Unit 1: Types of research

Introduction

[1.1] Basic or theoretical, applied, and practical research

[1.2] Primary vs secondary research

[1.3] Non-experimental vs (quasi)-experimental

research 1
[1.4] Synthetic or holistic vs analytic research

[1.5] Heuristic or inductive vs deductive research

UNIT

[1.6] Qualitative vs quantitative research

[1.7] Interpretive vs statistical research

[1.8] Longitudinal vs cross-sectional research

Putting it all together

 CLIL RESEARCH AND
NETWORKS

UNIT 1. Types of research

- Basic or theoretical, applied, and

practical research
- Heuristic or inductive vs deductive
- Primary vs secondary research research
- Qualitative vs quantitative research
- Non-experimental vs (quasi)-
experimental research - Interpretive vs statistical research

- Synthetic or holistic vs analytic - Longitudinal vs cross-sectional research

research

Putting it all together

Overview of the unit

This unit aims to familiarize the reader with the different types of research in the field
of Applied Linguistics to the teaching of English. What we intend to do in Unit 1 is to
present in an introductory and concise way a possible framework for research
methodology, applicable to the different areas in English Studies. This is a general
approach, which will be made more specific later by connecting it with Content and
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) research in the subsequent units.

It begins with some general notions about language research and the types of research
according to different parameters, such as the following:

- The general framework (basic or theoretical, applied, and practical).

- The source of information (primary and secondary).
- The approach (synthetic or holistic, and analytic).
- The purpose (heuristic or inductive, and deductive).
- The form of the data (quantitative and qualitative).
- The method for data collection (non-experimental and quasi-experimental).
- The time of collection of data (longitudinal or diachronic, and cross-sectional
or synchronic).
- The method of data analysis (interpretive and statistical).

It is especially aimed at beginner researchers in this field and tries to help them in the
design of their research. An initial considerably shorter version in Spanish can be
found in Bueno González (1997).

In summary, we propose the following objectives:

- To present and discuss the main research methods by means of useful

distinctions (more often than not presented as dichotomies), as shown in the
syllabus.
- To initially familiarize graduates with research design, particularly concerning
data collection and data analysis, as related to research typology.
- To use this information as a springboard to understand and carry out research
on CLIL.
- To provide initial information about citation conventions.

In order to achieve the previous objectives, we will employ the following resources:
- The information provided in this teaching unit.
- One written activity (Activity 1), which will be completed by using the
information on the teaching unit and will be submitted to the platform.
- One activity (Activity 2), which will be debated on the debate forum.
- A final online test, which can be self-corrected.
INTRODUCTION

Research has to be focused, first of all, as a natural process, as part of natural human
activity: "we all carry out activities that have the basic characteristics and elements of
research ... we seek answers to questions about phenomena that occur in our daily lives
..." (Seliger and Shohamy, 1989:6). In other words, after many guesses (or hypotheses)
we come to know something we did not know before. In this respect, Seliger and
Shohamy (1989:7) establish what we can call the basic components of any research:

- Some form of behavior is not clearly understood.

- The behavior is observed and questions are raised.
- Several possible explanations are thought of.
- One of the possible explanations is considered to be the one that most probably
explains the behavior (the hypothesis).
- To test this hypothesis, or answer the research question, more data need to be
collected.
- Several repetitions of the procedure will lead to the confirmation or rejection of
the hypothesis.

Once we establish the research questions we can elucidate them by observation,

questioning, experimentation, elicitation or any other procedure. But we cannot forget
that what we can call research in the real world is only the first step for what is called
"scientific research". Common sense and intuition are of limited value and cannot be
an end in themselves. In fact, Seliger and Shohamy (op.cit.) consider that one of the
functions of scientific research is, precisely, to support or disprove what common
sense tells us, that is to say, intuition can be previous to research but they are not the
same concept, as we will see below.

Research always starts from experience and observation of facts as sources of

knowledge. It is important to establish whose observation and experience is going to
be used if we want the results to have any effect for other researchers in the field or in
the classroom (in the case of “classroom-oriented research” or "action research", which
is the context most often associated with CLIL).

In this respect, Seliger and Shohamy (1989:13-16) distinguish four types of knowledge:

1. Knowledge as belief: it is what we understand as common sense, without

having been submitted to an empirical test in most cases; so, it is risky.
 2. Knowledge as authority: it comes from a source which is accepted at face
value.

