CHAPTER I- BALLISTICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO BALLISTICS

INTRODUCTION TO BALLISTICS

It’s an all-too-common scenario: A person is found dead at a crime scene, the victim of a
gunshot wound. Whether it’s a cold-blooded robbery/homicide or a heated crime of
passion, investigators must uncover the evidence and piece together the clues that will lead
to the murder weapon. And with solid detective work and a bit of good fortune, the weapon
will hopefully lead to the shooter. (Conrad, 2013)   

            The field of forensic firearms identification, sometimes called ballistics, is at its heart
the ability of a firearms examiner to determine if a particular bullet or cartridge case was
fired from a specific firearm. This determination can be made thanks to small, often
microscopic markings on bullets or cartridge cases that are unique to ammunition fired
from that firearm. Although the examiner cannot determine who actually fired a weapon,
matching the ammunition to a weapon provides vital facts for the investigation. (Conrad,
2013)

Now a days, we usually see and hear a firearm related offenses, innocent people end up
dead or wounded just because of these armed civilians and law enforcers. All of the injuries
and fatalities in these kinds of events are innocent and helpless victims of ignorant, careless
and irresponsible individuals who never knew the technical side of the weapon they use.
Some people were involved because of their wrong decisions, lack of technical knowledge,
lack of analysis and preparation and most of the time, wrong knowledge about what his
weapon and equipment can and cannot do.

            In most advance countries today, forensic ballistics play an important role in the
administration of justice. It is regarded as the highest form of incontestable and conclusive
piece of evidence with the most legal significance. (Dalilis, 2003)

            Solving crime that involves firearms often depends on the scientific examination of
evidence by a qualified examiner at the crime laboratory. Investigators do not perform
firearms identification test in the field. The firearms examiner perform the examination at
the crime laboratory and give results to the investigator in the field. They also give expert
testimony in court when needed. But while expert testimony may be given only by qualified
laboratory examiner, the solving of a crime involving firearms may depend on how the
investigator collect and preserve pieces of evidence.

            Forensic ballistics is a very important part of the world of forensic science and much
of its evidence is used in criminal proceedings. In some cases the use of ballistics research
can prove a link between many different crimes carried out over a lengthy period of time.
This is also an important function of the ballistics team as many weapons are passed and
sold on between criminals during their cycle.

            The procedure can only be undertaken if there are enough forensic ballistics experts
or examiners with adequate knowledge and skills to perform such undertakings. Knowledge
and skills are very important in the practice of forensic ballistics since the evidence are used
in criminal proceedings.

1.1. Meaning and Branches of Ballistics

Meaning and Branches of Ballistics

Ballistics is the science of motion and general behavior of missiles, including projectiles,
bombs, guided missiles, and rockets. It is a in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge,
which is a product of a series of experimentation, observation and testing. (Manlusoc, 2016)

The term Ballistics was derived from the Greek word “Ballo or Ballien” which means to throw.
The term was also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called Ballista
that means a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones
at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces. (Dalilis,2003) Ballistics is not an
exact science rather it is a branch of physics or applied science which is subject to changes
and development depending upon the demands of the modern civilization.

Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the
empty shell; it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reaches its target or falls on the ground.
(Manlusoc, 2016)

2. KINDS OF MOTION

KINDS OF MOTION

1.  Direct- the action of the expansive force of gases out of burning powder.

2.  Rotary- the action of the rifling found on the inner surface of the barrel.

3.  Translational- the projectiles hit the targets and subsequently ricocheted.

            A projectile is a generic term which refers to any metallic or non-metallic ball that is
propelled from a firearm. (Dalilis, 2003)

3. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
The branches of ballistics generally covers the following branches: Interior/Internal ballistics,
Exterior/External ballistics, Terminal ballistics, Forensic ballistics, shot ballistics and wound
ballistics.

