applied
sciences
Article
Estimation of Pressuremeter Modulus and Limit Pressure in
Weathered Granite Based on the SPT-N Value and Chemical
Weathering Index: A Case Study in South Korea
Seung-Hwan Lee 1 , Tae-Young Kwak 2






Citation: Lee, S.-H.; Kwak, T.-Y.;
Park, K.-H. Estimation of
Pressuremeter Modulus and Limit
Pressure in Weathered Granite Based
on the SPT-N Value and Chemical
Weathering Index: A Case Study in
South Korea. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app11083411
Academic Editor: Daniel Dias
Received: 18 February 2021
Accepted: 6 April 2021
Published: 10 April 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083411
and Ka-Hyun Park 2, *
1 Korea Construction Standard Center, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology,
Goyang 10223, Korea; seunghwanlee@kict.re.kr
2 Department of Infrastructure Safety Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology,
Goyang 10223, Korea; tykwak@kict.re.kr
* Correspondence: kahyunpark@kict.re.kr; Tel.: +82-10-9203-2261
Abstract: A pressuremeter test (PMT) is a representative and highly reliable in situ test for assessing
the stress–strain behavior of weathered granite. Its application, however, is restricted by its cost and
time requirements. Many researchers have also investigated the correlations between the SPT-N
value and the pressuremeter modulus (Em ) and limit pressure (PL ) of soils, but they have mostly
focused on sand, silt, and clay and have employed simple regression analysis. In this study, equations
for Em and PL were derived for weathered granite through multiple nonlinear regression analyses
using a chemical weathering index that quantitatively represents the degree of weathering. Nonlinear
multiple regression analyses were conducted by combining the allometric models that produced the
optimal correlations between Em , PL , energy corrected SPT-N (SPT-N60 ), and normalized VR (Vogt’
ratio) with vertical effective stress. The obtained equations for Em and PL had higher R2 values
(0.76 and 0.46, respectively) compared with the simple regression equations reported in previous
studies. Because local characteristics are important determinants of the engineering properties of
geo-materials, the Em and PL equations proposed in this paper are intended for use in geotechnical
surveys of weathered granite in South Korea.
Keywords: weathered granite; geotechnical property; standard penetration test; pressuremeter test;
chemical weathering index
1. Introduction
Weathered granite, including residual soil and highly and completely weathered rocks,
is widespread in South Korea and is used as the support base in the construction of major
roads, bridges, and tunnels. It is therefore important to assess the geotechnical properties
of weathered granite to ensure satisfactory structural performance and safety. Although
geotechnical properties are typically assessed by in situ testing, sampling techniques
that minimize the disturbance of the weathered granite sample, such as the triple core
barrel method, have been in limited use more recently. However, it is challenging to
secure sufficient undisturbed samples that are suitable for laboratory testing due to the
frequent occurrence of disturbance during the transportation and fabrication of the test
specimens. Clayton et al. [1] have recommended that in situ testing should be performed
to obtain proper geotechnical properties in the case when it is difficult to retrieve an
undisturbed sample.
The representative in situ tests applied to weathered granite are the standard penetra-
tion test (SPT) and pressuremeter test (PMT). The SPT, which is conducted simultaneously
with a borehole investigation, is most widely used in the geotechnical field due to its
convenience and economic feasibility. It is used to estimate geotechnical properties such
as friction angle, unconfined compressive strength, and elastic modulus based on accu-
mulated data and may also be used to calculate the bearing capacity of the foundation
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 2 of 13

and assess ground liquefaction [2–4]. However, the equations currently used to determine
the geotechnical properties should be used withcaution because most empirical equations
are proposed based on the SPT-N values measured from soils, and penetration into the
highly and completely weathered granite during an SPT is quite subtle. The PMT is used
to assess the radial stress–strain behavior of the ground around a borehole and can also be
applied for the calculation of the pressuremeter modulus (Em ) and limit pressure (PL ) of
the base ground according to the obtained stress–strain curve. The Em is used to calculate
the settlement of a shallow foundation and the coefficient of the horizontal subgrade re-
action, as well as the strength parameter of the ground, the bearing capacity of a shallow
foundation and a pile foundation using the limit pressure. It is applicable to a wide range
of ground types, ranging from soils to weak rocks, and particularly to geo-materials in a
transition state between rock and soil, such as weathered granite [5]. However, it is more
time-consuming and costly than the SPT and thus its use is limited and it often omitted in
small-scale projects.
Researchers have used simple regression analyses to investigate the correlation be-
tween SPT-N values and the Em and PL interpreted from PMTs to assess the geotechnical
properties of grounds with a high degree of reliability, because SPTs are relatively conve-
nient and economical. For example, Chiang and Ho [6] proposed nonlinear relationships
between N and Em and between N and PL for weathered granite, including highly weath-
ered granite and residual soil, in Hong Kong. Yagiz et al. [7] proposed linear relationships
between N and Em and between N and PL based on the results of a test conducted in
sandy silty clay developed at a shallow depth (within 2 m) in Denizli, Turkey. Bozbey and
Togrol [8] proposed nonlinear relationships between the same parameters for sandy soil
and clayey soil using the results of tests conducted in Istanbul, Turkey, while Cheshomi and
Ghodrati [9] did the same for silty sand and silty clay based on SPTs and PMTs conducted
in Mashhad, Iran. However, most of these previous studies dealt with soils with SPT-N
values of ≤50; none considered weathered granite with an N value of ≥50. SPT is not
recommended for hard geo-materials such as hard soil, soft rock, and highly weathered
rock because its penetrability is not sufficient [5]. However, conventionally SPT rather than
PMT is used in field practice to estimate the geotechnical properties of weathered granite
because of time consuming process and high cost of PMT. Therefore, it is important to sug-
gest the correlation between the SPT and PMT results conducted in weathered granite with
N value ≥50 (i.e., hard residual soil, completely weathered rock, highly weathered rock).
Meanwhile, many studies have been conducted on the variation of the engineering
properties of rocks due to weathering. The feasibility of representing the engineering
properties of a rock by a chemical weathering index has also been suggested through a
correlation analysis of the index with the engineering properties (unconfined compressive
strength, dry density, shear strength, etc.) [10–14]. This index quantitatively describes
the degree of weathering based on the changes in the chemical composition of the rock
constituent minerals.
In the present study, empirical equations for determining Em and PL based on an
SPT-N value and chemical weathering index were derived through a case study of weath-
ered granite, including highly weathered granite and residual soil, in South Korea. The
results of SPTs and PMTs conducted at three sites were used, and the equations of Em and
PL were derived through the multiple nonlinear regression analysis of the SPT-N value
and chemical weathering index, respectively. The values of Em and PL determined by
the proposed equations were compared with those obtained in previous studies and by
field measurements.

