 2 
36
E  86 Nm

E  mk 2 2Cs

86  36  0.152  188.52 2  Cs

Cs  0.003 Cs  0.3%
4. During forward stroke of the piston of the double acting steam
engine, the turning moment has the maximum value of 2000 N-m
when the crank makes an angle of 80° with the inner dead centre.
During the backward stroke, the maximum turning moment is 1500
N-m when the crank makes an angle of 80° with the outer dead
centre. The turning moment diagram for the engine may be
assumed for simplicity to be represented by two triangles. If the
crank makes 100 rpm and the radius of gyration of the flywheel is
1.75 m, find the coefficient of fluctuation of energy and the mass of
the flywheel to keep the speed within ± 0.75% of the mean speed.
Also determine the crank angle at which the speed has its minimum
and maximum values.
k  1.75m
1  2  0.75%;
N  100 rpm
  26.2 rad / s
Cs  0.015
5. An engine flywheel has a mass of 6.5 tonnes and the radius of
gyration is 2m. If the maximum and minimum speeds are 120rpm
and 118rpm respectively. Find i)mean speed of flywheel ii) coefficient
of fluctuation of speed iii) maximum fluctuation of energy.
6. In a turning moment diagram, the areas above and below the mean torque
line taken in order are 4400, 1150,1300 and 4550mm2. The scales on the
turning moment diagram are,
Turning moment 1mm = 100N-m , crank angle , 1mm =10.
Find the mass of the flywheel required to keep the speed between 297 and 303
rpm. If the radius of gyration is 0.525m.
 Phenomenon of windup
• Because of windup or twist , shaft stores energy when follower rise.
• The stored energy is released at the end of follower rise.
• There is some impact, resulting in rattling or noisy operation.
• So it results in follower jump or float.
EFFECTS OF WINDUP:
1. Results in follower jump or float.
CAUSES OF WINDUP:
1. Shaft is flexible
2. Follower moves at high speed.
3. Heavy loads are moved by follower.
REMEDY FOR WINDUP:
1. By mounting the flywheel as close as cam