3. A priori knowledge: similar to beliefs, but usually founded on some

previous systematic empirical work or observation.

4. Empirical knowledge: derived from observation, experimentation and the

experience of real phenomena; data are collected and carefully analyzed and
the methods are carefully documented to permit others to attempt validation
and replication of the findings.

Nunan (1992:3) provides a useful and clear working definition of "research": “...
research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three elements or components:
(1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, (3) analysis and interpretation of
data."

General guidelines on what research is and what it is not, together with philosophical
and methodological underpinnings of research can be found in Pennock-Speck
(2015:11-14).

Regarding the requisites for research to be “scientific”, common sense and intuition
can be the starting point. However, something else is needed. Freedman (1982) thinks
that research is valid if it is controlled (i.e. the results are due to the method employed
and not to other factors; the different variables are observed and controlled). Some
other conditions have to be added:

- It is based on common sense as a starting point.

- It anticipates possible problems and proposes solutions.
- Special care is taken of the way in which experiments are designed and carried
out.
- Data are collected, analyzed and presented in objective detail and can be
interpreted without equivocation.
- It is well organized in general.

The main function of research design is to obtain clear answers to meaningful

problems, which means that the topic has to be meaningful and relevant, and clear
answers must be obtained. Otherwise, we will complicate the problem even more. Last
but not least, two essential conditions must be fulfilled: reliability and validity.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results obtained in a piece of research: the
experiment will produce the same results if it is repeated (this is known as
"replicability"). Reliability can be internal (the consistency of the procedures used in
the collection, analysis and interpretation of data) and external (the extent to which
independent researchers can reproduce a study and obtain similar results, i.e., inter-
rater reliability).

Validity means that the experiment measures or investigates what the researcher
intends to investigate. We can distinguish between external or face validity (having to Con formato: Fuente: Cursiva
do with the formal aspects of the research as well as with the extent to which the results
can be generalized from samples to populations), internal or content validity (related
to the interpretability of research) and construct validity (if the research process
reflects the constructs or the rationale underlying it).
For a research study to be valid and reliable the first requisite is that it is controlled,
that is to say, that the different variables which may bias the result are under control.
The way in which the whole experiment is designed is crucial, together with the
processes of data collection and analysis. The detail in which data are collected and
analyzed, the presentation of results, and the organization of the whole research also
contribute.
(Bueno González, 2015: 86).
A very practical way to achieve validity and reliability is by means of data
triangulation or confronting information from three or more sources (cf. Mackey and
Gass, 2005:181-182). If all these requisites are met, we can obtain what is known as
scientific research, which, according to Seliger and Shohamy (1989: 9-13), fulfills the
following requirements:
- It is organized, structured, methodical, disciplined and systematically
conducted.

- It builds theories by testing hypotheses (either confirming or rejecting them).

- It seeks to describe, identify and control relationships among phenomena in

order to study them.

- It allows us to arrive at some form of knowledge that we did possess before.

Now we move to the main purpose of this unit: to present the different types of
research. We will take Nunan's (1991: 251-252 and 1992: 1-10) and Seliger and
Shohamy's (1989: 17-20) reviews as a basis. In his review Nunan refers to the following
sources: Reichart and Cook (1979), Chaudron (1988), Grotjahn (1987), van Lier
(1988), Brown (1988) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991). Supported by this
theoretical background, we can establish the various types of research, according to
different parameters, as stated ab0ve (Overview of the unit).

1.1. BASIC OR THEORETICAL, APPLIED, AND PRACTICAL

RESEARCH

This first distinction concerns the general framework of the research. In this respect,
a three-fold classification has to be made.

Basic or theoretical research is concerned with developing an abstract linguistic or

literary description (or theoretical models) within a particular theory of language
knowledge in any of the fields of English Studies. This can also be understood as a
"state-of-the-art" type of research. It consists in stating the main theoretical
underpinnings of a given subject by means of exhaustive “literature review”. More
often than not, it is an essential pre-requisite of any type of research project, thus
constituting a theoretical section or chapter, which includes the conceptual
framework: essential concepts, ideas and theories, edited by the researcher
him/herself and supported by authority sources (in the form of bibliographical
references, both printed and electronic).