2. Study Area
The present study was conducted at three sites in the central and western parts of
South Korea where weathered granite is commonly found (Figure 1). The study areas were
selected based on a review of geotechnical investigation reports for the adjacent areas as
roughly identified from a geological map of South Korea provided by the Korea Institute
 The present study was conducted at three sites in the central and western parts of
South Korea where weathered granite is commonly found (Figure 1). The study areas
were selected based on a review of geotechnical investigation reports for the adjacent ar-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 3 of 13
eas as roughly identified from a geological map of South Korea provided by the Korea
Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. The three sites, identified in this paper as
sites A, B, and C, were all within Jurassic granite areas, and weathered granite (i.e., resid-
of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. The three sites, identified in this paper as sites A,
ual soil, highlyB,and completely weathered granite rock) was thickly developed with thick-
and C, were all within Jurassic granite areas, and weathered granite (i.e., residual soil,
nesses of 14, 25, andand
highly 23completely
m, respectively,
weathered according towas
granite rock) a borehole investigation
thickly developed (Figure of
with thicknesses 2).
The samples retrieved
14, 25, and by triple
23 m, core barrel
respectively, fromtoeach
according test site
a borehole shows similar
investigation condition;
(Figure 2). The samplesthe
samples were retrieved
brown, by andtriple core
their barrel
rock from each
texture and test site shows
structures similar
were condition;especially
preserved the samplesin
were brown, and their rock texture and structures were preserved especially in highly and
highly and completely weathered granite (Figure 3). An SPT and PMT were conducted at
completely weathered granite (Figure 3). An SPT and PMT were conducted at each site,
each site, and and
samples
samples were
werecollected for
collected for assessment
assessment of theofchemical
the chemical weathering
weathering indices. Theindices.
details
The details of of
thethetest
testmethods
methods andand thethe obtained
obtained data data are provided
are provided in 3Sections
in Sections and 4. 3 and 4.

Figure 1. Locations of the study

Figuresites.
1. Locations of the study sites.
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2021, 11,x3411
2021,11, FOR PEER REVIEW 44of
of14
13
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

SPT-N value (blows) SPT-N value (blows) SPT-N value (blows)

0 10 SPT-N
20 30value
40 (blows)
50 0 10 SPT-N
20 30value
40 (blows)
50 0 10 SPT-N
20 30value
40 (blows)
50
0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 0 0
Fill Alluv. ▼ ▼
Fill Alluv. ▼ ▼
Ⅵ 50/23
▼ 50/24 50/23
▼ Ⅵ
50/30 50/23 50/24
50/17 50/30 50/13 50/23
50/15 50/17
50/7 50/13
10 50/18 50/15
10 Ⅵ 50/9 50/7
50/15 50/18
10 50/6 50/9
10 Ⅵ 50/16 50/15
50/17 50/16 10 50/5 50/6
50/8 50/17 10 50/4 50/5
Alluv.
50/11 50/8 50/4 50/4
Alluv. 50/22 50/15 50/11
50/5 50/4
50/18 50/22 50/10 50/15
50/5 50/5
50/18 50/8 50/10
50/15 50/10 50/8 Ⅳ&Ⅴ 50/4 50/5

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
20 50/26 50/15 50/14 50/10 Ⅳ&Ⅴ 50/3 50/4

