Electrical supply, types of wires, fittings and conduits

Types of wiring systems, advantages and disadvantages, safety and precautions

Electrical equipment used in buildings
Use of electric fittings such as MCBs ELCBs, main switch, control panels, distribution bar,
earthing, lightening conductors etc.
Introduction to illumination, standards of illumination, system of illumination and methods of
lighting
Simple layout of electrification of residences, flats, offices, etc.

Electrical services.
Electrical services are a mode which provides us the electricity that is required by us to run
electrical appliances, in industries to provide electricity to run the machineries, in commercial
places to run the mechanical services.
Use of electricity:
 Residential Building: Lights, Fans, Heaters, Television, Refrigerators etc.
 Industrial Buildings: Machineries, Welding, Electroplating etc.
 Commercial Buildings: Lifts, Escalators, Alarm Systems, Advertising Displays etc.
Definitions:
Electric current: Flow of electrons from one end of a conductor to another end. Its symbol is
‘I’. And its unit is ampere.
Current (I) = Q/t = Ampere
Ampere: When charge of 1 coulomb passes through a point in 1 seconds, it is said that a current
of 1 Ampere is flowing.
Ampere= Coulomb/Second
Potential Difference: Work/energy Required to be done to move unit charge from one point to
another in the circuit is called voltage or potential difference
Voltage or Potential Difference=W/Q =Work/Charge
Conductors: Material which allow the current to flow easily through them are called
Conductors.
Insulator: Material which greatly oppose the current flow i.e. do not allow the current to pass
through it are called Insulators.
Direct current - In DC, the direction of current does not change, but the magnitude of the
current may increase or decrease. The voltage cannot be changed easily and Direct current
cannot be transmitted at long distance.
Alternating current - In AC, the magnitude and direction both changes with time. The voltage
can be changed easily and Alternating Current can be transmitted along long distances.
Generation of electricity
• Electricity is generated from the stored energy of water that makes turbine run and
generate electricity. The other method includes fuels (Coal, diesel or gas) to fire boilers
and pass stream and generate electricity through generators.
• Transformer step up several thousand or even hundreds of thousands of volts before it is
supplied to the transmission lines or cable. By transmitting electricity at high voltages
less power is lost in the cables.
• At the receiving end of voltage is stepped down by transformers in local sub-stations to
consumers at 240 volts

• In Urban areas electrical cables are usually underground and are brought up to entry point
at ground level or into basement.
• In small buildings, the cable run is kept as short as possible, terminating in a distribution
board at the first convenient position.
• Domestic electric Supply - The power is supplied to the houses in two different phases
depending upon the need of electricity.
 o First is single phase supply having 240 volts current at 50hz and other is three
phase supply having a voltage 420/240 volts at 50hz.
o Single phase supply consists of two wires Live wire (red) and Neutral Wire
(black)
o Three phase supply consists of 4 wires three live wires and one neutral wire.

Earthing
Earthing is the process of connecting the appliances to the ground so that any unforeseen current
such as leakages is transmitted to the earth. The purpose of the earthing is to protect the people
from the electric shock. There are different types of earthing:
• Wire earthing
Wire earthing is usually adopted in the rocky terrain. In this method, copper wire of
enough length is buried in a trench • Pipe Earthing:

• Rod earthing
In this type of earthing, a G.I. rod of 20mm diameter is buried to a depth of 200 to 300
cm to this rod the earthing wire is clamped.

• Pipe earthing
In this method, pipe of 38mm diameter and 2m long is used as an earth electrode. A hole
of about 30cm diameter and 3.5m deep is dug into the ground using auger. The pipe is
placed in the hole the pipe covered with 80mm of charcoal and a layer of common salt of
30mm to decrease the resistance offered by the earth mass.

• Plate earthing
In this method, a G.I. plate or a copper plate is used as an earth electrode. If a G.I. plate is
used then a size of 0.3 x 0.3 with 6.35mm thickness should be adopted and if a copper
plate is used plate of 0.3m x0.3m and 3.20mm thick should be adopted. • The plate is
buried to a depth of 2.0m into the ground and the plate is completely covered with an
80mm thick layer of charcoal and 30mm thick layer of common salt
Wiring and different types and systems of wiring
Different types of wiring
1. Vulcanized Indian rubber wire (V.I.R)
2. Tough rubber sheathed wire or Cab-Tyre Sheathed (T.R.S)
3. Poly vinyl chloride wire (P.V.C.) - This is the most commonly used wire for wiring
purpose. • Conductor is insulated by poly vinyl chloride (insulating material).
a. P.V.S. has following properties:
i. Moisture proof.
ii. Tough.
iii. Durable.
iv. Chemically inert. But it softens at high temperatures therefore not suitable
for connection to heating appliances.
4. Lead Covered Wire:
a. In this type of wire insulated rubber is provided on the conductor. A tube made of
lead is kept over it. Due to lead it has no effect of moisture. It can easily affect by
the mechanical stresses. Weather proof wires.
b. These types of wires are used outdoor i.e. providing a service connection from
overhead line to building etc.
c. In this type of wire the conductor is not tinned and the conductor is covered with
three braids (layer) of fibrous yarn and saturated with water proof compound.
5. Weather proof wires
6. Flexible wire –
a. These wires consist of number of strands instead of a single conductor. (Strand is
a very thin conductor).
b. The conductor is insulated with P.V.C. material.
c. These wires are very useful for household portable appliances where flexibility of
wire is more important.
7. MICC wire - Mineral insulated Copper Covered Wire
a. In this type of wire coating of magnesium oxide is provided as insulation on the
copper conductor.
b. Over this a copper sheath is provided.
c. This type of wire is used for wiring in mines, factories, refineries, furnace boilers,
rolling mills etc. it is less affected by temperature.
Systems of wiring
1. Cleat Wiring
In this type of wiring, insulated conductors (usually VIR - Vulcanized Indian
Rubber) are supported on porcelain or wooden cleats. The cleats have two halves
one base and the other cap. The cables are placed in the grooves provided in the
base and then the cap is placed. Both are fixed securely on the walls by 40mm
long screws. The cleats are easy to erect and are fixed 0.3 to 0.6m apart. This
wiring is suitable for temporary installations where cost is the main criteria but
not the appearance.
Advantages of Cleat Wiring:
• It is simple and cheap wiring system
• Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army camping
• As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, fault in cables can be seen
and repair easily.
• Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
• Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and addition.
• Inspection is easy and simple.
Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:
• Appearance is not so good.
• Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because sag may be occur after sometime of
the usage.
• In this wiring system, the cables and wiring are in open air, therefore,
oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic effect may damage the cables and
wires.
• it is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect, risk of fire and wear & tear.
• it can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
• There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
• it can’t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
• It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.