3.1. I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS (INTERNAL BALLISTICS)

 I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS (INTERNAL BALLISTICS)

 The motion of projectiles while still inside the firearm. (From the time the firer
squeezes the trigger). (Del Rosario, 1996)

REACTIONS THAT TAKE PLACE WHILE THE BULLET IS STILL INSIDE THE GUN ARE THE
FOLLOWING:

1. Firing pin hitting the primer

2. Ignition of the priming mixture

3. Combustion of the gun powder

4. Expansion of the heated gas

5. Pressure developed

6. Energy developed

7. Recoil of the gun

8. Velocity of bullet inside the barrel

9. Rotation of bullet inside the bore

10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of bullet

RECOIL IS AFFECTED BY SEVERAL THINGS:

1. Tightness with which the firearm is held.

2. Height of the bore above the center of the stock line or wrist for pistols.

3. Shape and design of the butt plate or the pistol grip.

4. Weight of the firearm.

5. Physical and mental condition of the shooter.

3.2. II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS (EXTERNAL BALLISTICS)

II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS (EXTERNAL BALLISTICS)

 The motion of projectiles from the time it leaves the muzzle of the firearm and at the
time it reaches the target.  The flight of most bullets does not exceed 30 sec. at
maximum range. (Dalilis, 2003)
 This branch of science involves muzzle blast, muzzle energy, trajectory, range,
velocity, and air resistance, pull of gravity and penetration.
 In the classical sense, deals with the flight of properties moving under the influence
of gravitational and aerodynamic forces.

A.MUZZLE BLAST- the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun by the reason of the
sudden escape of the expanding gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point. (Manuel and Ibutnande,2016)

 is the term used to describe the release of high temperature, high

pressure gases expelled from the muzzle of a firearm when it is discharged.
 Muzzle flash is the term used to describe the visible light of the muzzle blast.
 refers to the light emitted by the muzzle blast, both visible light and infrared. Both
heat and pressure can result in light being emitted.
  The blast and flash are caused by the combustion products of the gunpowder, and
any remaining unburned powder, mixing with the ambient air.

Muzzle flash characteristics

Muzzle flash can be broken down into five distinct components.

(military.wikia.org/wiki/muzzle_flash)

 Muzzle glow is a reddish glow that is visible before the bullet leaves the barrel.

Muzzle glow is created by superheated gases that have leaked past the projectile
and have exited the barrel.
 The primary flash is caused by propellant gases exiting the firearm behind the bullet.
Although amongst the brightest of the flashes, the heat of the primary flash
dissipates quickly and thus is no longer visible.
 The intermediate flash is caused by shock waves created by the high speeds of the
escaping gases and projectile, and appears as a reddish disc shape in front of the
muzzle.
 The secondary flash appears farthest from the muzzle as a large white or yellow
flame. Secondary flash is caused by the mixture of fuel-rich gases and oxygen in the
atmosphere surrounding the muzzle.
  Following the dissipation of the muzzle flash, partially unburnt powder or other
heated materials can be ejected from the muzzle and appear as sparks

A suppressor, sound suppressor, sound moderator, or silencer,

·         Is a device attached to or part of the barrel of a firearm which reduces the amount of
noise and flash generated by firing the weapon.

·         A suppressor is usually a metal cylinder with internal mechanisms to reduce the sound
of firing by slowing the escaping propellant gas and sometimes by reducing the velocity of
the bullet.

  

Improvise suppressor (Oil Filter)

B. MUZZLE ENERGY

 energy generated at muzzle point

 is the kinetic energy of a bullet as it is expelled from the muzzle of a firearm. It is
often used as a rough indication of the destructive potential of a given firearm or
load. The heavier the bullet and the faster it moves, the higher its muzzle energy and
the more damage it will do.

Example muzzle energy levels of different types of

firearms
Muzzle energy  
Firearm Caliber
ft-lbf joules  
air gun .177 15 20  
pistol .22LR 117 159  
pistol 9 mm 383 519  
pistol .45 ACP 416 564  
rifle 5.56 × 45 mm 1,325 1,796  
rifle 7.62 × 39 mm 1,527 2,070  
rifle 7.62 × 51 mm 2,802 3,799  
heavy .50 BMG 11,091 15,037  
 