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
20 50/24 50/26 20 50/9 50/14 50/4 50/3
50/16 50/24 50/8 50/9
20 50/5 50/4
50/14 50/16
50/8 50/8
50/13 50/14 50/5 50/5
50/5 50/8
50/14 50/13 Ⅳ&Ⅴ 20 50/4 50/5
Ⅵ 50/10 50/14 50/9 50/5
Ⅵ 50/6 50/10
Ⅳ&Ⅴ 50/7 50/9 20 50/4 50/4
50/3 50/6 50/9 50/7 50/2 50/4
50/5 50/3 50/11 50/9 50/2 50/2
30 50/4 50/5 50/10 50/11
50/3 50/2
30 50/4 50/25 50/10
30 50/30 50/25 50/2 50/3
30 50/9 50/30 50/2
Ⅳ&Ⅴ 50/6 50/9
Ⅳ&Ⅴ 50/5 50/6
50/3 50/5
50/4 50/3 Ⅲ
30
50/4 Ⅲ
30
40
40Ⅲ Ⅲ
Ⅲ Ⅲ
40
40
(a) (b) (c)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Boring
Boring logs of of the
the test
testsites:
sites:(a)
(a)Site
SiteA,A,(b)
(b)Site
Site
B, B,
andand
(c)(c)
SiteSite C (Fill
C (Fill = material
= fill fill material for developing
for developing agricultural
agricultural land,
Figure
land, Alluv 2. =Boring logs Ⅲ
alluvium, of =the test sites: (a)
moderately Site A, (b)
weathered Site B,Ⅳand
granite, = (c) Siteweathered
highly C (Fill = fill material
granite, Ⅴ for
= developing
completely agricultural
weathered
Alluv = alluvium, III = moderately weathered granite, IV = highly weathered granite, V = completely weathered granite,
land,Ⅵ
granite, Alluv
VI granite,
= residual= residual soil). Ⅲ = moderately weathered granite, Ⅳ = highly weathered granite, Ⅴ = completely weathered
= alluvium,
Ⅵ soil).
= residual soil).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 3. Samples retrieved from each test site: (a) Site A, (b) Site B, and (c) Site C.
Figure
Figure 3. Samples
3. Samples retrieved
retrieved from
from each
each testtest site:
site: (a)(a)
SiteSite
A, A,
(b)(b)
SiteSite B, and
B, and (c) (c)
SiteSite
C. C.
3. Methodology
3. 3. Methodology
Methodology
3.1. SPT and PMT
3.1. SPT
3.1. SPTand PMT
and PMT
The
TheSPT
SPT was
was conducted
conducted in
inthree
threesteps,
steps, namely
namely the preliminary
thethe
preliminary blows,
blows, main
main blows
blows 1,1,
The SPT was conducted in three steps, namely preliminary blows, main blows 1,
and
and main
main blows
blows 2,2,according
according to
toASTM
ASTM D1586
D1586 [15].
[15]. The
The preliminary
preliminary blows
blows are
are the
the number
number
and main blows 2, according to ASTM D1586 [15]. The preliminary blows are the number
of
ofblows
blows required
required to
to penetrate
penetrate 15 cm
1515 in
cmcmin the initial
thethe
initial stage
stage of
of the test.
thethe
test. When
When the two
thethe
two main
main
of blows required to penetrate in initial stage of test. When two main
blows
blows produced
produced aa combined
combined penetration
penetration of
of <30
<30 cm
cm after
after50
50or
ormore
more blows,
blows, the
the penetration
penetration
blows produced a combined penetration of <30 cm after 50 or more blows, the penetration
produced
produced by the
bybythe first 5050blows was measured. If penetration waswas
notnot
achieved afterafter
10
produced thefirst
first 50blows
blowswas wasmeasured.
measured. If If penetration
penetration was achieved
not achieved after 10
consecutive blows, the SPT was terminated. The SPT results for the weathered granite
consecutive blows, the SPT was terminated. The SPT results for the weathered granite
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 5 of 13

10 consecutive blows, the SPT was terminated. The SPT results for the weathered granite
layer revealed a penetration of <30 cm after 50 blows because of the insufficient penetrability
of the SPT device. Despite this limitation, the geotechnical properties of weathered granite
(especially highly and completely weathered granite rock) are generally evaluated by SPT in
practice field. Thus, many studies have used the converted SPT-N values linear extrapolated
to the N value representing the number of blows required to penetrate 30 cm [16–18]. In
the estimation of the geotechnical properties using the N value, an energy correction is
necessary in order to obtain reliable results. Accordingly, the converted SPT-N value was
corrected to SPT-N60 , which corresponds to 60% of the energy efficiency for the energy
transfer rate of the equipment used in the test.
The PMT was conducted using an Elastometer-2 (OYO Corporation, Japan) in compli-
ance with ASTM D4719 [19]. The test was conducted at the depth intervals of approximately
2 m in the weathered granite layer, and Em and PL were determined from the obtained
pressure–radius curve. Em is the modulus of the pseudo-elastic range and represents the
deformation characteristic in the initial linear section under the horizontal pressure on
the borehole wall. PL represents the pressure at which the ground of the borehole wall
reaches the state of destruction and is defined as the pressure that causes a continuous
displacement without increasing the loading pressure beyond the initial elastic zone and
plastic zone in the pressure–radius curve. In an actual test, however, it is difficult to reach
PL , due to the limited capacity of the testing equipment. Thus, in this study, the loading
pressure was determined as the PL at which the volume of the probe is twice the initial soil
cavity volume (V i ) following the recommendation in ASTM D4719 [19]. The details of the
PMT test and the methods for determining Em and PL are available in ASTM D4719.

3.2. Geochemical Analysis for Determination of Chemical Weathering Index

A chemical weathering index was calculated based on the weight percentage of the
major oxides in the rock formed by weathering through the X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
analysis. The index enables the evaluation of the degree of weathering regardless of the
physical disturbance of the samples and is therefore appropriate for weathered granite,
which easily shatters during sampling. In this study, the XRF analysis was conducted on
weathered granite samples collected at the depths of the SPTs and PMTs at the three study
sites. The chemical weathering index was calculated by converting the determined weight
percentage of the major oxides into the molecular ratio.
Various chemical weathering indices have been proposed [12,20–23]. However, in this
study, the representative chemical weathering index (Vogt’s ratio (VR, Equation (1)) [24])
was used to conduct a nonlinear multiple regression analysis based on the study by
Lee [25], in which eight types of chemical weathering indices and geotechnical properties
of weathered granite in South Korea were analyzed; the assessment revealed the adequacy
of the engineering property and degree of weathering based on VR. VR is the index which is
calculated by considering the mobility of alkali and alkaline oxides during the weathering
process, with a larger VR corresponding toa more weathered state.
The results of the SPTs and PMTs conducted at the three sites and the VR values of the
collected samples determined by the XRF analysis are presented in Table 1.

VR = (Al2 O3 + K2 O)/(MgO + CaO + Na2 O) (1)

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 6 of 13

Table 1. Data for nonlinear multiple regression analysis.