The term applied research comes from the fact that this type of investigation literally
applies the product of basic research to a specific problem. Some examples of applied
research studies can be the processes by which learners acquire the knowledge
described by the theoretical researcher, when they are acquiring that knowledge in a
second language context; or the application of literary theories to specific literature
works or authors; or any research study based on literary criticism or linguistic
analysis of particular texts.

Practical research is a self-explanatory term and it is based on the premises of the two
previous types of research, by making them practical, e.g., by providing pedagogical
principles experimented with the classroom or by testing hypotheses (action or
classroom research). In our context it is centered on the classroom, thus investigating
planning and curricular design, methodological techniques, evaluation,
interdisciplinarity, cross-curricular issues, attention to diversity and teaching
materials. This is the reason why it is also called classroom or action research.
Traditionally studies dealing with disciplines such as Error Analysis, Contrastive
Analysis or Interlanguage theories fall into this category. Research projects which have
either communicative skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and interaction) or
linguistic components (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation) can also be termed as
practical studies, for example, the use of graded readers in class and their effects in
students’ language proficiency, or the discussion and implementation of different
methods and approaches in class, such as Task-Based Learning, Project Work, the
Communicative Approach, the use of ICTs, the Flipped Classroom, etc.

Concerning this classification, a few issues have to be taken into account: the
borderlines are not often clear, the relationship between them should be bidirectional,
and not all research is meant to be applied or to have practical uses. As a matter of fact,
more often than not the types are not mutually exclusive but complement each other.
Most classroom-centered studies are a mixture of applied and practical research and
need a theoretical support.

CLIL research (the focus of this Master’s degree) is a clear example of this healthy
mixture. Taking the theoretical background as a taken-for-granted premise, most
studies are in both the applied and the practical fields.

1.2. PRIMARY VS SECONDARY RESEARCH

If we pay attention to the source of information, a two-fold distinction has to be made

between primary and secondary research, a taxonomy which has nothing to do with
the supposed level of quality of both types of research but with the different focus, as
we will see below.

Primary research is called in this way because it extracts information from the
primary sources of information (for example, dealing with students who are learning
a language, the materials they produce, teachers’ beliefs and conceptions; or research
based on the original literary works, not on critical studies about them). It presents the
advantage of being closer to the primary source of information and, dealing with
classroom research, a further distinction can be made:

· Case studies: centered on one of a few individuals, usually longitudinal or

diachronic.

· Statistical studies: normally synchronic, where experimental studies using

surveys and questionnaires are included.
On the other hand, secondary research derives its information from secondary
sources (books, articles, electronic publications about any particular area of English
Studies). In this respect, it involves library search and surfing the Internet.

It goes without saying that both types of research, primary and secondary, are
complementary. Collecting and analyzing data from both primary and secondary
sources is a type of data triangulation, which undoubtedly favors investigation. CLIL
research is again a fruitful example of this desirable combination.

1.3. NON-EXPERIMENTAL VS (QUASI)-EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH

In this case we refer to the method used for data collection. Again, a clear dichotomy
can be established between non-experimental and experimental or quasi-
experimental research.

Non-experimental studies do not manipulate conditions, but, rather, explore

phenomena in a natural manner, e.g. to find out opinions, attitudes, or facts, or to
assess current practice. They may be associated with secondary research (see above),
as sometimes they obtain their data from external sources, not from the subjects
themselves. No experiment is designed by the researcher him/herself and the
discussion is based on experiments carried out by other people or extracted from the
literature review. This does not mean that the discussion is not valid. As a matter of
fact, non-experimental research also allows for a personal and critical stance and
useful implications can be obtained from it. More often than not, novice researchers
are either unexperienced or they have no possibility to carry out an experimental study
with their students (perhaps because they are not teaching yet) and non-experimental
research is a valid in-between solution.

Experimental research bases its data on projects rooted in the classroom, either in
natural or somehow artificial conditions. It collects data under controlled conditions.
It keeps conditions as comparable as possible, so that possible changes or results can
be attributable reliably to changes in variables.

Quasi-experimental is similar to experimental research, but subjects are not randomly

chosen or allocated, as it may not be possible or practical. It can also be called quasi-
experimental because either we must admit that the classroom may have a certain
component of artificiality, or because the conditions in which the project is carried out
are not completely experimental (as happens with science projects in a laboratory).
Fortunately, the unexpected component of the classroom (closely linked to the human
and unforeseeable behavior of people in it) allows for variation and difference: subjects
cannot be isolated in a sort of vacuum.

