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Phylum Platyhelminthes

Position in Animal Kingdom

• Platyhelminthes, or flatworms, Nemertea, or ribbon worms, and
Gnathostomulida, or jaw worms, are the simplest animals to have primary
bilateral symmetry.
• These phyla have only one internal space, a digestive cavity, with the region
between the ectoderm and endoderm filled with mesoderm in the form of
muscle fibers and mesenchyme (parenchyma). Since they lack a coelom or a
pseudocoelom, they are termed acoelomate Animals, and because they have
three well-defined germ layers, they are termed triploblastic.
• Acoelomates show more specialization and division of labor among their
organs than do radiate animals because having mesoderm makes more
elaborate organs possible. Thus acoelomates are said to have reached the organ-
system level of organization.
• They belong to the protostome division of the Bilateria and have spiral
cleavage, and at least platyhelminths and nemerteans have mosaic
(determinate) cleavage.

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• Bilateral symmetry;
• Protostomes
(mouth from
blastospore)
• Flattened
dorsoventrally

• Bilateral simetri, terdapat ujung anterior dan

posterior, pipih dorsoventral
• Sisem saraf bagian depan terdapat ganglion
dan tali saraf di sepanjang tubuh
Lebih maju daripada
• Terdapat mesodermis sebagai lapisan
Porifera dan Cnidaria kecambah (germ) – membentuk alat tubuh
karena antara ektoderm dan endoderm
• Terdapat lapisan otot
• Terdapat gonad internal dengan saluran yang
tetap dengan alat kopulasi
Platyhel
minthes

• Tidak mempunyai rongga tubuh (selom)

Berbeda dengan hewan • Cabang usus tersebar ke seluruh badan
tingkat tinggi karena • Tanpa dubur
• Monosiesious [hermaprodit]

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Characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes

1. Three germ layer (triploblastic)
2. Bilateral symmetry; definite polarity of anterior and
posterior ends.
3. Body flattened dorsoventrally in most, oral and genital
apertures mostly on ventral surface
4. Epidermis may be cellular or syncytial (ciliated in some);
rhabdites in epidermis of most Turbellaria; epidermis a
syncytial tegument in Monogenea, Trematoda, Cestoda
and some Turbellaria
5. Muscular system of mesodermal origin, in the form of a
sheath of circular, longitudinal and oblique layers
beneath the epidermis or tegument.

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6. Tidak mempunyai rongga tubuh (acoelomate) selain

tabung pencernaan; ruang antara organ diisi
dengan parenkim
7. Digestive system incomplete (gastrovascular type);
absent in some
8. Nervous system consisting of a pair of anterior
ganglia with longitudinal nerve cords connected to
transverse nerves cord and located in the
parenchyma in most forms, similar to cnidarians in
primitive forms,
9. Simple sense organs, eye spots in some

10. Excretory system of two lateral canal with branches

bearing flame cells (protonepridia); lacking in some
forms
11. Respiratory, cisculatory and skeletal systems
lacking; lymph channels with free cells in some
trematodes
12. Most forms monoecious; reproductive system complex,
usually with well-developed gonads, ducts and
accessory organs; internal fertilization; life cycle simple
in free-swimming forms and those with single hosts;
complicated life cycle often involving several hosts in
many internal parasites.
13. Class Turbellaria mostly free-living; class Monogenea,
Trematoda and Cestoda entirely parasitic.

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Form and Function

Outer Body Covering

• Permukaan tubuh (e.g.,turbellarians) diselaputi oleh epidermis

bersilia
• Sel-sel epidermis mengandung struktur menyerupai batang (rod-
shape) disebut rhabdites ketika dilepaskan ke lingkungan air di
sekitarnya, mengembang dan membentuk mukosa melapisi
tubuhnya.
• The outer body covering of other platyhelminthes (e.g., parasitic
forms) is a non-ciliated tegument
• The tegument is referred to as a syncytial epithelium

*) syncytial epithelium. This means it is made from the fusion of many cells, each containing
one nucleus, to produce a multinucleated cell membrane.

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Outer Body Covering: plannarian

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Nutrition and Digestion

• Beberapa cacing pipih mempunyai sistem digesti, dengan mulut, faring,
dan usus sederhana atau bercabang.
• Pada Turbellaria faring berotot [muscular pharynx] dapat dijulurkan
• Usus dengan satu bukaan, tanpa dubur
• Dalam usus terdapat enzim proteolitik untuk pencernaan ekstraselluler.
• Makanan dihisap ke dalam usus → sel-sel gastrodermis mencerna secara
intraselluler [fagositosis]
• Makanan yang tidak tercerna dikeluarkan melalui faring
• Pada cacing pita seluruh system pencernaan tidak ada, nutrisi [small
molecule] secara langsung dihisap dari host melalui tegument.