Em PL SPT-N 60 Normalized
No. VR
(MPa) (MPa) (Blows) VR *
1 29.9 2.4 61 2.185 6.580
2 7.8 1.2 84 1.799 2.167
3 133.4 11.3 121 3.568 1.763
4 33.4 6.7 161 3.785 1.486
5 604.8 19.8 215 2.539 0.570
6 302.4 12.6 242 3.480 1.542
7 300.3 13.3 242 2.725 1.000
8 88.3 15.4 276 1.605 1.359
9 307.6 13.3 276 3.536 1.420
10 446.7 12.9 322 2.127 0.739
11 85.7 18.4 322 1.676 1.220
12 395.4 17.0 322 2.316 0.719
13 205.5 20.6 387 1.505 0.843
14 498.1 25.3 387 2.159 0.886
15 388.1 19.7 387 2.441 0.821
16 363.2 22.2 387 2.362 0.681
17 481.9 9.4 387 2.118 0.450
18 718.9 50.5 483 1.594 0.496
19 714.3 50.1 483 1.762 0.526
20 94.0 10.6 483 1.937 1.228
21 458.7 29.1 483 1.824 0.911
22 478.6 22.9 483 1.625 0.732
23 283.7 25.2 483 1.405 0.529
24 649.2 26.0 483 2.497 0.631
25 536.3 78.2 644 1.655 0.537
26 864.2 18.3 644 1.620 0.436
27 730.9 24.9 644 2.729 0.648
VR 0
* σv 0 /Pa
, σv = vertical effective stress, Pa = 1 atm.

4. Analysis
4.1. Test Data
The Em values determined by the PMTs were between 7.8 and 864.2 MPa and generally
increased with depth at each test site. The Em at site A dramatically increased and those at
site B decreased with depth below 29 m (Figure 4a). This tendency was also found for PL
(Figure 4b). The SPT-N60 determined by linear extrapolation conversion for a penetration
of 30 cm corresponded to blows of between 61 and 644 at the three sites. Overall, SPT-N60
tended to increase with increasing depth at each test site, but those at site B decreased with
depth below 29 m (Figure 5). As shown in Figures 4 and 5, the measured geotechnical
properties showed different distribution due to different site conditions. Site A is near
the riverside, so that it is rarely affected by the geological forces making fold and fissure.
On the other hand, sites B and C are located in mountain areas that experienced complex
geological forces (Figure 1).
The VR values, indicating the degree of weathering generally decreased with in-
creasing depth at each test site. Weathering was affected by the vertical effective stress.
Therefore, to exclude the effects resulted from the different depth and thickness at which
the weathered granite layer was developed, VR was normalized using vertical effective
stress and atmospheric pressure (Figure 6b); the vertical effective stress was calculated
based on the results of in-situ density logging conducted at each test site. This is consistent
with the results suggested in many studiesand the theoretical trend of VR, that is, the
increase of VR with greaterweathering [25–28]. In this study, nonlinear multiple regression
was used to estimate Em and PL based on SPT-N60 and the normalized VR. The details of the
analysis and the results are presented in the next section.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11,
11, 3411 PEER REVIEW 777 of
of 14
13
Appl. Sci. 2021,
2021, 11, xx FOR
FOR PEER REVIEW of 14

Pressuremeter
Pressuremeter modulus
modulus (MPa)
(MPa) Limit
Limit pressure
pressure (MPa)
(MPa)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 20 40 60 80 100
00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 00 0 20 40 60 80 100
Site
Site AA Site
55 55 Site AA
Site
Site BB Site
Site BB
Site
Site C Site
10
C
10 Site CC
10 10
15
15 15
15
(m)

(m)
Depth(m)

Depth(m)
20
20 20
20
Depth

Depth
25
25 25
25
30
30 30
30
35
35 35
35
40
40 40
40
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Variations
4. Variations of
Variations of the
of the (a)
(a) pressuremeter
pressuremeter modulus
modulus and
and (b)
(b) limit
limit pressure
pressure with
with depth.
depth.

SPT-N
SPT-N6060
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
00 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Site
Site AA
55 Site
Site BB
Site
Site CC
10
10
15
15
(m)
Depth(m)

20
20
Depth

25
25
30
30
35
35
40
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW40 8 of 14
Figure 5. Variation of SPT-N
SPT-N60 with depth.
Figure 5. Variation of SPT-N 60 with depth.
60

VR
The
The VR
VR values,
values, indicating
indicating thethe degree
degree of of weathering
weathering generally
generally decreased
decreased with with increas-
increas-
VR/(σv'/1atm)
ing depth at each test site.
ing depth3 at each test site. Weathering
Weathering was was affected by the vertical effective stress.
stress.8There-
1 2 4 0 affected2by the vertical4 effective
6 There-
fore, to exclude the
fore, to exclude the effects
effects resulted
resulted from
from the
the different
different depth
depth and
and thickness
thickness at
at which
which the
the
0 Site A 0
weathered granite
weathered granite layer
Sitelayer
B
was developed, VR was normalized using vertical
was developed, VR was normalized using vertical effective stress effective stress
5 and
and atmospheric
atmosphericSitepressure
C
pressure (Figure
(Figure 6b);
6b); the
the5 vertical
vertical effective
effective stress
stress was
was calculated
calculated based
based on
on
10 the results of in-situ density logging conducted
the results of in-situ density logging conducted 10
at
at each
each test
test site.
site. This
This is
is consistent
consistent with
with the
the
results
results suggested
suggested in in many
many studiesand
studiesand 15 the
the theoretical
theoretical trend
trend ofof VR,
VR, that
that is,
is, the
the increase
increase of
of
Depth (m)

15
Depth (m)

VR
VR with greaterweathering [25–28]. In this study, nonlinear multiple regression was
with greaterweathering [25–28]. In this study, nonlinear multiple regression was used
used
20 to
to estimate
estimate EEmm and
and PPLLbased
based on on SPT-N
SPT-N606020and
and thethe normalized
normalized VR.
VR. The
The details
details of of the
the analysis
analysis
25 and the results are presented in
and the results are presented in the nextthe next section.
25 section.

30 30
Site A
35 35 Site B
Site C
40 40
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Variations
Variations of (a) VR and (b) normalized VR with depth.