2. Wood casing and capping wiring

 It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or PVC boxes
having grooves inside it. A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same
width as that of casing is fixed over it. Both the casing and the capping are
screwed together at every 15cms. Casing is attached to the wall. Two or more
wires of same polarity are drawn through different grooves. The system is suitable
for indoor and domestic installations.

Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

 It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
 It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
 Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
 It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
 No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping.

Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:

 There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
 Not suitable in the acidic, alkalis and humidity conditions
 Costly repairing and need more material.
 Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
 White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.

3. Batten wiring or CTS or TRS wiring:

In this wiring system, wires sheathed in tough rubber are used which are quite
flexible. They are clipped on wooden battens with brass clips (link or joint) and
fixed on to the walls or ceilings by flat head screws. These cables are moisture
and chemical proof. They are suitable for damp climate but not suitable for
outdoor use in sunlight. TRS wiring is suitable for lighting in low voltage
installations the cleats are provided at a distance of 6 to 15cm.
 Advantages of Batten Wiring
 Wiring installation is simple and easy
 cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
 Paraphrase is good and beautiful
 Repairing is easy
 strong and long-lasting
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
 Can’t be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
 High risk of firs
 Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are openly visible
to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
 Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
 Only suitable below then 250V.
 Need more cables and wires.

4. Conduit Wiring
In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR cables are run through metallic or
PVC pipes providing good protection against mechanical injury and fire due to
short circuit. They are either embedded inside the walls or supported over the
walls, and are known as concealed wiring or surface conduit wiring (open
conduit) respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on wooden gutties
and the wires are drawn through them with fish (steel) wires. The system is best
suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.
 There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation:

 Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, it is known as surface conduit wiring. In
this wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances
and conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.
 Concealed Conduit wiring
If the conduits are hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is
called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system
inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called
concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, it is the most popular, stronger and
common electrical wiring system nowadays.

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
 Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
 No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
 Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
 Repairing and maintenance is easy.
 There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
 it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
 It can be used even in humidity, chemical effect and smoky areas.
 No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes).
 It is reliable and popular wiring system.
 sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.
 Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems
 It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for metallic
pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
 Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
 installation is not easy and simple.
 Risk of electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing & grounding system)
 Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.

Electrical appliances
There are many ways in which electricity can be used to save labor in the home. A vast number
of appliances are designed to run on the ordinary domestic supply.
The three-basic application of electricity are – the production of heat, light and power and in
many devices, they are used in combination. Electronic appliances such as radio and television
sets, and record players constitute a fourth class and telephone a fifth.
All the electrical appliances requiring a current of more than 5A should be fitted with an earth or
ground wire to safe guard the user against shocks from leakages of current. Their supply cables
thus carry three-pin plugs, and in the best type of socket, no current can flow until the earth-pin
can be made its contact.
Electrical equipment includes any machine powered by electricity. It usually consists of
an enclosure, a variety of electrical components, and often a power switch. Examples of these
include:

 Lighting
 Major appliance
 Small appliances
 IT equipment (computers, printers etc.)
 Motors, pumps and HVAC Systems
More specifically, electrical equipment refers to the individual components of an electrical
distribution system. These components may involve:

 Electric switchboards
 Distribution boards
 Circuit breakers and disconnects
 Transformers
 Electricity meter

A major appliance, or domestic appliance, is a large machine in home appliance used for
routine housekeeping tasks such as cooking, washing laundry, or food preservation. An
appliance is different from a plumbing fixture because it uses electricity or fuel.
A small appliance, small domestic appliance, or small electrics are portable or semi-portable
machines, generally used on table-tops, counter-tops, or other platforms, to accomplish
a household task. Examples include microwave ovens, toasters, humidifiers, food
processors and coffeemakers. They contrast with major appliances (British "white goods"), such
as the refrigerator and washing machine, which cannot be easily moved and are generally placed
on the floor. Small appliances also contrast with consumer electronics (British "brown
goods") which are for leisure and entertainment rather than purely practical tasks.[2]