• Turbellarians are marine free-living species; they are also the only
type of flatworm that is not parasitic. They are carnivorous and
feed on smaller animals or dead animals. They take the food in,
and then secrete the waste out of the same hole.
• At the other end of the spectrum, Cestoidea or tapeworms are
parasitic worms that prey on vertebrates, they latch on inside the
intestine of animal, and absorb the food through their bodies as
they do not have a “mouth” (they essentially eat the food that
would otherwise be digested by their host).
• In the middle lie the Monogenea and Tremadota species. These
species latch on to either the internal organs or outer part of their
host and feed off them.

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Excretion and Osmoregulation

• Terdiri dari sepasang saluran longitudinal yang terletak di

sepanjang sisi tubuh, bercabang, pada ujung cabang terdapat
sel-sel api (flame cell)
• Fungsi utama sistem ekresi adalah pengaturan air
[osmoregulasi]. Terdiri dari dua struktur sel yang disebut
protonepridia (flame cell = sel-sel api).
• Setiap protonepridium mengandung flame cells yang
mengeluarkan air melalui nepridiopore (pori ekresi) ke luar
tubuh.

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Nervous System
Ganglion serebral
• Includes: ganglion serebral
anterior, pembuluh saraf
Bintik mata
longitudinal, dan lateral (sistem (oceli) transversal
saraf tangga tali)
• Sebagian besar free living and
parasitic larval forms mempunyai
organ sensori seperti bintik mata
(eye spots), statosist (alat
keseimbangan), dan rheoreceptors
[sensitive terhadap arah aliran
air]. longitudinal

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These are the

major components
of a Planarian
nervous system. C
is an image of a
Planarian eyespot

Muscular System
Di bawah epidermis terdapat serabut otot sirkular, longitudinal,
dan transversal, digunakan untuk lokomosi

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Reproductive System

• Sebagian dapat melakukan

reproduksi secara aseksual
(misal turbellaria dengan
pembelahan)
• Sebagian besar bersifat
hermaprodit; however,
they often pair with other
individuals to exchange
gametes.

Platyhelminthes Usegmented; triploblastic; bilaterally symetris; body flattened

dorsoventrally; without circulatory system, anus or coelom, usually
hermaphroditic.
Class General characteristic Example Species
Turbellaria Mostly free-living, enteron present, bilaterally symmetrical, Planaria, Dugesia
body usually covered with cilia; rhabdites usually present;
suckers usually absent; life cycle simple.
Trematoda Parasitic; enteron present; no cilia in adult; but cuticle Fasciola hepatica
(Trematodes) present; suckers on ventral surface; typically with complex
life cycles
Monogenea Closer to Cestoda; mostly external parasites (fish); have Fundulotrema prolongis
(flukes) opisthaptor (a hooked attachement organ); life cycle simple
with a single host (single descent), egg hatches a ciliated
larva that attaches to a host or swims around awhile before
attachment.
Cestoda Endoparasites; entoron present; no cilia in adult, but cuticule Taenia saginata
(tapeworm) present; proglotids usually formed; scolex attaches to host;
typically with more than one host in life cycle.

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• Free-living flatworms;
mostly marine
organisms
• Range in size from
microscopic
(interstitial species
between sand grains)
to extremely large (two
feet)

• These organsims are free- living, which

means they can be found in the
environment like any other organism.
• They mostly can be found at the bottom
of bodies of war because they are
aquatic.
• There are a few terrestrial species which
are mostly nocturnal and live in humid
locations, for example, leaf littler or
rotting wood. Also some turbellarians
live symbiotically with other animals,
and some are parasites.
• Some aquatic species can burrow for
safety. In the burrow they anchor their
rear end to the bottom and stretch their
head up when it's time to feed.
• Crazy fun fact: Turbellarians digest
themselves when deprived of food for
too long. When they begin feeding
normally again, turbellarians can return
to normal size and regenerate any
organs they may have digested.