4.2. Nonlinear Multiple Regression Analysis

To derive the equations for estimating Em and PL based on the chemical weathering
index (VR) determined by the XRF analysis of the collected samples and the results of the
PMTs and SPTs conducted at the three considered sites, nonlinear multiple regression
analysis was performed using the following three steps:
1) Deduction of the relationships between Em and SPT-N60 and between PL and SPT-N60
by simple regression analyses;
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 8 of 13

4.2. Nonlinear Multiple Regression Analysis

To derive the equations for estimating Em and PL based on the chemical weathering
index (VR) determined by the XRF analysis of the collected samples and the results of
the PMTs and SPTs conducted at the three considered sites, nonlinear multiple regression
analysis was performed using the following three steps:
(1) Deduction of the relationships between Em and SPT-N60 and between PL and SPT-N60
by simple regression analyses;
(2) Deduction of the relationships between Em and normalized VR and between PL and
normalized VR by simple regression analyses;
(3) Nonlinear multiple regression analysis using the relationships deduced in steps (1)
and (2) above.
In the implementation of the first step, the relationship between the PMT results (Em
or PL ) and SPT-N60 was derived through a simple regression analysis. The aim of this
step was to determine the basic function of the independent variable (i.e., SPT-N60 ) to be
used for the nonlinear multiple regression analysis. Empirical relationships between Em
and SPT-N60 and between PL and SPT-N60 obtained in related research are presented in
Table 2. Based on these several empirical relationships, simple regression analysis using an
allometric model and a linear model was employed to derivate each of the equations. Em
increased with increasing SPT-N60 , with both the allometric and linear models revealing
relatively high correlations as shown by the coefficient of determination (R2 ) of 0.71 and
0.71, respectively (Figure 7). PL exhibited lower correlations in the empirical equations
compared with Em (R2 = 0.44 and 0.43, respectively) (Figure 8).

Table 2. Empirical equations for the relationships of Em and PL with SPT-N60 .

Empirical Equations
Geo-Material Researchers
Em PL
weathered granite Em (MPa) = 0.5832(N60 )0.9687 PL (MPa) = 0.1668(N60 )0.7307 Chiang and Ho [6] *
sandy soil Em (MPa) = 1.33(N60 )0.77 PL (MPa) = 0.33(N60 )0.51 Bozbey and Togrol [8]
Appl. Sci. 2021,
silty11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
sand Em /Pa (MPa) = 9.8N60 − 94.3 ** PL /Pa = N60 − 20.8 ** Cheshomi and Ghodrati9[9]
of 14

* The empirical equations were digitized regression lines in the original works. ** Pa = 1 atm.

1000 1000
1.2236
Em = 0.26996(N60) Em = 77.5974+65.9990(N60)
Pressuremeter modulus (MPa)

Pressuremeter modulus (MPa)

800 R2 = 0.71 800 R2 = 0.71

600 600

400 400

200 200

10 100 1000 10 100 1000

SPT-N60 (blows) SPT-N60 (blows)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Correlations between Emm and
and SPT-N
SPT-N6060determined
determinedby
bysimple
simpleregression
regression analyses
analyses using
using an
an (a)
(a) allometric
allometric model
and a (b) linear model.
and a (b) linear model.

100 100

PL = 0.0181(N60)1.1939 PL = 2.6207+0.0655(N60)

80
2
R = 0.44 80 R2 = 0.43
ressure (MPa)

ressure (MPa)

60 60
 10 100 1000 10 100 1000
SPT-N60 (blows) SPT-N60 (blows)
(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 9 of 13
Figure 7. Correlations between Em and SPT-N60 determined by simple regression analyses using an (a) allometric model
and a (b) linear model.

100 100

PL = 0.0181(N60) 1.1939 PL = 2.6207+0.0655(N60)

80
2
R = 0.44 80 R2 = 0.43
Limit pressure (MPa)

Limit pressure (MPa)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
10 100 1000 10 100 1000
SPT-N60 (blows) SPT-N60 (blows)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8. Correlations
Correlations between
between PLL and
and SPT-N
SPT-N6060determined
determinedby
bysimple
simpleregression
regression analyses
analyses using
using an
an (a)
(a) allometric
allometric model
model
and
and aa (b)
(b) linear
linear model.
model.

In
In the
the second
second step,
step, the
the procedure
procedure of the first step was appliedapplied to to normalized
normalized VR.
VR. Emm

was decreased with

was decreased withincreasing
increasingnormalized
normalized
VR, VR,
withwith a higher
a higher correlation
correlation coefficient
coefficient ob-
obtained
tained
for thefor the allometric
allometric (R2 = 0.67)
modelmodel (R2 = than
0.67) for
thantheforlinear
the linear (R2 =(R
modelmodel 2 = 0.31)
0.31) (Figure
(Figure 9).
9). The
correlation
The of PLofwith
correlation normalized
PL with VR was
normalized also also
VR was higher for the
higher forallometric model
the allometric compared
model com-
with the
pared linear
with themodel,
linear although the R2 values
model, although the R(0.33
2 valuesand (0.33
0.18, respectively) were lowerwere
and 0.18, respectively) than
that for the correlation between E and normalized VR (Figure 10).
lower than that for the correlationmbetween Em and normalized VR (Figure 10).
Subsequently, the nonlinear multiple regression analysis models of Em and PL were
established by combining the allometric model, which produced the better correlations
between the PMT results (Em and PL ) and SPT-N60 and normalized VR. The obtained
models are:

VR a5
 
VR a3
Em = f ( N 60 , 0 ) = a1 + a2 ( N 60 ) + a4 0 ( a n = const .) and (2)
σv /Pa σv /Pa

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW VR b5 10 of 14

 
VR b3
PL = f ( N 60 , ) = b 1 + b 2 ( N 60 ) + b 4 (b n = const .). (3)
σv0 /Pa σv0 /Pa

1000 1000
Em = 509.2454 − 110.8590[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]
Pressuremeter modulus (MPa)

Pressuremeter modulus (MPa)

Em = 297.0115[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]−1.0940
800 800 R2 = 0.31
R2 = 0.67

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
VR/(σv'/1atm) VR/(σv'/1atm)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Correlations between Emm and
and normalized
normalized VR
VR determined
determined by
by simple
simple regression
regression analyses
analyses using
using an (a) allometric
model
model and
and aa (b)
(b) linear model.
linear model.