Average muzzle energies for common pistol cartridges

Muzzle energy  
Cartridge
ft-lbf joules  
.380 ACP 199 270  
.38 Special 310 420  
9 mm Luger 350 470  
.45 Colt 370 500  
.45 GAP 400 540  
.45 ACP 400 540  
.40 S&W 425 576  
.357 Sig 475 644  
.357 Mag 550 750  
10mm Auto 650 880  
.44 Mag 1,000 1,400  
.50 AE 1,500 2,000  
.454 Casull 1,900 2,600  
.460 SW 2,400 3,300  
.500 SW 2,600 3,500  
                                                 

 A muzzle booster or recoil booster is a device affixed to the muzzle of a firearm,

intended to harness the energy of the escaping propellant to augment the force
of recoil on portions of the firearm. Muzzle boosters are usually used to improve the
reliability of a recoil operated firearm. The muzzle booster is the antithesis of
the muzzle brake, which is designed to use the propellant gases to reduce the recoil
of the firearm.

(John Ivor Headon Owen (1975). Brassey's infantry weapons of the world: infantry weapons
and combat aids in current use by the regular and reserve forces of all nations. Bonanza. pp.
109–110. ISBN 978-0-517-24234-6.)
  

C. TRAJECTORY-the actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target.(Dalilis, 2003).

STAGES OF
TRAJECTORY

·         Straight horizontal line

·         Parabola like flight

·         Vertical drop

D. RANGE- the straight distance between muzzle and target.(Manlusoc, 2016)

               Accurate Range- the distance within which the firer has control of his shots.

              Effective range- the distance within which a bullet is still capable of inflicting injury
after it has been fired.
   Maximum range- the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

E. VELOCITY- rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time. The velocity of a bullet fired
upward has an equal velocity downward due to the principle of the gravitational pull.
(Dalilis, 2003)

              1. velocity- speed of a bullet measured in ft/sec.

              2. Energy- Fatal equivalent of a bullet

              3. Yaw- Is the unstable rotating motion

               Key- hole shot

 The tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the targets sideways as a result of
not spinning on its axis.

              4. Gyroscopic Action-Refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attain its
highest momentum for stability in flight penetrating power.

Ballistic Pendulum

            A device that measures the velocity of the projectile used in the 1740’s (Sarmiento,
2012)

Chronograph

            A modern device used to estimate the velocity of a projectiles in flight.

 

Velocity is classified as:

Bullet velocity and mass will affect the nature of wounding. Velocity is classified as low
(<1000 fps), medium (1000 to 2000 fps), and high (>2000 fps). (Wilson, 1977) An M-16 rifle
(.223 cal) is designed to produce larger wounds with high velocity, lower mass bullets that
tumble, cavitate, and release energy quickly upon striking the target. A hunting rifle (.308 cal
or greater) would have a larger mass bullet to penetrate a greater depth to kill a large game
animal at a longer distance.

MOVEMENTS OF THE BULLET as it moves out of the muzzle (Solis, 1987)

1.  Forward Movement- The velocity depends upon the propulsion created by the ignition
of the propellant.

2.  Spinning movement- This is due to the passage of the bullet at the spiral landings and
grooving of the barrel.  The ratio depends on the twist and length of the barrel.

3.  Tumbling movement (end-over-end Rotation)- The bullet may be rotating on the long
axis of its flight while the nose and the base are altering a head in its flight. This accounts
why in some instances, the bullets hits the skin with its base.

4.  Wabbling Movement (Tailwag) - the rear end of the bullet aside from spinning may
also vibrate vertically or sidewise in its flight.

Ballistics Coefficient:

              This describes the ability of a bullet to maintain its velocity against air resistance. It
may be expressed in the following formula:

                                    C= Ballistics Coefficient

C=M/id2                       m- mass

                                    i-   Form factor

                                    d-  diameter 

              The larger the coefficient, the more efficient is the bullet or projectile. The better
the ballistic coefficient of a bullet, the less velocity loss it will suffer over a given resistance.   

F. AIR RESISTANCE-resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

G. PULL OF GRAVITY- the downward reaction of the bullet towards earth center due to its
weight. This is based on the principle that anything that goes up must goes down.