Terms related to wiring

Fuse:
Fuse is a thin piece of wire with low melting point connected at its end in a fuse plug.
The function of fuse wire is to protect the electrical appliances from heavy current.
Miniature Circuit Breaker:
MCB is a device that is used to break the circuit at the time of excess of current and
protects the device from the appliances from the damage.
ELCB:
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker is a device is which breaks the circuit when there is
leakage of the current in the system.
RCCB:
Residual Current Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker that breaks the circuit when there is
imbalance of current between the live and the neutral wire this imbalance can be due to
the current leakage.
Distribution board
A distribution board (also known as panel-board or breaker panel) is a component of an
electricity supply system which divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits,
while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common
enclosure.
Introduction to Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs)
An MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies complete
enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an MCB is to switch the circuit,
i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it) automatically when the current passing
through it (MCB) exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be manually switched ON and OFF
as similar to normal switch if necessary.
The very basic uses of MCB is that it is used to protect a circuit (wiring, connected load and
equipment’s etc.) in case of:
 Short Circuit
 Over Current
 Over Load
MCBs are used primarily as an alternative to the fuse switch in most of the circuits. A wide
variety of MCBs have been in use nowadays with breaking capacity of 10KA to 16 KA, in all
areas of domestic, commercial and industrial applications as a reliable means of protection.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to
earth from an installation and cut the power.
An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations with
high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of
electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected. Once widely
used, more recent installations instead use residual-current devices (RCDs, RCCBs or GFCIs)
which instead detect leakage current directly.
There are two types of Earth-leakage circuit breaker:

 voltage operated (referred as ELCB in this article) and,

 current operated (referred to as RCCB in this article).

Voltage-operated (ELCB)
Voltage ELCBs have been in widespread use since then, and many are still in operation but are
no longer installed in new construction. A voltage-operated ELCB detects a rise in potential
between the protected interconnected metalwork (equipment frames, conduits, enclosures) and a
distant isolated Earth reference electrode. They operate at a detected potential of around 50 volts
to open a main breaker and isolate the supply from the protected premises.
A voltage-operated ELCB has a second terminal for connecting to the remote reference Earth
connection.
The Earth circuit is modified when an ELCB is used; the connection to the Earth rod is passed
through the ELCB by connecting to its two Earth terminals. One terminal goes to the installation
Earth CPC (circuit protective conductor, aka Earth wire), and the other to the Earth rod (or
sometimes other type of Earth connection).
Disadvantages
Compared with a current-sensing system, voltage sensing systems have several disadvantages
which include:

 A wire break in the fault to load section, or in the earth to ground section, will disable
operation of the ELCB.
 Requirement of an additional third wire from the load to the ELCB.
 Separate devices cannot be grounded individually.
 Any additional connection to Earth on the protected system can disable the detector.
 The ELCB senses equipment faults and cannot detect if a person accidentally touches an
energized part of the ELCB.
Current sensing devices (RCD/RCCB)

Residual Current Device (RCD) is also known as Residual Current Breaker (RCB)
or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB).

Residual Current Breaker (RCB) works on the assumption that the current going to the
electronics device must come out from the neutral wire, if there is no other way for current flow.
In simple words, RCB measures the current going inside the connected device and coming out
from the device. If both of these currents are equal, then there would no problem with the normal
functionality of the device.
This device is also known as Current Operated ELCB which is known as RCCB nowadays.
This device is more sensitive and accurate than ELCB and its functionality does not (entirely)
depend on the earthed rode wire connection like voltage ELCB. Some of RCCB (RCD or RCB)
characteristic are as follow:

 Line (Phase or Live) and Neutral (N) both wires are connected to the load points through
RCCB (RCD)
 RCD operate and trip when there is an earth fault current in the circuit.
 The same amount of current should flow through Neutral Wire as current flows in Live
(Phase) wire i.e. equal current should flows in both Phase and Neutral Wire.
 If RCD detect unequal current (Phase and Neutral Current should be same as mentioned
above) in phase or neutral wire, it will trip the circuit and disconnect the load points.
 RCD devices are very effective for electric shock protection.
 In a home where earthing system is connected only to earth rod and not to the main incoming
supply cables, all circuits must be protected by an RCD otherwise, MCB might not get the
specified fault current which is important to trip the MCB from connected circuits.

Comparison between Voltage sensing ELCBs and current sensing RCDs

Voltage sensing ELCBs have a few advantages over current sensing RCDs:
1) They are less sensitive to fault conditions, and therefore have fewer nuisance trips. Therefore,
by electrically separating cable armor from the cable circuit protective conductor, an ELCB can
be arranged to protect against cable damage only, and not trip on faults in downline installations.
2) Voltage sensing ELCBs will also trip on DC current faults to ground which a transformer
interfaced RCD/RCCB is unable to sense, with similar issues with frequencies significantly
above mains frequency. This may lead to ground faults on variable speed drives between the
drive electronics and motor not being detected for example.
Voltage Sensing Disadvantages

 They do not detect faults that do not pass current through the CPC to the Earth rod.
 They do not allow a single building system to be easily split into multiple sections with
independent fault protection, because Earthing systems are usually bonded to pipework.
 They may be tripped by external voltages from something connected to the Earthing system
such as metal pipes, a TN-S Earth or a TN-C-S combined neutral and Earth.
 As with RCDs, electrically leaky appliances such as some water heaters, washing
machines and cookers may cause the ELCB to trip.
 ELCBs introduce additional resistance and an additional point of failure into the Earthing
system.