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Turbellarian Body Wall

• Epidermis has indirect contact with the environment
• A basement membrane of connective tissue
separates the epidermis from mesodermally derived
tissues
• The innermost tissue layer is the endodermally
derived gastrodermis. This tissue layer consists of a
single layer of cells that comprise the digestive cavity.
This gastrodermis secretes enzymes that aid in
digestion, and it absorbs the end products of
digestion
• Ventral Surface: (1) rhabdites- rodlike cells that swell
and form a protective mucous sheath around the
body, in response to attempted predation or
desiccation, (2) adhesive glands- open to the
epithelial surface and produce a chemical that
attaches part of the turbellarian to a substrate, and
(3) releaser glands- secrete a chemical that dissolves
the attachment as needed

Turbellarian Locomotion

• 1st group of bilaterally symmetrical

animals to appear
• Primarily bottom dwellers that glide over
the substrate
• Move using cilia and muscular
undulations with the muscular
undulations playing a big role
• All movement happens from these 2
mechanisms: (1) Gliding - muscular and
ciliary and (2) Rapid movements pass
from the head backwards, propelling the
animal forward.

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Turbellarian Exchange with the environment

• Do not have respiratory organs so
respiratory gases (carbon dioxide and
oxygen) are exchanged by diffusion
through the body wall
• Protonephridia: networks of fine tubules
that run the length along its sides
• Flame cells: numerous; fine side
branches of the tubules originate in the
parenchyma; tiny enlargements. These
have numerous cilia that project into the
lumen of the tubule
• Nephridiopore: tubules that eventually
merge and open to the outside of the
body wall; the minute opening

Turbellarian Digestion
• Lack the digestive cavity (some marine)
• Blind cavity varies from a simple,
unbranched chamber to a highly
branched system of digestive
tubes.(others are lobed)
• Highly branched digestive systems are
an advancement that results in more
gastrodermis closer to the sites of
digestion and absorption reducing the
distance nutrients must diffuse
• Pharynx functions as an ingestive organ
• Sensory cells (chemoreceptors) on their
heads help then detect food from a
considerable distance

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Turbellarian Nerve Systems

• Most primitive in order Acoela made of

sub epidermal nerve plexus
• Dugesia: consists of a sub epidermal
nerve net and several pairs of long nerve
cords (commissures) that connect the
nerve cords. Neurons are organized into
sensory (primitive brain), motor (Going
away from primitive brain), and
association (connecting) types

Structure of the planarian

CNS. (a) A whole mount in
situ hybridization view from
the ventral side showing the
gross structure of the
planarian CNS (stained with
a prohormone convertase 2
homologue, DjPC2, probe).
The cell bodies of neurons
are stained. The planarian
CNS is composed of an
inverted U-shaped brain
(bracket) and a pair of VNCs
(arrows). (b) Immunostaining
of the planarian nervous
system with anti-DjSYT
(planarian synaptotagmin). In
contrast to the pattern in (a),
only axons are stained. The
ladder-like structure of the
commissure neurons of the
VNCs can be clearly
observed (ventral view).

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Turbellarian Reproduction

• Reproduksi aseksual dengan fragmentasi (fission)

• Daya regenarsinya tinggi
• Hermaprodit tapi terjadi cross-fertilization
• The penis of some turbellarians is modified as a hollow stylet; sperm
tranfer is by hypodermic impregnation, in which the copulating
partners stab each other and inject sperm

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Ordo 1. Acoela ; Faring tanpa otot, tanpa usus

Convoluta albomaculata Convoluta boyeri Convoluta confusa Convoluta lacrimosa

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Convoluta schuelii Convoluta thela

Haplogonaria amarilla
sp. nov.;
photomicrographs of
living specimen. A.
Dorsal view of whole
specimen. B. View of
anterior tip. C. View
of posterior tip. e,
egg; fg, frontal gland;
rh, rhabdoid gland;
sb, seminal bursa; st,
statocyst; sv, seminal
vesicle; t, testes.

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Ordo 2. Catenulida; pharyx simple, intestine saclike, one protonepridium

http://turbellaria.umaine.edu/turb3.php?action=5

Dasyhormus illliesi Dasyhormus lithoporus

Ordo 3. Macrostomida; pharyx simple, intestine saclike,two protonepridia

Macrostomum aegyptium Omalostomum claparedii Psammomacrostomum turbanelloides

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Macrostomum appendiculatum Macrostomum astericis

Ordo 4. Neorhabdocoela/Neotyphloplanida: pharyx bulbose, intestine saclike,

two protonepridia, sexual reproduction only, fresh water and marine species.

Dalyellia viridis Dalyelliidae Microdalyellia Halammovortex eastmani

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Halammovortex lewisi Jensenia macropharynx Castrada trispina

Ordo 5. Temnocephalida: ectocomensal, fresh-water.