1.4. SYNTHETIC OR HOLISTIC VS ANALYTIC RESEARCH

Concerning the approach, the distinction is between synthetic (or holistic) and analytic
research.

Synthetic or holistic research refers to that kind of study which allows us to view the
separate parts as a coherent whole, holistically, as a composite of factors which might
not be easily or validly analyzable into separate parts. A couple of examples can be a
research project carried out in order to improve Teaching English as a Foreign
Language (TEFL) methodology in general by the inclusion of a new teaching and
learning approach such as CLIL; or linguistic and literary studies, focusing on a topic
in a general and all-embracing way.

By contrast, in analytic research, a single factor or a cluster of factors may be identified

and investigated: it selects one or several factors which make up the phenomenon for
closer analysis, perhaps in a controlled study. More often than not, at some level athese
single factors are constituents of one of the major systems (e.g. the influence of the
age/gender factor when following a CLIL methodology).

1.5. HEURISTIC OR INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH

In this dichotomy, we are concerned with the purpose of the research, which allows us
to distinguish between heuristic (or inductive) and deductive research.

Heuristic or inductive studies seek to derive general principles, theories, or "truths"

from investigation and documentation of single instances, that is to say, they move
from the particular to the general, which allows us to term them as a bottom-up
approach. They are meritorious in the sense that they allow the research to formulate
(or create) new theories or principles.
Deductive studies test a particular hypothesis. This kind of research begins with a
hypothesis or theory and then searches for evidence either to support or refute that
hypothesis or theory (e.g. "Students following a CLIL methodology perform
better/worse concerning L1, L2 and the content subject”). We move from the general
(the hypothesis or theory, or even what common sense may tell us) to the particular,
that is to say, we follow a top-down approach. The idea is to either confirm or refute
the hypothesis, which also endows this type of research with originality and value.

As happens in the different dichotomies presented in this unit, there is no intrinsic

superiority in one type of research or another, provided that the requisites of scientific
research are met and the conditions of validity and reliability are fulfilled.

1.6. QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

As for the form of the data, a customary distinction is that between qualitative and
quantitative research.

Quantitative research is also called "hard" research and its main features are that it is
controlled, objective, generalizable, and factual. Quantitative data are generally
analyzed by means of descriptive statistics. Some of the most common descriptive
statistical procedures are: frequencies, central tendencies and variabilities:

a) Frequencies are used to indicate how often a phenomenon occurs.

b) Central tendency measures provide information about the average and the typical
behavior of subjects.
- The mean is the sum of all scores of all subjects in the group divided by the number
of subjects.
- The mode is the score which has been obtained by the largest number of subjects,
i.e. the most frequent score in the group.
- The median is the score which divides the group into two parts, so that half of the
score are above it and half are below it.
c) Variability provides information on the differences or spread of the behaviors. It
indicates how homogeneous (or heterogeneous) the groups are. The most common
variability measure is the standard deviation: the higher the standard deviation, the
more heterogeneous a group is. Another measure of variability used in statistical
analyses is the variance, which is the standard deviation squared.
(Madrid and Bueno, 2005:663).
Qualitative research, also called "soft", is generally more subjective, holistic,
ungeneralizable, and relative (for more detail, please, consult Nunan, 1992: 4).

In this type of research, the data are collected through observations, interviews,
diaries, or any other qualitative procedure, by means of recordings or written reports
(detailed information appears in Bueno González, 2015: 75-81). Then the researcher
has to identify the most relevant segments of the information according to a previous
scheme. It may be the case that some categories emerge from the data, without having
to apply a fixed taxonomy. Otherwise, the researcher does the opposite: (s)he applies
a predetermined classification.

The two main techniques that can be identified in analyzing qualitative data (Bueno
González, 2015: 81-82) are the following:

a) Deriving a set of categories for dealing with text segments from the text itself
(inductive procedure).
b) Applying a system of categories or predetermined classification to the data
(deductive procedure).

According to Madrid and Bueno (2005: 662), these are the main features that
characterize qualitative research analysis:

- The analysis of qualitative data is systematic, but not rigid.