Main Switch
The Electric Main Switch is used in lighting distribution system or motor distribution system
to protect overload and short circuit in the system.
A main switch is a central cut-off switch that controls the smaller cut-off switches and machines
of a building. The main switch can be cut off by a human or a computerized system to control the
flow of power in the building.
The main switch, also referred to as a distribution board, divides the feed of electrical power to a
building into subsidiary circuits and provides a protective fuse for each circuit. When a circuit is
overloaded, the fuse at the main switch is popped. This effectively stops power from flowing
through the circuit and prevents fire from the overload. Without the main switch, an overload
would cause current to heat the wire, melt the insulation and eventually start a fire.
Electric control panel
Electrical control panel is a metal box which contains important electrical devices that control
and monitor a mechanical process electrically.
Electrical control panels are designed and used to control mechanical equipment. Each one is
designed for a specific equipment arrangement and includes devices that allow an operator to
control specified equipment.
Electrical panel components control every piece of equipment in every industry. It’s difficult to
describe all possible combinations because every industry and most companies have defined
component preferences.
Lightning conductor
Lightning conductor is a device used to protect a building from the effects of lightning. A
lightning conductor is made of a thick strip of metal (usually of copper). The top end of
lightning conductor is pointed like a sharp spike (or spikes) and it is fixed above the highest
point of the building.
A lightning rod or lightning conductor is a metal rod mounted on a structure and intended to
protect the structure from a lightning strike. If lightning hits the structure, it will preferentially
strike the rod and be conducted to ground through a wire, instead of passing through the
structure, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution. Lightning rods are also called finials,
air terminals, or strike termination devices.
In a lightning protection system, a lightning rod is a single component of the system. The
lightning rod requires a connection to earth to perform its protective function. Lightning rods
come in many different forms, including hollow, solid, pointed, rounded, flat strips, or even
bristle brush-like. The main attribute common to all lightning rods is that they are all made of
conductive materials, such as copper and aluminum. Copper and its alloys are the most common
materials used in lightning protection.
Electric Installations
Enumerate the steps to be followed in electric installation
Electric Installations require necessary design, planning taking into consideration the whole
requirement of the activities to be carried out in the building. The following steps are suggested
for the same.
Planning & Designing
• Layout of working drawings
• Application to electric supply company for granting estimated low supply and
requirement of sub-stations/ transformers
• Laying conduit for underground supply lines before concreting and completing the plinth
work.
• Laying conduits in slabs and beam reinforcement, fixing of fan hooks/ boxes in slabs
reinforcement for main supply to consumer units/ rooms
• Physical marking of layout of wiring in all units/ rooms.
• Providing & laying complete wiring
• Fixing all fittings and fixtures and complete electrical installations
• Testing of Installations
• Providing consumer meters.
• Submission of test reports to electric supply company for supply connection after
obtaining NOC from PWD in cases of building exceeds 15m height.
• Checking of electrical installation by authorized officer of electrical supply company
before passing & sealing of meters.
• Permanent electric supply connection to buildings and consumer thereof.
Design & Planning
• The design and planning of an electrical Installation is governed by the type of user of the
building and requirement of the consumer thereof. Therefore it is essential to consult
competent electrical engineer/ licensed electrical contractor at the planning stage for
providing and planning electrical installations, which should be safe and efficient in its
use and adequate for its intended purpose.
• For designing layout of electrical installations for specific requirement of power use, it is
essential at planning stage that the architect in consultation with structural engineer,
electrical engineer and owner/developer to decide about following:
 o Needed accommodation for making provision of sub-station, meter room, switch
room, services cable duct, rising mains and cables, opening and chases required in
floors and walls for intending electrical installations.
o Total load requirement i.e. lights, fans, power etc.
o Anticipated future increase in power consumption. Requirement of electric supply
company including location and distance of main supply connection point.
o Layout of wiring installation, whether open conduit or concealed
o After collecting necessary information and suggestions from other consultants the
architect should prepare detailed working drawing of complete electrical
installation in consultation with licensed electrical contractor
Execution
• The execution of entire electrical Installation should be carried out under the guidance
and supervision of competent electrical engineer/through licensed electrical contractor; in
accordance to the design and specification provided in the tender and strictly as per rules
and regulations of electrical supply.
• The electrical contractor should decide his sequence of work in consultation with the
architect in such a manner that it will not affect/conflict with working of other agencies
and it will allow other service agencies to work smoothly and simultaneously without any
interruption.
• The electrical contractor should get approval for all materials including fitting and
fixtures to be used from the architect before commencement of work.
• The contractor should arrange temporary electrical supply for construction purpose;
before proper work is commenced.
• At the end of work the electrical contractor should check and test the entire electrical
installation work and get it approved from the electrical supply company.
• The electrical contractor should submit his test report and completion certificate in
required forms for consumer meter and permanent electric supply connections to the
buildings.
Electric Services for Multi-storied Buildings
• The electrical distribution cables wiring should be laid in a separate duct. The duct should
be sealed at every alternate floor with non-combustible materials having the same fire
resistance as that of the duct.
• Water mains, telephone lines, intercom lines, gas pipe lines should be laid in the duct of
cables
• Separate circuits for water pumps, lifts, staircase and corridor lighting and blower for the
pressurize system should be provided from the main switch gear panel.
• The inspection panel doors and any other openings in the shaft should be provided with
air tight fire doors having a fire resistance of not less than two hours.
 • Medium and low voltage wiring running in shafts, and within a false ceiling, should run
in metal conduits.
• An independent and well-ventilated service room should be provided on the ground floor.
• PVC cables should have an additional sheathing or protection provided by compound
sprayed on after installation

Illumination
Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects.
Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as
natural illumination by capturing daylight. Daylighting (using windows, skylights, or light
shelves) is sometimes used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings. This can
save energy in place of using artificial lighting, which represents a major component of energy
consumption in buildings.
Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the appearance of an area, or have
positive psychological effects on occupants.
Electrical lighting has following advantages:
o Cleanliness
o Easy to control
o Economical
o Easy to handle
o Steady output
o Better reliability
o Suitable for almost all purposes etc.