Temnocephala lamothei Temnosewellia minor Temnosewellia acirra

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Ordo 6. Alloeocoela: simple, bulbose, plicate pharyx; intestine with short

diverticula; mostly marine.

Plagiostomum caudatum Plagiostomum cuticulata

Plagiostomum anocelis Plagiostomum vittatum Acmostomum dioicum

Ordo 7. Tricladida: plicate pharyx, intestine with three main branches, each
with many diverticula, mouth near of the ventral surface.

Dugesia tigrina

Planaria gonocephala Dugesia izuensis Dugesia japonica Planaria simplex Planaria maculata

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Geoplana vaginuloides Geoplana sp.

Bdellaura candida Procerodes lobatus Bipalium sp Bipalium Stimpson

Ordo 8. Polycladida: marine species only, have a central digestive cavity,

branches extend to various part of the body, a posteriorly located mouth.

Planocera ceratommata Leptoplana cf. mediterranea Planocera graffi Pseudoallioplana californica

Planocera multitentacula Pseudobiceros gratus .Planocera cf. oligoglena Planocera reticulata

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Class Trematoda
• All parasitic fluke, adult all found as endoparasites
of vertebrates.
• Leaflike in form and structurally similar in many to
more complex Turbellaria
• Adaptation for parasitism: penetration glands
(gland to produce cyst material), organ for adhesion
(sucker & hook) and increased reproductive
capacity.
• Similar with Turbellarian: well-developed alimentary
canal (but with mouth at the anterior, or cephalic
end), reproductive, excretory, and nervous systems,
as well as a muscular and parenchyma, sense
organ poorly developed.

• The second class of flukes is known as class

Trematoda which is further broken down into
two subclasses; Digenetic flukes and
Aspidogastrean flukes.
• However, for Aspidogastream flukes, there is no
known relation to human infections. Therefore,
the term ‘flukes’ when associated with human
infection, it is most likely referring to digenetic
flukes.
• Trematodes are mostly endoparasitic (infects
hosts internally) and most of the adults live on
vertebrates. The digenea flukes live in guts,
bloodstream or the host tissues. Similar to class
Monogenea flukes, their body are also covered
with tegument whereby cilia are absence in
adults

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Reproduction

• Trematodes are also generally hermaphroditic, just like the

Turbellarians.
• For the male system, the number of testes differs in
monogenetic flukes (many testes) and digenetic flukes (only
two).
• The sperms produced in testes and later stored in seminal
vesicle, will eventually move via the sperm duct into the penis,
where the sperm and semen are ejaculated into the female
orifice.

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Ordo 1. Aspidogastrea: lack of oral sucker but have very large compartmented
ventral sucker, usually with one host a mollusk or cold-blooded vertebrate.

Aspidogaster conchicola Rugogaster hydrolagi Aspidogaster conchicola infects the

zebra mussel

Aspidogaster conchicola

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Lobatostoma manteri is an
example of a species which has
obligate vertebrate hosts. Adult
worms live in the small intestine
of the snubnosed
dart, Trachinotus
blochi (Teleostei, Carangidae),
on the Great Barrier Reef. They
produce large numbers of eggs
which are shed in the faeces. If
eaten by various prosobranch
snails, larvae hatch in the
stomach, and - depending on the
species of snail - stay there or
migrate to the digestive gland
where they grow up to the
preadult stage which has all the
characteristics of the adult
including a testis and ovary (Fig.
2) (Rohde, 1973).

Ordo 2. Digenea: endoparasites, life cycle two or more host

• Hidup sebagai parasit (endo atau ekto parasit) pada organisme lain.
• Permukaan tubuh tidak bersilia, tegument memiliki lapisan glikoprotein,
penting untuk proteksi dan absorbsi
• Mempunyai dua kait (penghisap; sucker): (1) Oral sucker melekatkan
diri pada organ inang, (2) ventral sucker or acetabulum; melekatkan
diri pada jaringan inang

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Fasciola hepatica

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Some Common Trematodes of Man