100 100

PL = 17.9203[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]− 0.8742 PL = 27.9736 − 5.7534[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]

80 80 R2 = 0.18
R2 = 0.33
(MPa)

(MPa)
 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
VR/(σv'/1atm) VR/(σv'/1atm)
(a) (b)
Figure
Appl. Sci. 2021,9.11,Correlations
3411 between Em and normalized VR determined by simple regression analyses using an (a) allometric
10 of 13
model and a (b) linear model.

100 100

PL = 17.9203[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]− 0.8742 PL = 27.9736 − 5.7534[VR/(σ,'v/Pa)]

80 80 R2 = 0.18
R2 = 0.33
Limit pressure (MPa)

Limit pressure (MPa)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
VR/(σv'/1atm) VR/(σv'/1atm)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Correlations between PLL and normalized
normalized VR
VR determined
determined by
by simple
simple regression
regression analyses
analyses using an (a) allometric
model
model and
and aa (b)
(b) linear
linear model.
model.

Subsequently, the nonlinear

The results derived by nonlinear multiple regression
multiple analysis
regression modelsrevealed
analysis of Em and PL were
improved
established
correlations by combining
compared withthethose allometric
from themodel,
equations whichderived produced
by simplethe regression
better correlations
analysis.
Even though
between the obtained
the PMT results (E slight
m andincrease
PL) and in the coefficient
SPT-N 60 and normalized of determination was lower
VR. The obtained than
models
expected, this study is meaningful in that it is demonstrates that improved prediction of
are:
the Em and PL values of weathered VR granite can be obtained
VR a5 by additionally considering
the VR, chemical Emweathering
= f(N60 , ) = a1 that
index + a2 (N )a3 + a4 ( the physical
represents
60 ) (an = const.) andof weathered
properties (2)
σv ’/Pa σv ’/Pa
granite. The equation for EmVRas a function of bSPT-N60VRand b5
normalized VR is presented
3
in Equation (4), for = f(N60R
PLwhich , 2 = 0.76,
) = b1which
+ b2 (Nis60 )larger
+ b4 (than )that ( bfor
n = const.). (3)
the simple regression
σv ’/Pa σv ’/Pa
analysis equation (Figures 7a and 9a). The equation for PL derived by nonlinear multiple
The results derived by nonlinear multiple regression analysis revealed improved cor-
regression analysis is presented in Equation (5) and, also has a higher R2 of 0.46 compared
relations compared with those from the equations derived by simple regression analysis.
with the corresponding simple regression equation (Figures 8a and 10a):
Even though the obtained slight increase in the coefficient of determination was lower
than expected, this study is meaningful in that it is demonstrates VR −1.1625
 that improved prediction
m =
of Ethe Em−and
35.1588 + 0.11367
PL values of weathered
1.2859
( N 60 ) granite + 136.3515
can be( obtained by (MPa), R2considering
additionally = 0.76 (4)
σv0 /Pa
the VR, chemical weathering index that represents the physical properties of weathered
granite. The equation for Em as a function of SPT-N VR60 and−normalized
 0.3767 VR is presented in
1.8969 2
P
Equation = − 9.0592 + 0.0001 (
(4), for which R = 0.76, N ) + 18.4856
60 which is larger than ( ( MPa ), R = 0.46 anal-
(5)
σv0 /Pthat for the simple regression
L 2
a
ysis equation (Figure 7a and Figure 9a). The equation for PL derived by nonlinear multiple
For evaluation, the results obtained by the empirical Equations (4) and (5) derived
in this study were compared with the results of equations derived in relevant previous
studies presented in Table 2, as shown in Figure 11. The types of soils for the equation
presented in Table 2 are different from that used in this study. However, unfortunately,
there are very few studies for estimating the relationship between the results of PMT and
SPT on weathering granite. Therefore, in this study, the most similar studies performed on
sandy material among the existing studies were compared with the Equations (4) and (5).
The equations in the previous studies used a single variable, SPT-N60 , and can thus be only
used to estimate Em or PL for a certain SPT-N60 . However, the equations derived in this
study use an additional variable, VR, which is a measure of the degree of weathering and
can thus be used to estimate Em and PL from SPT-N60 . Furthermore, the present empirical
equations derived by nonlinear multiple regression can more accurately reproduce the
PMT results for South Korean granite compared with the equations suggested by the other
studies that are presented in Table 2.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x3411
2021, 11, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
12 of 14
13

1000 100
Pressuremeter modulus (field measurement) Limit pressure (field measurement)
Chiang and Ho (1980) Chiang and Ho (1980)
Pressuremeter modulus (MPa)

Bozbey and Togrol (2010) Bozbey and Togrol (2010)

800 80
Cheshomi and Ghodrati (2014) Cheshomi and Ghodrati (2014)

Limit pressure (MPa)

This study (non-liner regression) This study (non-liner regression)

600 60

400 40

200 20

10 100 1000 10 100 1000

SPT-N60 (blows) SPT-N60 (blows)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Comparison of the measured and predicted
predicted values
values of
of (a)
(a) EEmm and (b) PLL..