Terms used in Illumination

Light - That part of radiant energy from a hot body which produced the visual sensation on
human eye is called light.
Luminous Flux - The total quantity of radiant energy per second responsible for visual sensation
from a luminous body is called Luminous Flux.
Lumen - It is the unit of luminous flux. One lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted per
unit solid angle from a point source of one candle power.
Plane Angle - The angle subtended at a point by two converging lines lying in the same plane is
called plane angle. It is measured in radians
Solid Angle - The angle subtended by the partial surface area of a sphere at its centre is called as
solid angle. It is measured in steradians
Steradian - The unit of solid angle. One steradian is defined as the solid angle that is subtended
at the center of a sphere by its surface having area equal to radius square
Candle Power - The light radiating capacity of a source is called its candle power. The number
of lumens given out by a source per unit solid angle in a given direction is called its candle
power.
Luminous Intensity - Luminous intensity in any particular direction is the luminous flux
emitted by the source per unit solid angle in that direction. It is denoted by I and its unit is
candela or candle power (CP).
Reduction Factor - reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle
power to its mean horizontal candle power.
Mean Spherical Candle Power - a unit of measure that represents the average output of a light
source measured in all directions (360°)
Mean Horizontal Candle-Power - The average value of the candle-power of a light source in
all directions in a horizontal plane through the source,
Illumination - When light falls on a surface, it becomes visible, the phenomenon is called as
illumination. It is defined as luminous flux falling on a surface per unit area. It is denoted by E
and measured in lumen per square meter or meter- candle. E = Ф / A lux
Lux - One-meter candle or lux is defined as the illumination produced by a uniform source of
one CP on the inner surface of a sphere of radius one meter.
Glare - is defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character so as to cause
discomfort and interference in vision.
Lamp Efficiency - It is defined as the visible radiations emitted by it in lumens per watt.
Usually, the light sources do not radiate energy only in the visible spectrum. The radiant energy
is also accompanied with infrared and ultra violet radiations. Sun light produces majority of
radiations in the visible spectrum. The tungsten lamp produces small radiations so its efficiency
is very poor. The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is more than tungsten lamp.
Reflection Factor - Whole of the light incident on a reflecting surface is not reflected. Some
portion of it is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of the reflected light to the incident light is
called reflection factor.
Law of Illumination - The illumination on a surface depends upon the luminous intensity,
distance between the source and surface and the direction of rays of light. It is governed by
following laws: 1. Inverse square law 2. Lambert’s cosine law
Inverse Square Law - It states that the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance of the surface from the source. E α I/d2
 Lambert’s Cosine Law - This law states that the illumination on any surface is
proportional to the cosine of angle between the direction of the incident flux and
perpendicular to the area. E= I Cos α d 2

Lighting
Main ways in which electricity can be converted into light:
• Filament lamps
It can flow through a wire, so that it glows (lamps), modern filament lamps use coil of
tungsten wire which gives a much whiter light than carbon, and the bulb contains
 nitrogen and argon. Most household bulbs are 25 to 150 watts of electric power, but some
large tungsten lamps used in search lights an in-television studios use as much as 30 kw.
• Discharge lamps
They are long tubes containing a gas or vapor. When electricity passes through a pure gas
at low pressure, energy is transferred to the gas atoms, causing them to emit radiations.
The wavelength of this radiation, which determines color, depends on the gas e.g.,
sodium vapor and neon emit visible radiation. Sodium produces an efficient yellow light,
mercury produces a bluish white light and some ultra-violet radiations, and neon gives off
a strong red light.
• Fluorescent lamps
Works by the conduction of electricity through mercury vapor. This causes the emission
of ultra-violet radiation. The inside of the tube is coated with a fluorescent powder, or
phosphor. This glows with a visible light when it is struck by invisible ultra-violet rays.
The light is usually white, but it can be colored by adjusting composition of the phosphor.
Sometimes, instead of tubes, flat panels of glass may be used as light sources. Some
phosphors, such as zinc sulphide, emits light when a voltage is applied across them. This
is known as electro luminescence.
Advantages of Fluorescent lamps
1. Voltage fluctuation has very small effect on light output.
2. The luminous efficiency is more as length of rod is more.
3. It gives light close to natural light.
4. Heat radiations are negligible.
Disadvantages of Fluorescent lamps
1. Its brightness is less.
2. Initial cost is more
3. Overall maintenance cost is high.
• Carbon lamp
consists basically of two carbon rods connected to an electricity supply. An electric arc is
maintained between the rods and a very intense light is produced in this way from a
compact source, such lamps are used in motion picture projectors.
Compact fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
The compact fluorescent lamps are becoming more and more popular now a days because
of their low power consumption, low running cost, longer life, attractive look, smooth
light and low maintenance. These lamps are available in different sizes and designs. It is
basically a low-pressure mercury vapor lamp having two electrodes coated with electron
emissive material placed in a glass tube. The tube is coated internally with some
 fluorescent material in the form of powder. In the tube one drop of mercury and argon
gas is filled at low pressure.
Advantage of CFL
1. Low energy consumption.
2. Low maintenance cost
3. It stars instantly
4. It does not heat the surroundings
5. Excellent color properties
6. Low operating cost
7. More life
Applications of CFL:
The compact size, longer life, low running and maintenance cost, instant glow makes
these lamps suitable for all places where uniform illumination is required. It is used in
offices, shops, hotels, hospitals, cinema halls, residential buildings etc.