Common Name Scientific Name Developmental Geographical Distribution Host
Stage
Fasciolopsis buski In water grown China-Indo China, Formosa, Man, pigs
Intestinal vegetables Sumatra, India
Fluke Heterophyes heterophyes In fresh water fish Egypt, China, Japan Man, cat, dog, and fox
Metagonimus yokogawai In trout Spain, China, Russia, Japan Man, cat dan dog
Opisthorchis sinensis In fresh water fish China, Japan, Korea, Indo- Man, cat, dog, and fish-
China eating mammals
Fasciola hepatica On vegetation America, Asia, Europe, Africa Sheep, cattle, pigs, man
Liver Fluke
Opisthorchis filineus In fresh-water fish Baltic countries, Annam, Man, cat, dog
Philipines
Clonorchis sinensis In fresh water Eastern Asia Man, fish, snail
Paragonimus westermanii In fresh water crab or Japan, Korea, Formosa, Man, tiger, dog, cat, pig,
Lung Fluke cryfish Philipines, America mink
Schistosoma haematobium In fresh water Africa, Asia Man, monkey,
experimentally in rat,
mouse, monkey
Blood Fluke Schistosoma mansoni In fresh water Africa, West Indies, South Man, experimentally in
America other mammals
Schistosoma japonicum In fresh water Eastern Asia Man, cat, dog, pig, etc.

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Definitive host (primary host); the host in which the parasite

matures and reproduces (sexually). The host in which eggs are
released

Tipe Inang
• Siklus hidup
lengkap antara
tahap sexual
and asexual . Intermediate host ; Hosts in which larval stages develop and
• Sebagian besar undergo asexual reproduction, results in an increase in the
minimal number of the individuals
mempunyai dua
inang yang
berbeda dalam
siklus
hidupnya:

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• Adults live in the bile ducts of humans,

dogs, and cats
• There are 2 intermediate hosts: a snail and
a fish
• Eggs are passed out of the definitive host
and hatch as ciliated larvae called
miracidia
• The miracidia penetrates a snail molluscan
host and becomes a sporocyst
• They undergo asexual reproduction
producing larvae called rediae
• Rediae often asexually produce more
rediae, but will eventually give rise to
larvae called cercariae
• They leave the molluscan host and
penetrate fish
• They encyst in the fish tissues as the
metacercaria
• Consumption of infected fish results in the
metacercaria excysting in the gut and
migrating to the bile duct.
General Life Cycle - Chinese liver fluke, Clonorchis sinensis

Seekor cacing dapat

menghasilkan
500.000 telur.
Seekor kambing
dapat mengandung
lebih dari 200
cacing. Maka
seekor kambing
dapat mengandung
lebih dari 100 juta
telur

Life cycle of liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica)

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Life cycle of lung fluke (Paragonimus westermanii)

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Ordo 2. Digenea Bucephalidae

• Genus Alcicornis
Bucephalids are trematode parasites of fish. The intermediate hosts • Genus Bucephalopsis
include mollusks and at least one amphibian. One characteristic feature is • Genus Bucephalus
an anterior rhyncus or holdfast that is separate from the digestive system. • Genus Dolichoenterum
They also differ from other digeneans in the configuration of the digestive • Genus Dollfustrema
systems and genitalia • Genus Paurorhynchus
• Genus Prosorhynchoides
• Genus Prosorhynchus
• Genus Rhipidocotyle
• Genus Telorhynchus

Bucephalus polymorphus larva

Ordo 2. Digenea Pharamphistomatidae

• Genus Allassostoma
• Genus Allassostomoides
• Genus Calicophoron
• Genus Chiorchis
• Genus Cleptodiscus
• Genus Cotylophoron
• Genus Megalodiscus
• Genus Ophioxenos
• Genus Paramphistomum
• Genus Pisciamphistoma
• Genus Pseudophisthodiscus
• Genus Stichorchis
• Genus Wardius
• Genus Zygocotyle

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Ordo 2. Digenea Gorgoridae

• Genus Gorgodera
• Genus Gorgoderina
• Genus Phyllodistomum
• Genus Probolitrema
• Genus Staphylorchis

Ordo 2. Digenea Plagiorchiidae

• Genus Allopharynx
• Genus Dolichosaccus
• Genus Eustomus
• Genus Neoglyphe
• Genus Parastiotrema
• Genus Plagiorchis
• Genus Plagitura
• Genus Stomatrema
• Genus Styphlodora
• Genus Styphlotrema
• Genus Travtrema

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Ordo 2. Digenea Ophisthorchiidae

• Genus Amphimerus
• Genus Clonorchis
• Genus Metorchis
• Genus Opisthorchis
• Genus Parametorchis
• Genus Plotnikovia
• Genus Pseudamphimerus

Clonorchis sinensis Opisthorchis viverrini

Ordo 2. Digenea Troglotrematidae

• Genus Beaveria
• Genus Troglotrema
• Genus Xiphidiotrema

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Ordo 2. Digenea Fasciolariidae