- The main procedures used are comparison, a search for likeness and
differences.
- In order to be compared and contrasted, the raw data need to be
summarized and condensed.
- As a result of summarizing and organizing the information, some
preliminary and tentative classifications of categories emerge.
- The analysis is not the final phase of the research project. The results
of each analytical session point to other questions that need new data.
- Qualitative analysis is a process that demands deep involvement on
the part of the researcher.
- Finally, there is no exclusive and right way of analyzing qualitative
data. It is possible to analyze the information in different ways.

It should be clear from the very beginning that there is no intrinsic superiority in using
a quantitative or a qualitative type of research. Obviously, this will determine the way
of collecting the data and, especially, of analyzing them. In all the cases you should
take special care in ensuring the principles underlying the research, the way in which
those principles are put into practice and the conditions of validity and reliability of
the research. Some suggestions are provided:

· If you opt for a statistical treatment, rely on an expert if you are not.

· If you decide to collect material in the classroom, the first term is

recommended.

· When collecting the data you have to bear in mind how you are going to
analyze them.

Although both qualitative and qualitative analysis can be used with practically any type
of research, it is true that qualitative or interpretive analysis (in the form of comments
and, more often than not, helped by percentages) is usually associated with ethnographic
research (see Bueno González, 2013: 31-33) and with the so-called “soft” data. In spite of
offering highly useful information about classroom processes, interaction patterns, and
invaluable information about the teaching-learning process, qualitative analysis has
often been criticized as unreliable, particularly because of subjectivity and possible bias.

On the other hand, quantitative analysis is related, though not exclusively, to

psychometric research (cf. Bueno González, 2013: 26-28) and usually deals with “hard”
data, with frequent mathematical and statistical procedures, not always easy for
somebody not initiated in these fields. Its main assets are validity and reliability,
although both the data and the analysis may give the impression of being cold and far
from the classroom atmosphere. Quantitative analysis and statistical techniques are
often synonymous to scientific research.

Both types of data can be combined, thus providing a desirable data collection
triangulation.

1.7. INTERPRETIVE VS STATISTICAL RESEARCH

This dichotomy is closely related to the previous section, as regards the method of
analysis of qualitative and quantitative research.
Interpretive research refers to a generally subjective form of analysis based on
interpretation (hence its name). In this respect, it is usually associated with the
analysis of qualitative data.

By contrast, statistical research is necessary when quantitative data are collected and
it is more objective and systematic. Detailed information about basic statistical
techniques can be found in Bueno González (2015: 82-85).

1.8. LONGITUDINAL VS CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH

The variable involved now is the time of collection. Depending on when and for how
long the study is carried out, we can distinguish between longitudinal and cross-
sectional research.

Longitudinal research, also called diachronic, develops over a period of time (several
terms or academic years), which allows for the researcher to see the evolution of
subjects concerning particular research issues, or to evaluate the changes or the
effectiveness of a program, or the impact of an experience. It usually involves single
learners (case studies) or small groups of students (group studies). Some difficulties
may arise from the fact that you cannot ensure that y0u teach the same groups for
more than one year.

On the other hand, cross-sectional research (or synchronic research) takes place at a
single point in time, that is to say, data are collected at a particular moment with a
specific cross-section of students, teachers, materials or evaluation tools (generally a
large number of subjects). Since collection time is limited, this allows the researcher
to work with a higher number of subjects.

PUTING IT ALL TOGETHER

It is evident that the types of research dealt with in this unit are not reciprocally
exclusive. As a matter of fact, some combinations are particularly favored: primary or
theoretical research is associated with secondary sources of information (what has
been published about a particularly issue, information not taken from students
themselves, critical studies on original literary works but not the works themselves);
qualitative data clearly favor interpretive analysis, while the same can be said about
quantitative data and statistical analysis; longitudinal research favors case studies, to
name just a few obvious combinations.

It is also true that by mixing and matching them we can obtain several possible
research paradigms, thus allowing triangulation (a more than advisable procedure to
cater for validity and reliability of the study), by combining different information
sources (both primary and secondary) or different procedures for data collection
(qualitative and quantitative) or analysis (interpretive and statistical) or sources of
information (students, teachers, and parents). These mixed types of research are
noticeably recommendable.