H. PENETRATION- depth of entry on target.

Factors Affecting Exterior Ballistics (Dalilis,2003)

1. Projectile weight
2. Projectile shape
3. Wind
4. Gravity
5. Air density
6. Air temperature
7. Initial velocity
8. Drift

3.3. III. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

III. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

·         It is that branch of ballistics that concerns with the effect of the bullet on the target or
until it comes to rest. The effect of impact of the projectile on the target.

·         Deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile’s
flight as an integral and undeformed body.

·         It is the study of the behavior of a projectile when it hits its target. It is often referred
to as stopping power when dealing with human or other living targets.

IT INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING:

1. Terminal accuracy- size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy-energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. A bullet of a smaller
caliber has a lesser energy though it penetrates greatly into the target.

3. Terminal penetration- depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Terminal velocity-speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

MEDICAL BALLISTICS-A form of terminal ballistics wherein the target is a person. it is

concerned with the penetration, severity and appearance of the wound due to the bullet or
missile.(Solis, 1987)

3.4. IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

 Study of firearms identification by means of ammunition fire from them. This is the
real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in field investigations.

Ballistic fingerprinting,

 It is a term applied to a sub-specialty of the science and profession

of forensic Firearm and Toolmark Examination. Another term, forensic ballistics is
also used, but is less accepted.

DIVISIONS:

1. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS

 Refers to the work of an investigator in the field. It concerns mostly with the
collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of ballistics such as fired
bullets, fired shells, firearms, and allied matters. (Dalilis, 2003)
 It will be the SOCO members who will facilitate the processing of the crime scene
although everything that transpires and all that is undertaken by the SOCO shall
properly be coordinated with the investigator on case who makes the necessary note
taking. (Manlusoc, 2016)

2. TECHNICAL EXAMINATIONS OF THE BALLISTIC EXHIBITS

 Refers to the work of firearms examiners or experts who examine bullets and/or
shells whether fired from the suspected firearm submitted; and/or determine also
whether or not cartridges were loaded or ejected from the suspected firearm
submitted. (Dalilis, 2003)
 The scope covers the marking of evidences, test firing, and examination of ballistics
exhibits using caliper, bullet comparison microscope and scientific instruments,
preparation of comparative chart and reports on the findings and conclusions as
regards to the examination undertaken. (Manlusoc, 2016)

3. LEGAL PROCEEDING (court trials)

·         This is the last and yet one of the most critical part in the field of firearm
identification. Here the examiner has to go to court and testify as an expert witness
regarding the ballistics examination and report that he/she has prepared. It is also in this
stage that the qualification and competence and expertise of the examiner is determined
and tested.(Manlusoc, 2016)

·         The ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the ballistics exhibits- fired bullets,
fired shells, firearm or firearms, and allied exhibits are presented during the trials of the case
in a court of justice. (Manuel and Ibutnande,2016)

3.5. V. SHOT BALLISTICS

V. SHOT BALLISTICS

            This refers to the study of shots from smooth bore firearms like shotguns and
muskets. (Dalilis, 2003)

            Although there are many similarities between shotgun ballistics and rifle/pistol
ballistics, the differences are significant enough to focus solely on the shotgun.  What makes
shotguns unique among other firearms is the wide variety of projectiles that can be fired
from the same platform.  This includes everything from a slug and a sabot round through
buck shot, bird shot, and a number of less-than-lethal options.  Since slugs and sabot
projectiles are single solid projectiles, their ballistic characteristics are very similar to the
pistol and rifle projectiles.

Gauge of Shotgun

The gauge of a firearm is a unit of measurement used to express the diameter of the barrel.

Gauge is determined from the weight of a solid sphere of lead that will fit the bore of the
firearm.

gauge inches Millimeter

10 .775 19.69mm
12 .729 18.53mm
16 .670 16.83mm
20 .615 15.63mm
28 .550 13.97mm
32 .526 13.36mm
Shotgun Choke and Shot String

When a shotshell is fired from a shotgun, the pellets leave the barrel and begin to spread or
scatter. The farther the pellets travel, the greater the spread of the group of pellets (shot)
both in length and diameter. This spread is called the shot string. To control the shot string,
shotgun barrels have a choke, which will affect the shot pattern when the shot string hits
the target. (https://www.huntered.com/national/studyGuide/Shotgun-Choke-and-Shot-
Kalkomey Enterprises

SHOT STRING: The three-dimensional spread of shot pellets after they leave the barrel

CHOKE: The degree of narrowing at the muzzle end of the shotgun barrel. When the
diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is called true cylinder.
(Dalilis, 2003)

Types of Chokes

The  distance from the target determines the choke you need. The choke of a shotgun
determines shot string only. It has no bearing on shot speed (velocity) or distance (range).
That is, the choke does not alter the shotgun’s power—it just controls how tight or spread
out the pellets will be at a specific distance.