• Genus Fasciolaria
• Genus Fusinus
• Genus Glaphyrina
• Genus Heilprinia
• Genus Latirus
• Genus Leucozonia
• Genus Microfulgur
• Genus Pleia
• Genus Pleuroploca
• Genus Taron
• Genus Teralatirus

Fasciola hepatica Fasciola gigantica

Ordo 2. Digenea Strigeiidae

• Genus Apatemon
• Genus Apharyngostrigea
• Genus Cardiocephalus
• Genus Cotylurus
• Genus Dendritobilharzia
• Genus Nematostrigea
• Genus Ophiosoma
• Genus Parastrigea
• Genus Strigea

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Ordo 2. Digenea Scistosomatidae

• Genus Austrobilharzia
• Genus Bilharziella
• Genus Dendrobilharzia
• Genus Gigantobilharzia
• Genus Heterobilharzia
• Genus Microbilharzia
• Genus Ornithobilharzia
• Genus Schistosoma
• Genus Schistosomatium
• Genus Trichobilharzia

Class Monogenea
• Monogenetic flukes traditionally
have been placed as an order of
Trematoda
• Cladistic analysis closer to
Cestoda
• Mostly external parasites that clamp
onto the gills and external surface
of fish using opisthaptor
• Life cycle simple with single host
• The egg hatches a ciliated larva
that attaches to a host or swim
around awhile before attachment.

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The life cycle of the

monogenetic flukes normally
involves only one host,
usually fishes. Once the egg
has been fertilized and
hatched, the larvae, also
known as oncomiracidium,
will be released and they will
float in the water in search of
a new host to attach to. They
used the fine cilia structures
to move in the water. Once
they have found a new host,
they will use the
appendages to attach
themselves and the whole
life cycle repeats
again. Below is the diagram
to illustrate the simple life
cycle of a monogenetic
fluke.

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Swingleus ancistrus Fundulotrema prolongis Gyrodactylus funduli

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General Morphology
 Tegument tidak bersilia, mengandung glikoprotein
 Bagian anterior disebut scolex, leher dan strobilum. Pada
scoleks terdapat 4 alat pelekat (sucker), rostellum dengan
empat kait (hook)
 Adults lack cilia and their surface is a tegument (as in
monogeneans and trematodes), but in cestodes the
tegument is covered with tiny projections, microvilli, which
increase its surface area and thereby its ability to absorb
nutrients from a host.
 Leher merupakan zona pertunasan terletak di belakang
kepala, menghubungkan scolex dengan strobila.

• Strobila dapat terdiri dari proglotid. Proglotid yang

terletak di belakang lebih dewasa dibanding yang di
depan
• Tidak ada alat pencernaan, makanan diserap melalui
dinding tubuh
• Alat ekskresi longitudinal, cabang yang berakhir di sel-
sel api
• Dalam progrlotid dewasa penuh dengan alat
reproduksi.
• Mature eggs released through an opening in the
proglottid or leave the host when the proglottids are
separated from the main body of the worm

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In tapeworms there are two distinct classes

of suckers, namely "bothridia" for true
suckers, and "bothria" for false suckers.
In digenetic flukes there are usually an oral
sucker at the mouth and a ventral sucker
(or acetabulum) posterior to the mouth

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SEM (A-D) view of

the metacestode. (A)
Scolex with hooks
and four lateral
suckers; (B) Double
rows of hooks on the
scolex; (C) A portion
of the Strobila
showing
segmentation,sugges
tive of
proglottidization; (D)
The terminal bladder
like end

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Reproduction

• Cestodes, or more commonly

known as tapeworms, are
also hermaphroditic.
Life Cycle of the Tapeworm
• They are able to self-fertilize
among themselves but cross-
fertilisation is more preferred
when mates are available.

Male System
The male part of
the tapeworm
consists of many
testes, single-
coiled sperm duct,
cirrus and genital
atrium. Look at the
red circles on the
diagram on the
right to see the
different parts of
the male systems.

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Female System
For the female
parts, it comprises
of the ovaries,
oviduct, ootype, the
uterus (extend from
the ootype) and
vagina.

• Both the male and female

reproductive parts will mature
as it moves nearer to the tip of
the body.
• New proglottids will be
produced to replace the mature
proglottids which is surrounded
with an expanded uterus (as
shown on the diagram) filled
with developing embryos.
• The mature proglottids which
can contain thousands of eggs
will eventually break free from
the tapeworm and be deposited
in the feces to continue its
lifecycle.