Measurement of Candle Power

The candle power of a source in any given direction is measured by comparing it with a standard
or substandard source with the help of an optical instrument called PHOTOMETER.
Photometer - Photometers are mostly based on inverse square law of illumination and may be
classified as stationary and portable photometers. The stationary photometers are usually
installed in a dark room with dead black walls and ceiling in order to eliminate error due to
reflected light. The portable photometers are direct reading instruments used to measured
illumination in houses, offices, commercial and industrial places.
Lighting Schemes
Lighting schemes are classified according to the location, requirement and purpose etc. are as
under:
1. Direct lighting
2. Indirect lighting
3. Semi direct lighting
4. Semi indirect lighting
5. General lighting
Direct Lighting - As is clear from the name, in this system almost 90 to 95 % light falls directly
on the object or the surface. The light is made to fall upon the surface with the help of deep
reflectors. Such type of lighting scheme is most used in industries and commercial lighting.
Although this scheme is most efficient but it is liable to cause glare and shadows.
Indirect Lighting - In this system, the light does not fall directly on the surface but more than 90
% of light is directed upwards by using diffusing reflectors. Here the ceiling acts as a source of
light and this light is uniformly distributed over the surface and glare is reduced to minimum. It
provides shadow less illumination which is useful for drawing offices and composing rooms. It is
also used for decoration purposes in cinema halls, hotels etc.
Semi direct Lighting - This is also an efficient system of lighting and chances of glare are also
reduced. Here transparent type shades are used through which about 60 % light is directed
downward and 40 % is directed upward. This also provides a uniform distribution of light and is
best suited for room with high ceilings.
Semi indirect Lighting - In this system about 60 to 90 % of total light is thrown upward to the
ceiling for diffused reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly. A very small
amount of light is absorbed by the bowl. It is mainly used for interior decoration.
General Lighting - This system employs such type of luminaries, shades and reflectors which
give equal illumination in all the directions.

Design of Indoor Light Scheme

While designing a good lighting schemes, the following points must be kept in mind:
1. It should provide adequate illumination.
2. It should provide uniformly distributed light all over working plane.
3. It should avoid glare and shadows as far as possible.
4. It should provide light of suitable colors.

Factors required for Light Scheme:

The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme:
1. Illumination level
2. Quality of light
3. Co efficient of utilization
4. Depreciation factor
5. Space height ratio
Illumination Level - This is the most vital factor in deciding the number and wattage of
luminaries so that we are able to see and recognize the object properly. Colors of the body have
the property of reflecting the light in different proportions, degree of illumination, its distance
from the viewer, contrast between the object to be seen and its surroundings.
Illumination Level
Type of work recommended illumination level
 Offices 100-400 lumens/ meter square
 Schools 250-400 lumens/ meter square
 Industry 1000 lumens/ meter square
 Shops 250-500 lumens/ meter square
 Hotels 80-100 lumens/ meter square
 Hospitals 250-3500 lumens/ meter square
Quality of Light - This means that the illumination should not be harmful to the viewers. It
should be glare free, shadow less and contrast free. Direct glare from the source of light is most
common factor. Presence of polished and glassy surface will cause indirect glare unless diffused
light is used. Hard and long shadows can be avoided by using a large number of lamps and
adjusting the mounting height.
Co – efficient of Utilization - A surface to be illuminated receive light either directly from the
lamps or reflected from the ceiling and walls or both. In this case, the total flux reaching the
surface will never be equal to the flux emitted by the lamp, due to absorption by reflectors,
ceiling and walls. Utilization factor = lumens reaching at the working place total lumens emitted
by the source Usually it varies from 0.5 to 0.8.
Depreciation Factor - The total flux emitted by the source and its fitting may be reduced due to
deposition of dust upon the surfaces. Similarly, quantity of light reflected from the ceiling and
walls also decreases with the passage of time. This is called as depreciation facto. Usually it
varies from 1.3 to 1.6.
Space Height Ratio -The ratio of space (horizontal distance) between the two adjacent lamps to
the vertical height of the lamps above the working plane is called space height ratio. So, the
distance between the lamps is not too much. An ideal scheme could be when there is large
number of small size lamps are used also it increases the cost of installation. So, the space height
ratio is 1 to 1.5.