Last but not least, it is highly advisable for researchers to define their investigation
according to these parameters in the presentation of any research study. In fact, this
is essential information which has to be included in the introductory section.
 ACTIVITY 1
(To be uploaded onto the virtual platform
as a written assignment)

Choose a research journal article dealing with CLIL (please,

provide the link or the whole article in a pdf format) and analyse
the research paradigm it presents, according to the taxonomy
and dichotomies discussed in this unit.

For each feature you identify, please, explain why you consider
this characterizes the kind of research, and, whenever possible,
justify it with elements from the research design of the article.

ACTIVITY 2
(To be discussed with the whole group on the Subject
Forum)

Imagine you have to design a research project of your own on

CLIL. Choose the type of research you would carry out, by
selecting from the different types you have seen in this unit.
Justify your choice by discussing assets, shortcomings, possible
problems, and potentialities of each feature of your intended
project.
References

Alcaraz Sintes, A. 2015. “Citing and referencing”. In M.L. Pérez Cañado & B.
Pennock-Speck (eds.). Writing and Presenting a Dissertation on
Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Culture Studies for Undergraduates
and Graduates in Spain. Valencia: Universitat de València, 107-129.

Brown, J.D. 1988. Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. A

Teacher’s Guide to Statistics and Research Design. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Bueno González, A. 1997. “Cómo diseñar un trabajo de investigación en didáctica

del inglés”. The Grove. Working Papers on English Studies, 4 (special issue:
Francisco Manzaneda Oneto in memoriam, edited by E.A. Adams, A. Bueno
González, and G. Tejada Molina): 69-90.

Bueno González, A. 2013. “ELT action research: concept and methods”. In D.

Rascón Moreno and C. Soto Palomo (eds.) Teaching by Doing. A
Professional and Personal Life. Jaén: Servicio de Publicaciones de la
Universidad, 19-39.

Bueno González, A. 2015. “Data collection and analysis: procedures, instruments,

and basic statistical techniques”. In M.L. Pérez Cañado & B. Pennock-Speck
(eds.). Writing and Presenting a Dissertation on Linguistics, Applied
Linguistics and Culture Studies for Undergraduates and Graduates in
Spain. Valencia: Universitat de València, 75-91.

Chaudron, C. 1988. Second Language Classrooms. Research on Teaching and

Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Freedman, E.S. 1982. "Experimentation into foreign language teaching

methodology: the research findings". System 10/2: 119-133.

Grotjahn, R. 1987. "On the methodological basis of introspective methods". In C.

Faerch and G. Kasper (eds.) Introspection in Second Language Research.
Clevedon Avon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Larsen-Freeman, D. and M. Long 1991. An Introduction to Second Language

Acquisition Research. London: Longman.

López-Peláez Casellas, J. 2015. “‘Giving credit’: an approach to plagiarism among

university students”. In M.L. Pérez Cañado & B. Pennock-Speck (eds.).
Writing and Presenting a Dissertation on Linguistics, Applied Linguistics
 and Culture Studies for Undergraduates and Graduates in Spain. Valencia:
Universitat de València, 43-57.

Mackey, A. and S.M. Gass (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and
Design. New Jersey and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.

Madrid, D. and A. Bueno 2005. “Classroom research”. In N. McLaren, D. Madrid

and A. Bueno (eds.) TEFL in Secondary Education: Granada: Editorial
Universidad de Granada, 641-677.

Nunan, D. 1991. "Methods in second language classroom-oriented research. A

critical review". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13: 249-274.

Nunan, D. 1992. Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Pennock-Speck, B. 2015. “Starting your research”. In M.L. Pérez Cañado & B.

Pennock-Speck (eds.). Writing and Presenting a Dissertation on
Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Culture Studies for Undergraduates
and Graduates in Spain. València: Universitat de València, 11-21.

Pérez Cañado, M.L. & B. Pennock-Speck (eds.). 2015. Writing and Presenting a
Dissertation on Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Culture Studies for
Undergraduates and Graduates in Spain. València: Universitat de València.

Reichart, C. & T. Cook 1979. "Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods".

In T. Cook and C. Reichart (eds.). Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
in Evaluation Research. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Seliger, H.W. and E. Shohamy 1989. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

van Lier, L. (1988). The Classroom and the Language Learner. London:
Longman.
Further readings

Brown, J.D. 1988. Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. A

Teacher’s Guide to Statistics and Research Design. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

A useful reference for teachers and researchers who have had no previous
training in statistics. It offers skills and procedures to understand and
critically read statistical research applied to language learning. Explanation
is offered about basic statistical terms, the structure and layout of statistical
reports, statistical logics, and how to decipher tables and graphs. Chapters 1
and 2 are particularly useful to cover general aspects of research.