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Some Common Cestodes of Man

Scientific Name Developmental Geographical Host
Stage Distribution
Dibothriocephalus In copepods and fresh- World-wide, especially Man, dog, cat, fox
latus water fish Europe, Africa, North (intestine)
America, Japan
Echinococcus In liver, brain, lungs, World-wide, especially Dog and other
granulasus etc, of man, pig, sheep, Iceland, Australia, carnivore (intestine)
etc. Argentine
Hymenolepsis nana Man, rat, mouse World-wide Man, rat, mouse
Taenia saginata In muscle of cattle World-wide Man
Taenia solium In muscle of pig Wold-wide man
Diphyllobothrium fish Wold-wide human
latum

Principles differences scolex, proglotids and larva in Cestoda

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Beef Tapeworm, Taenia sagina

• Definitive host humans; intermediate

host cattle
• Eggs are shed with human feces;
infected persons defecate in a pasture
and the eggs are ingested by cattle
• Eggs hatch giving rise to oncosphere
larvae that bore into the intestinal
wall and get into the circulatory
system to be transported to muscle
• Here the larvae develop into the
cysticercus stage (=the bladder
worm) with the inverted scolex
• If uncooked beef is consumed the
cysticercus is freed and the scolex
everts, forming the adult
• Symptoms include loss of weight,
chronic indigestion, diarrhea

Section through the brain of a person

who died of cerebral cysticercosis, an
infection with cysticerci of Taenia solium
(pork tapeworm)

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The cestode
Diphyllobothrium
latum (the fish or
broad tapeworm), the
largest human
tapeworm. Several other
Diphyllobothrium
species have been
reported to infect
humans, but less
frequently; they
include D. pacificum, D.
cordatum, D. ursi, D.
dendriticum, D.
lanceolatum, D. dalliae,
and D. yonagoensis.

https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/echinococcosis/biology.html
Human echinococcosis
(hydatidosis, or hydatid
disease) is caused by the
larval stages of cestodes
(tapeworms) of the
genus Echinococcus. Echin
ococcus granulosus causes
cystic echinococcosis (CE),
the form most frequently
encountered; E.
multilocularis causes alveolar
echinococcosis (AE); E.
vogeli causes polycystic
echinococcosis; and E.
oligarthrus is an extremely
rare cause of human
echinococcosis

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Infected liver with

hydatid cysts

Hymenolepiasis is
primarily caused by the
cestode (tapeworm)
species, Hymenolepis
nana (the dwarf tapeworm),
adults measuring 15 to 40
mm in length). Eggs of
Hymenolepis nana are
immediately infective when
passed with the stool and
cannot survive more than 10
days in the external
environment.

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Subclass 1. Cestodaria. Order 1. Amphilinidea; The Amphilinidea are large (several cm long),
hermaphroditic, non-”segmented” flatworms whose adult stages live in the body cavity of turtles and teleost
fish and use crustaceans as intermediate hosts. More detail is available on the Life cycles page. They have
10 hooks of several types at the posterior end (Fig.1), and a posteriorly located large seminal receptacle
and ovary.

Amphilina japonica
Amphilina foliacea
Schizochoerus paragonopora
Gigantolina magna
Gigantolina elongata
Schizochoerus liguloideus
Schizochoerus janickii

Amphilina foliacea Amphilina japonica

Subclass 1. Cestodaria. Order 2. Gyrocotilidea;

Body monozoic, stout, fusiliform to elongate. Anterior

extremity with with muscular sucker-like attachment
organ. Posterior region of body attenuated and normally
terminates in rosette-like adhesive organ. Lateral margins
fluted or not. Spines on body surface widely distributed,
narrowly distributed (or absent?). Testes follicular, in two
anterolateral fields. Cirrus-sac absent. Genital pores
Images (from left to right ): Chimaera
separate. Male pore ventromedial, between anterior
monstrosa, Gyrocotyle sp. (images courtesy of
extremity and uterine pore. Ovary follicular, in V- or U-
R. Kuchta); head of Callorhinchus capensis.
shaped band around seminal receptacule; posterior to
uterus. Vaginal pore dorsal, lateral to male pore. Vagina
long, reaching back to oprn into seminal receptacle.
Uterus coiled medially in middle of body between seminal
receptacle and uterine pore; terminal part of uterus forms
uterine sac; uterine pore ventromedial in anterior part of
body. Eggs operculate; oncosphere bearing ten hooks.
Vitellarium follicular, filling lateral region of body.
Osmoregulatory system reticulate, with two anterior pores.
About 16 nominal species in 1 or 2 genera.