Types of Lighting
There are three basic types of lighting—ambient, task and accent.
Ambient Lighting
Ambient lighting provides overall illumination and is meant to create a general and uniform
lighting level. It’s the first layer of lighting and sets the tone of a space. That’s why it’s typically
soft or diffuse, and often dimmable to accommodate day and nighttime settings.
Ambient lighting is especially important in hallways and stairs for optimal orientation and
visibility. It also is useful in kitchens or home offices, where fixtures with wide light beams
provide a consistent level of lighting.
There are several types of ambient lighting:
 Ceiling-mounted or recessed fixtures that direct light downwards
 Wall sconces and floor lamps, which wash the walls and/or ceiling with light
 Cove lighting, floor lamps and pendants that bounce light off ceilings and walls
Although it provides general illumination, ambient light is not ideal for task work or to showcase
specific elements in a space, which are the role of the next two types of lighting.
Task Lighting
This direct, intense illumination is ideal for detailed task work, such as reading and writing at a
desk, grooming, and preparing food. It’s focused on the particular area where the task is
performed and is brighter than ambient lighting. Effective task lighting is glare free and strong
enough to prevent eyestrain.
Examples of task lighting include:
 Recessed and track lighting
 Pendants
 Under-cabinet lighting
 Floor, desk and table lamps
 Bathroom vanity lights
Task lighting is key in the kitchen, where under-cabinet lighting or pendants increase visibility
on countertops and food preparation areas. Table and floor lamps provide useful task lighting in
living areas and bedrooms, and can reinforce the room’s desired design style.
Sconces, vanity bars and pendants can be deployed in bathrooms to improve visibility, especially
close to the mirrors.
Accent Lighting
Intended to highlight a specific object or area, accent lights are typically three times as bright as
ambient lights. Accent lighting draws attention to a feature, such as artwork, furnishings or
architectural details, converting them into focal points. Adjustable fittings are preferred for this
type of lighting, as they allow precision focusing on small areas or objects.
Common accent lights include:
 Wall lights
 Recessed spot lighting
 Track lighting
 Wall-mounted picture lights
Accent lighting differs from the other types of lighting in that its primary objective is aesthetic,
creating a point of interest for the viewer. It adds style and drama to a space, and is especially
suited to living and garden areas, entrances, and anywhere the goal is to display special features.
Recessed ceiling lights, track lights or wall-mounted luminaires are very effective in living or
common areas as they can be angled and directed to create a highlight.

Calculation of illumination needed

Three methods
Point per watt method
This method is very handy for rough calculations. It consists in making an allowance of watt per
square meter of an area to be illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption
of average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
The lumen method
The simplest method of calculating the overall illumination level for evenly lit spaces is the
Lumen Method. It uses both computation and intuition and is the calculation most used by
lighting engineers when determining the number of luminaires for a given lighting
level. The simple formula is as follows:

E=F/A
Where,

 E is the average (or minimum) illumination level at the work plane (in lux),
 F is the useful lumen output of all sources (lumens) and
 A is the total surface area of the working plane (in m²).

In terms of architectural design, solving for F allows the architect or engineer to determine the total
amount of light required in the room. This is given by rearranging the formula as follows:

F = AE
Be aware that the resulting value is not the lamp lumens, because not all of the light produced by each
lamp actually reaches the work plane. Many factors affect the amount of light reaching the work plane:

 The size and proportion of the room.

 The height of the light fixtures above the work plane.
 The reflectance of wall and ceiling surfaces.
 The nature of the light fixture and its distribution of light.
 Light loss due to ageing, dust collection and yellowing.
 Atmospheric particles such as smoke or dust.

Some of the most efficient fixtures in the most effective layout can result in up to 80% of the installed
lamp lumens reaching the work plane, while ineffective fixtures in a dark-colored room can result in only
2%.

Steps of the lumen method:

1. Select Required Illumination

Determine what the minimum required illumination level is for your particular application, using
government standards or green building certification systems.

2. Determine Received Flux

This is simply a matter of calculating the total surface area over which the required illuminance is to be
distributed and multiplying this by the required illumination level using the formula F = AE. This gives the
amount of “useful” light required. From this, the total installed flux can be determined.
3. Select a Light Fixture
A preliminary assessment must be made of the type of lighting required, decision most often made as a
function of both aesthetics and economics. This fixture may prove unsuitable for the lighting
task, however. The next few steps are used to determine this.

4. Determine Mounting Height

The distance from the source to the working plane is very important, as it is a major determinant of the
final illumination level. This is a function of the inverse square law

5. Determine Room Index

The room index is a ratio, describing how the room’s height compares to its length and width. It is given
by:

RI = L x W/(L+W)Hm
Where,

 L is the length of the room,

 W is its width, and
 Hm is the mounting height above the work plane.

6. Determine Utilization Factor (UF)

The Utilization Factor, or Coefficient of Utilization, brings together all of the variables above (reflectance
of both the walls and ceiling, the room index, and the type of luminaire) into a single value. Use tables
available from manufacturers to determine the coefficient of utilization for different light fixtures.

Normally we take 0.8 as the Utilization Factor.

6. Determine Maintenance Factor (MF)

It is also known as LLF or Light Loss Factor. The maintenance factor is based on how often the lights are
cleaned and replaced. It takes into account such factors as decreased efficiency with age, accumulation
of dust within the fitting itself and the depreciation of reflectance as walls and ceilings age. For
convenience, it is usually given as three options:

 Good = 0.70
 Medium = 0.65
 Poor = 0.55

8. Determine Number of Fixtures

First, determine the total installed flux needed, by applying the Utilization Factor and Maintenance
Factor to the received flux.

Next, determine the number of fixtures required by simply dividing the installed flux by the total output
of each light source.
9. Check Spacing of Fixtures
Once the number of fixtures is known, they must be distributed uniformly throughout the enclosure.
This is simply a matter of determining a grid based on the total number.

Minimum spacing = SHR x Hm

Where,

 Hm= Mounting height

 SHR= Space to height ratio.

Finally, make sure that the fixture spacing is reasonable (not so far that light falls off, not so close that
fixtures overlap). If the fitting you chose is unsuitable, simply select a new luminaire (based on the
experience gained in this calculation) and perform steps 3-9 again.

LIMITATION OF LUMEN METHOD:

There are certain limitations to this method, but all said and done, this works perfectly for 90% of the
installations where the parameters are within the limits.

 Height is not considered.