Dörnyei, Z. 2009. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Quantitative,

Qualitative and Mixed Methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

This book offers a comprehensive overview of research methodology in

applied linguistics which describes the various stages of qualitative and
quantitative investigations, from collecting the data to reporting the
results.

Mackey, A. and S.M. Gass 2005. Second Language Research. Methodology

and Design. New Jersey and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.

A complete and clear account of both quantitative and qualitative research

procedures and methods, proceeding from general issues (such as
definition and types of research, characterization of quantitative and
qualitative research, or data gathering issues and data collection
measures) to more specific concerns (research variables, how to design a
quantitative study and analyze its data, classroom research, coding, and
reporting research results). It contains several useful appendixes and a
right-to-the-point glossary. It is highly recommendable for graduate
students, teachers, and researchers.

Madrid, D. and A. Bueno 2005. “Classroom research”. N. McLaren, D. Madrid

and A. Bueno (eds.) TEFL in Secondary Education: Granada: Editorial
Universidad de Granada.
 This book chapter includes theoretical and practical information about
classroom research, its main methods and paradigms (experimental
research, classroom observation, ethnography, action research, and
research on teacher’s beliefs), data collection instruments, and data
analysis techniques. It is useful for undergraduates, graduates, teachers
and beginning researchers. The different phases of a research project are
presented and a model layout from a real research project is offered.

Nunan, D. 1992. Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

This seminal book presents the main research methods in a deep and reader-
friendly manner, with a two-fold purpose: to provide graduates, teacher
trainers and researchers with mechanisms to analyze research studies
critically, and to present tools for them to carry out their own research. It
includes an exhaustive description of methods and instruments, both
quantitative and qualitative. Particularly useful highlights are the following:
the final tasks at the end of each chapter; the last chapter, “Doing research”,
in which inspiring guidelines are provided to carry out a research project,
from the choice of the topic and the formulation of research questions and
hypotheses to the final presentation, through literature review and data
collection and analysis; and a useful glossary.

Pérez Cañado, M.L. & B. Pennock-Speck (eds.). 2015. Writing and Presenting a
Dissertation on Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Culture Studies for
Undergraduates and Graduates in Spain. Valencia: Universitat de València.

A collective work, written by specialists from different Universities, with

the aim of helping undergraduates and graduates in Spain to get familiar
with research design and to write and present their research projects and
dissertations. In ten chapters, progressing along the timeline of research
design, as well as focusing of research on different areas within English
Studies, it deals with the following issues: starting your research; the
literature review: how to relate, critically, appraise, and render the
specialized literature; “giving credit”: an approach to plagiarism among
university students; structuring the investigation: from objectives to
research design; data collection and analysis: procedures, instruments,
 and basic statistical techniques; “last but not least”: writing the
conclusion of your paper; citing and referencing; delivering successful
oral presentations: preparing the viva voce; an overview of study and
research in English Linguistics and Applied Linguistics; and guidelines
for study and research in Translation and Interpreting: what to do
research on. The book includes a useful glossary, as well as practical
activities with their key.

Seliger, H.W. and E. Shohamy 1989. Second Language Research Methods.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

This book has duly become a classic for second language research due to the
depth and exhaustiveness in which its authors present the concept and types
of research methods and paradigms, as well as the stages in a research study,
namely the preparatory stage (formulation of questions and hypotheses),
contextualization (literature review and state-of-the-art editing), data
gathering and analysis, and final presentation. The clarity and the detailed
methodological procedures in the presentation of every issue must be
highlighted.

Wallace, M. 1998. Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Classroom research is presented as a means for in-service teachers to

develop their professional competence. The book is also useful for graduates
and prospective teachers since it provides them with the guidelines and the
instruments to carry out a research project. It is framed within Wallace’s
reflective approach (1991) and, in this respect, it offers materials for personal
reflection, discussion and debate, and is full of methodological insights. After
justifying the reasons for action research, the different stages are offered,
together with a variety of data collection instruments. It also contains a
highly useful glossary of research terms.