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 1. Proteocephalidea; small tapeworm; scolex with four suckers; vitellaria
as lateral bands; parasites of fishes, amphibians and reptiles. Almost 400 species in 54 genera and 12
subfamilies are recognized

SEM of scolex of Rudolphiella szidati; SEM of scolex of Chambriella paranensis; mature proglottid
of Monticellia ventrei; proteocephalidean hosts: Brachyplatysoma filamentosum (top), Bothrops
jararaca (bottom). (Photos courtesy of A. de Chambrier)

https://sites.google.com/site/tapewormpbi/about-tapeworm-orders

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 2. Tetraphyllidea; medium-sized; scolex with four bothrida; vitellaria in
lateral bands; parasites of elasmobranch fishes.

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 2. Tetraphyllidea; Scolex normally possessing 4 muscular bothridia that are
widely variable in form. Bothridia sessile or stalked, with or without hooks. In some groups left and right pairs
of bothridia are arranged back-to-back, each pair being born on a pedicel. Over 400 species, and 64 genera
recognized as valid

Images (from left to right): Scanning electron micrographs of Rhoptrobothrium myliobatidis, Triloculatum
bullardi, Paraorygmatobothrium sp., Acanthobothrium sp.

https://sites.google.com/site/tapewormpbi/about-tapeworm-orders/lecanicephalidea

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 3. Disculiceptidea; only one species known from elasmobranch fish.
Scolex with only a single flattened anterior expansion. Life cycle unknown.

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 4. Lecanicephalidae; Scolex with a variable anterior portion and a
posterior portion bearing four suckers; parasites of elasmobranch fishes. Currently, 65 species are
considered valid and another 52 species are considered to be species inquirendae . These species are
attributed to 22 genera, 8 of which are considered to be genera inquirendae . At this time, familial
boundaries are poorly understood and unstable.

Images (from left to right ): Scanning electron micrographs of Polypocephalus sp., n. gen. 1, and sperm;
light micrograph of n. gen. 2; scanning electron micrographs of n. gen. 1

https://sites.google.com/site/tapewormpbi/about-tapeworm-orders/lecanicephalidea

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 5. Pseudophylidea or Dibothriocephaloidea; small-large; scolex with two

bothrida; vitellaria as scattered follicles; uterine pore opens on surface; parasites of fishes, birds, and
mammals. About 240 nominal species (80 valid) in 16 genera.

Images (from left to right ): Various diphyllobothriideans (images courtesy of R. Kuchta)

https://sites.google.com/site/tapewormpbi/about-tapeworm-orders/diphyllobothriidea

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 6. Trypanorhynchidea or Tetrarhynchoidea; Scolex usually with 4

eversible tentacles at its apex; tentacles generally bearing a complex array of diverse hooks used for
attachment to the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract. Proglottids each with 1 set of male and reproductive
organs.; parasites of fishes, birds, and mammals. 254 species arranged in 66 genera.

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 7. Cyclophyllidea or Taenioidea; Body size varies from minute (less than 1
mm) to 20 meters long. Scolex with 4 suckers, with or without rostellar apparatus. Rostellum, if present, may
be armed or unarmed. From 2-3 to more than 1,000 proglottids. Most taxonomically diverse order of
cestodes; includes 14-18 families, 380-400 genera and more than 3,000 species.

Echinococcus granulosus Echinococcus vogeli

Echinococcus multilocularis

Dipylidium caninum Moniezia expansa

Echinococcus oligarthus Taenia saginata Taenia pisiformis Raillietina sp.

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Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 8. Aporidea; scolex variable; usually large with four suckers; no external
evidence of proglotid formation; small parasites of swans and ducks.

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 9. Nippotaeniidea; Scolex with single apical sucker. Strobila short,
anapolytic to hyperapolytic. Testes numerous, in pre-vitelline medulla. About 6 nominal species in 2 genera.

Ditrachybothridium macrocephalum

Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 10. Caryophyllidea; Scolex afossate or fossate with 6 basic scolex types
including "acetabula." loculi, bothria, an unspecified terminal structure, apical disc, and various combinations
of these. Body non-segmented, monozoic possessing only a single set of male and female reproductive
organs located mostly in posterior third of body. About 150 species distributed in 41 genera (54%
monotypic) and 4 families.

Caryophyllaeus laticeps

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Subclass 2. Eucestoda. Order 11. Spathebothridea; Scolex in form of 1 or 2 apical suctorial depressions,
or undifferentiated. Polyzoic, with linear multiplication of reproductive organs, but without external evidence
of segmentation. Four to 7 valid species in 3-5 genera in 2 families (1 monotypic).

Diplocotyle olrikii Cyathocephalus truncatus

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