 Fixtures or luminaries’ changes are not considered. (Polar curve etc.,)
 Room Reflectance's are not considered.
 It does not distinguish between different fixture behaviors i.e., point source or linear source etc.,

For this there is one more complicated method known as POINT BY POINT METHOD. This is more
specific for experts in Lighting Design and detailing.
Point by point method
This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more sources of light is
required, the candle power of the sources in the particular direction under consideration being
known. This method is not much used because of its complicated applications and is employed
only in some special problems such as flood lighting, yard lighting etc.
Eih= (I/d2) x cos 𝜃
Eih =I x (cos3 𝜃) / h2
Eiv= (I/d2) x sin 𝜃
Eiv =I x (cos2 𝜃) x (sin 𝜃) / h2
Maintained Illuminance:
Emh = Eih x LLF
Emv = Eiv x LLF

Explain how solar energy can be put to use to substitute electricity in everyday use in buildings.
Solar energy is energy given off by the sun. It consists of light, heat, and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. Solar energy is produced by nuclear reactions that take place inside
the sun. The sun is the chief source of energy for all life on the earth. Life depends on the sun
for heat and light. It also depends on the sun for food. Plants use solar energy to produce food
during photosynthesis. Some of the plants are eaten by animals, which, in turn, are eaten by
other animals. Solar energy heats homes and greenhouses; produces wind power; and generates
water power through evaporation and rainfall.
The harnessing of solar energy to produce electricity and heat for everyday use is gaining
popularity. Applications of this clean, unlimited form of energy range from charging batteries in
telecommunications satellites, to public transportation, all the way to the solar households being
built in greater numbers throughout the world.
Coal and petroleum are stored energy from very long ago and cannot be renewed once they are
used. Solar energy can be used in households, agriculture, telecommunication, defense,
railways, etc. It is a convenient source for domestic needs in remote areas. People have devised
a number of ways to make direct use of the sun’s energy. These uses include heating water,
heating and cooling buildings, generating electricity, and cooking food. Many people in warm
climate heat water with simple, inexpensive batch heaters. A batch heater consists mainly of an
insulated tank with several layers of clear glass covering the side of the tank that faces the
sun. Manufacturers blacken the outside of the tank because black absorbs more sunlight than
any other color. The black surfaces convert the sunlight to heat and thus warm the water.
Devices called flat-plate collectors are used to heat water and the air inside buildings. A flat-
plate collector consists chiefly of an insulated box covered by one or more layers of clear glass
or plastic. Inside the box is a plate of black metal or black plastic. The plate absorbs sunlight
and converts it to heat, which becomes trapped under the glass. Many buildings use passive-
solar energy systems for heating air. In most cases, these buildings have large windows facing
the sun to trap heat. During the day, the sunlight passes through the window and heats walls and
floors release heat. Additional heat may be stored by placing water or special phase-change
materials inside the walls. These phase-change materials melt at about room temperature. As
they melt, the materials store large amount of heat. The materials later release the heat as they
become solid again. In buildings with passive solar energy systems, special insulating shades or
shutters help keep heat from escaping through the windows at night.
There are two main categories of solar power technologies: active solar and passive solar.
Active solar technologies are used to directly convert solar energy into another form of useful
energy, such as electricity or heat conversion. Three popular, yet very different technologies are
described below.
 Solar heating and cooling produce heat from the sun’s thermal energy to provide hot
water, heating and cooling, and pool heating. Although similar in design to PV systems,
solar water heating collectors produce heat, while solar PV systems produce electricity.
 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) energy directly converts the sun’s light into energy by solar PV
panels. This system is used in a variety of applications today. Smaller-scale PV systems
are commonly seen on rooftops or buildings, while larger-scale solar PV systems are
associated with photovoltaic power stations, or solar parks. These PV power stations are
located all around the world, and are the main solar technology used for electricity
production. Since PV power stations supply power at a utility level, PV panels are placed
in a different fashion than those utilized by local users; solar PV system consists of one or
more PV panels, a DC/AC power converter (or inverter), electrical interconnections and
then mounting components. Solar PV panels can be made out of multiple materials which
effect the efficiency of the system overall. Keep in mind that as the efficiency of a solar
panel increases, the cost increases as well.
Passive solar technologies take advantage of the sun’s light and heat without the use of any
mechanical or electrical devices. Also termed ‘daylighting,’ this method allows for the walls,
windows and floors of buildings to collect the sun’s energy during winter months, and reject it
during the summer months.
Key aspects of passive solar design include window placement, the use of thermal mass, and
appropriate solar orientation. Examples are listed below:
 Large, south-facing windows allow for maximum sun exposure
 Open interior spaces allow sunlight to travel within an interior
 Correct building orientation as well as window placement and summer rooftop shading
can allow for more or less sunlight to enter into a space depending on the specific season
 A trombe wall, which is a sun-facing wall, will absorb solar energy and release it to the
interior over time.
  Thermal mass is a solid or liquid material that will store warmth and coolness until it is
needed within a space. Thermal masses include water, brick, tile, concrete, clay and
adobe.

References
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2015/09/types-of-wiring-systems-electrical-wiring-
methods.html
https://www.slideshare.net/gauravhtandon1/electrical-systems-in-a-building?next_slideshow=1
https://abs.cu.edu.tr/Dokumanlar/2016/EEE463/495694447_lightingdesignstudentsguide.pdf

http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/12/point-by-point-method-for-lighting.html

http://gpmacademics.weebly.com/uploads/2/9/9/3/29933629/illumination.pdf

http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt46e.htm

http://www.imktechnicalhub.com/lumen-method-calculations-lumen-method-of-lighting-lumen-
calculations-lumens-method/