Although the equation proposed by Chiang and Ho [6] was based on the analysis of
5. Conclusions
weathered
In this granite
study, the in Hong
modulus Kong, ofwhich is similar
deformation Em to the target stratum
(pressuremeter modulus)of thisandstudy,
limitit
underestimates E m and P L for the weathered granite of the
pressure PL of weathered granite in South Korea were assessed based on the SPT-N60 value present study. This is because
Chiang
and and Howeathering
chemical [6] derived the equations
index using datamultiple
VR. Nonlinear that contained
regression SPT-Nanalysis
60 values of ≤con-
was 130,
as opposed to those with SPT-N60 values of 61–644 that were used in the present study.
ducted using SPT-N60 and VR as the independent variables, specifically for the values
The equations proposed by Bozbey and Togrol [8] were based on the results of SPTs
measured at three sites in South Korea. The analysis was used to derive empirical equa-
and PMTs conducted on the medium to very dense sandy soils with SPT-N60 ≤ 100 and
tions for Em and PL, and the predictions of the equations were compared with the equations
also underestimate the PMT results for the weathered granite examined in the present
suggested in the previous relevant studies. The study and its findings can be summarized
study. However, Cheshomi and Ghodrati [9] obtained their empirical equations based
as follows:
on data for dense to very dense silty sands (SPT-N60 < 50), with the predictions of Em for
1) The relationships
weathered between to
granite comparable thethose
PMTofand theSPT-N
present 60 results were derived by simple re-
corresponding equation; however,
gression analyses, which revealed
their predicted PL are higher than those obtained in thethat E m tended to increase
presented with increasing
study. SPT-Nthe
Regarding 60.

Relatively high correlations were observed when both an allometric

similarity for Em , the Em values for the specific samples used by Cheshomi and Ghodrati [9], model and linear
where modelSPT-N were utilized, as represented by R2 of 0.71. The correlations were lower for PL,
60 ≥ 35, were approximately 30% larger than those for the samples used by
as represented
Bozbey and Togrol [8]. by Therefore,
the R2 values of correlation
a local 0.44 and 0.43 basedfor on
thethe two models,
local respectively,
rock characteristics
revealing no significant difference.
is important for predicting the engineering properties of geo-materials. The proposed
2) The chemical
equations of Em and weathering index that
PL are intended forhasusebeenin therarely considered
geotechnical in previous
survey studies
of weathered
was used to
granite in South Korea. evaluate the PMT results. The normalized VR with vertical effective stress
revealed a relatively good correlation with Em (R = 0.67). Therefore, it is useful as a
2

5. Conclusions
simple method for the estimation of Em of weathered granite in preliminary site char-
acterization.
In this study, the modulus of deformation Em (pressuremeter modulus) and limit
3) Nonlinear
pressure multiple regression
PL of weathered granite in analyses
South Korea were conducted
were assessedby combining
based the allometric
on the SPT-N 60 value
models that produced improved correlations between
and chemical weathering index VR. Nonlinear multiple regression analysis was conducted E m , P L, SPT-N 60 , and normalized
usingVR.SPT-NThe 60 obtained
and VRequations of Em and variables,
as the independent PL had better R2 values
specifically for(0.76
the and
values 0.46, respec-
measured
tively)
at three sitesthan the equations
in South Korea. Theobtained
analysis by wassimple
used toregression
derive empiricalin other studies.for
equations Em
Even
and P L , and the obtained
though predictions of the
slight equations
increase in thewere compared
coefficient with the equations
of determination suggested
was lower than
in the previousthis
expected, relevant
studystudies. The study
is meaningful anditits
in that findings to
is possible can be summarized
obtain as follows:
improved prediction
of the E and P values of weathered granite by
(1) The relationships between the PMT and SPT-N60 results were derived by simple
m L additionally considering VR, which
isregression
a chemical weathering
analyses, which index that represents
revealed that Em tended the physical
to increase properties of weathered
with increasing SPT-
granite.
N60 . Relatively high correlations were observed when both an allometric model
4) Empirical
and linearequations
model were suggested
utilized,inas other studies were
represented by R2basedof 0.71. on Thea single variablewere
correlations (i.e.,
SPT-N ) and can thus be only used to 2estimate either E
lower for PL , as represented by the R values of 0.44 and 0.43 for the two models,
60 m or P L for a particular SPT-
Nrespectively,
60. However,revealingthe empirical equations
no significant proposed in this paper utilize an additional
difference.
(2) variable
The chemical VR canweathering
thus predict the E
index m and
that hasPbeen
L by considering
rarely considered both the in degree
previous of studies
weath-
ering
was used and to SPT-N 60. To
evaluate determine
the PMT results. the The
engineering
normalized properties
VR with verticalof geo-materials, this
effective stress
study
revealedproposes the Em good
a relatively and PLcorrelation with Em (R2surveys
for use in geotechnical = 0.67).ofTherefore,
weathereditgranite is usefulin
South Korea.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 12 of 13

as a simple method for the estimation of Em of weathered granite in preliminary

site characterization.
(3) Nonlinear multiple regression analyses were conducted by combining the allometric
models that produced improved correlations between Em , PL , SPT-N60 , and normal-
ized VR. The obtained equations of Em and PL had better R2 values (0.76 and 0.46,
respectively) than the equations obtained by simple regression in other studies. Even
though the obtained slight increase in the coefficient of determination was lower
than expected, this study is meaningful in that it is possible to obtain improved
prediction of the Em and PL values of weathered granite by additionally considering
VR, which is a chemical weathering index that represents the physical properties of
weathered granite.
(4) Empirical equations suggested in other studies were based on a single variable (i.e.,
SPT-N60 ) and can thus be only used to estimate either Em or PL for a particular SPT-N60 .
However, the empirical equations proposed in this paper utilize an additional variable
VR can thus predict the Em and PL by considering both the degree of weathering
and SPT-N60 . To determine the engineering properties of geo-materials, this study
proposes the Em and PL equations for use in geotechnical surveys of weathered granite
in South Korea.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.-H.L. and K.-H.P.; methodology, S.-H.L.; software,

