Antennas.

S-parameters describe the input-output relationship between ports (or terminals) in an

electrical system. For instance, if we have 2 ports (intelligently called Port 1 and Port 2), then S12
represents the power transferred from Port 2 to Port 1.

In radio engineering and telecommunications, standing wave ratio is a measure of impedance matching of
loads to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line or waveguide. 

SWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), is a measure of how efficiently radio-frequency power is
transmitted from a power source, through a transmission line, into a load (for example, from a power
amplifier through a transmission line, to an antenna).

What if VSWR is less than 1?

The VSWR is always a real and positive number for antennas. The smaller the VSWR is, the
better the antenna is matched to the transmission line and the more power is delivered to the
antenna. The minimum VSWR is 1.0. In this case, no power is reflected from the antenna,
which is ideal.

What does a VSWR of 1 mean?

It is the ratio of the highest voltage anywhere along the transmission line to the lowest.
Since the voltage doesn't vary in an ideal system, its VSWR is 1.0 (or, as commonly expressed,
1:1). When reflections occur, the voltages vary and VSWR is higher -- 1.2 (or 1.2:1), for
instance.

How do you reduce VSWR? [ Place an attenuator]

One technique to reduce the reflected signal from the input or output of any device is to place an
attenuator before or after the device. The attenuator reduces the reflected signal two times the
value of the attenuation, while the transmitted signal receives the nominal attenuation value.

Is high return loss Good?

Return loss is a measure of how well devices or lines are matched. A match is good if the return
loss is high. A high return loss is desirable and results in a lower insertion loss.

What is the difference between VSWR and return loss?

The VSWR is a measure of the standing waves set up in a feeder as a result of a mismatch,
whereas the return loss looks at the amount of power absorbed by a load when power from a
source is sent to it. The return loss being the difference between the incident power and the
reflected.
What causes impedance mismatch? [reflects signal]

By definition, an impedance mismatch on a transmission line causes a signal reflection; this is

the case for any structure that supports wave propagation through linear media.

Why return loss should be less than 10 dB? [for -10 dB,30% wave wasted]
The return loss measures the reflected wave to the incident wave, that is RL = -20 log(Γ). So, a
return loss of -10 dB means that the reflected wave is 10 dB lower than the incident wave.
This is approximately equal to a reflection coefficient of 0.3, so 30% of the incident wave is
wasted.

Why the microstrip antenna is narrow in bandwidth? [substrate height]

The major disadvantage of patches is their narrow bandwidth, due to the close spacing between
patch and ground plane.

Why microstrip antenna except others?

This antenna is short and can perform in multi bands.

Why we use slots on antenna?

By the use of slot we can enhance bandwidth, gain e.t.c.. Return loss is reduce. Axial ratio and
radiation pattern is also improved. 

How we can increase bandwidth?

Using slots
To increase patch width
Increase substrate height
Decrease di electric constant (Fr-4- 3.9-4.7)

Why we use Fr-4 as substrate?

FR4 combines good electrical features, price and availability. Better results can be achieved using
materials other than FR-4.

What is use of substrate of microstrip antenna?

A substrate gives mechanical strength to the antenna

Why we use copper for ground and patch?

Copper has the highest level of electron mobility of all the non-precious metals; this makes it a very
good conductor of both electricity and heat, and because it is abundant it also has a low cost. That is why
it is the most commonly used wire for electrical circuits.
Why is ground plane used in microstrip antenna?
In digital and radio frequency PCBs, the major reason for using large ground planes is to reduce
electrical noise and interference through ground loops and to prevent crosstalk between
adjacent circuit traces.

What is resonance?
This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each other out.

What is near field?

The field, which is nearer to the antenna, is called as near-field. It has an inductive effect and hence it is
also known as inductive field.

What is far field?

The field, which is far from the antenna, is called as far-field. It is also called as radiation field

Which antennas are directional?

The two main highly directional antennas are Parabolic (Dish) and Grid, Beam.