S.-H.L.; validation, S.-H.L., T.-Y.K. and K.-H.P.; formal analysis, S.-H.L.; investigation, T.-Y.K.; re-
sources, S.-H.L.; data curation, S.-H.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.-H.L.; writing—review
and editing, T.-Y.K. and K.-H.P.; visualization, T.-Y.K.; supervision, K.-H.P.; funding acquisition,
K.-H.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Construction Technologies Program funded by the
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of the Korean government, grant number 21SCIP-
C151438-03. The authors are grateful for the support.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Clayton, C.R.I.; Matthews, M.C.; Simons, N. Site Investigation; Blackwell Science: London, UK, 1995.
2. Bolton Seed, H.; Tokimatsu, K.; Harder, L.F.; Chung, R.M. Influence of SPT procedures in soil liquefaction resistance evaluations.
J. Geotech. Eng. 1985, 111, 1425–1445. [CrossRef]
3. Meyerhof, G. Penetration tests and bearing capacity of cohesionless soils. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 1956, 82, 1–19. [CrossRef]
4. Terzaghi, K.; Peck, R. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: New York, NY, USA, 1948.
5. Benoît, J.; Howie, J.A. A View of Pressuremeter Testing in North America. Soils Rocks 2014, 37, 211–231.
6. Chiang, Y.; Ho, Y. Pressuremeter method for foundation in Hongkong. In Proceedings of the Sixth Southeast Asian Conference
on Soil Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan, 19–23 May 1980; pp. 31–42.
7. Yagiz, S.; Akyol, A.E.; Sen, A.G. Relationship between the standard penetration test and the pressuremeter test on sandy silty
clays: A case study from Denizli. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2008, 67, 405–410. [CrossRef]
8. Bozbey, I.; Togrol, E. Correlation of standard penetration test and pressuremeter data: A case study from Istanbul, Turkey. Bull.
Eng. Geol. Environ. 2010, 69, 505–515. [CrossRef]
9. Cheshomi, A.; Ghodrati, M. Estimating Menard pressuremeter modulus and limit pressure from SPT in silty sand and silty clay
soils. A case study in Mashhad, Iran. Geomech. Geoengin. 2015, 10, 194–202. [CrossRef]
10. Udagedara, D.T.; Oguchi, C.T.; Gunatilake, A.A.J.K. Combination of chemical indices and physical properties in the assessment
of weathering grades of sillimanite-garnet gneiss in tropical environment. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2017, 76, 145–157. [CrossRef]
11. Rigopoulos, I.; Tsikouras, B.; Pomonis, P.; Hatzipanagiotou, K. Assessment of the engineering behavior of ultramafic and mafic
rocks using chemical indices. Eng. Geol. 2015, 196, 222–237. [CrossRef]
12. Irfan, T.Y. Mineralogy, fabric properties and classification of weathered granites in Hong Kong. Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 1996,
29, 5–35. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3411 13 of 13

13. Chiu, C.F.; Ng, C.W.W. Relationships between chemical weathering indices and physical and mechanical properties of decom-
posed granite. Eng. Geol. 2014, 179, 76–89. [CrossRef]
14. Kim, S.; Park, H.-D. The relationship between physical and chemical weathering indices of granites around Seoul, Korea. Bull.
Eng. Geol. Environ. 2003, 62, 207–212. [CrossRef]
15. ASTM D1586 Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils. 2011. Available
online: www.astm.org (accessed on 26 June 2018). [CrossRef]
16. Dasaka, S.M.; Zhang, L.M. Spatial variability of in situ weathered soil. Geotechnique 2012, 62, 375–384. [CrossRef]
17. Suzuki, Y.; Goto, S.; Hatanaka, M.; Tokimatsu, K. Correlation between strengths and penetration resistances for gravelly soils.
Soils Found. 1993, 33, 92–101. [CrossRef]
18. Sun, C.G.; Kim, B.H.; Park, K.H.; Chung, C.K. Geotechnical comparison of weathering degree and shear wave velocity in the
decomposed granite layer in Hongseong, South Korea. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 74, 6901–6917. [CrossRef]
19. ASTM D4719 StandardTest Methods for Prebored Pressuremeter Testing in Soils. 2007. Available online: www.astm.org (accessed
on 26 June 2018).
20. Reiche, P. Graphic representation of chemical weathering. SEPM J. Sediment. Res. 1943, 13, 58–68. [CrossRef]
21. Ruxton, B.P. Measures of the degree of chemical weathering of rocks. J. Geol. 1968, 76, 518–527. [CrossRef]
22. Vogel, D.E. Precambrian weathering in acid metavolcanic rocks from the superior province, Villebon Township, South-Central
Québec. Can. J. Earth Sci. 1975, 12, 2080–2085. [CrossRef]
23. Nesbitt, H.W. Mobility and fractionation of rare earth elements during weathering of a granodiorite. Nature 1979, 279,
206–210. [CrossRef]
24. Vogt, T. Geology and petrography of the Sulitjel field (Sulitjelmafeltets geologi og petrografi). Nor. Geol. Surv. 1927, 121, 1–560.
25. Lee, S.-H. Estimation of Geotechnical Properties on Highly and Completely Weathered Granite Using Chemical Weathering
Index. Ph.D. Thesis, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, 2020.
26. Price, J.R.; Velbel, M.A. Chemical weathering indices applied to weathering profiles developed on heterogeneous felsic metamor-
phic parent rocks. Chem. Geol. 2003, 202, 397–416. [CrossRef]
27. Ban, J.-D.; Moon, S.-W.; Lee, S.-W.; Lee, J.-G.; Seo, Y.-S. Physical and chemical weathering indices for biotite granite and granitic
weathered soil in Gyeongju. J. Eng. Geol. 2017, 27, 451–462.
28. Arel, E.; Tugrul, A. Weathering and its relation to geomechanical properties of Cavusbasi granitic rocks in Northwestern Turkey.
Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2001, 60, 123–133. [CrossRef]