Cylinder choke is an unconstricted barrel. The shot string spreads quickly.

Cylinder Choke

Improved Cylinder choke has a slight constriction. It allows the shot string to spread fairly
quickly. This is a good choice for quail, rabbits, and other upland game at relatively close
ranges.
 Improved Cylinder Choke

Modified choke has moderate constriction. The pellets stay together longer, making the
shot string denser and more useful at longer ranges. This choke is used often when dove
hunting and when using steel shot to hunt for ducks or geese. There is also an Improved
Modified choke that is slightly tighter than Modified.

Modified Choke

Full choke has tight constriction. The shot holds together even longer, making this choke
good for squirrels, turkey, and other game shot at 40-yard and longer ranges. Turkey
hunters sometimes use Extra Full or Turkey choke for even denser patterns at long range.

Full Choke

(https://www.huntered.com/pennsylvania/studyGuide/Types-of-Chokes/20103901_88444/)

 
SHOT PATTERN: The spread of shot pellets after they hit a non-moving target

        

Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (00 BK) with 8.33mm (9 pellets) at 5 meters distance

      

Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (bird shots) with 2.54 mm  at 5 meters distance

Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (00 BK) with 8.33mm (9 pellets) at 10 meters distance

          
     

Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (bird shots) with 2.54 mm  at 10 meters distance

Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (00 BK) with 8.33mm (9 pellets) at 15 meters distance
Shot pattern of a gauge 12 shot gun (bird shots) with 2.54 mm  at 15 meters distance    

            The examination of pellets is the hardest examination because the land and groove
marks are not present. The usual findings include:

a.    The gauge of the shotgun as determined by the presence of the wad which shows the
gauge;

b.    Kinds of shot shells.

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SHOT TYPES IN BALLISTIC GELATIN

#8 Birdshot

With approximately 460 #8 pellets fired from a 12 gauge shotgun into ballistic gelatin, it has
a significant permanent wound cavity, but only 4.5 to 5 inches of penetration.  While this
would cause a significant wound, it would most likely not provide the penetration to
instantaneously end the threat.

#4 Buckshot

Fired from the same 12 gauge shotgun, the impact of these roughly 27 pellets cause a
narrower but deeper permanent wound cavity and penetrate to about 14.5 inches.   The
penetration is sufficient to cause instantaneous incapacitation.

OO Buckshot
With 9 pellets traveling at around 1,300 feet per second, it has a significant permanent
wound cavity, relatively wide spread, and deep penetration of about 20 inches.  In many
ways, this is more than adequate for hunting and personal defense.

3.6. VI. WOUND BALLISTICS

VI. WOUND BALLISTICS

Is the study of the effects of a projectile on a target and the conditions that affects them.

Gunshot Wound (GSW).  It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug
within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the
flame from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.
(Jaudian, 2015)

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon (Dalilis, 2003)

1.    Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.

   

Gun muzzle pressed       1 or 2 inches distance

2.    Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.

             

3.    Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

                          

Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

1.    Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. 
The whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles
and hot gases) enter into the target.  No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. 
Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful examination.  The edges are
found ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.

2.    Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly
believed.  It is also known as burning or charring.

3.    Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at

close ranges.  Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any
material available in the path.

4.    Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt

powder particles into the surface of the target.  These particles are slightly heavier than the
smoke particles.  They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause
tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics

1.    Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh. 

2.    Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the
wound.  Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate
range.

3.    Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies
somewhat with the age of the injury).  It takes the form of a belt around the wound.  It is of
uniform in thickness.
4.    Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms
injury but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds

1.    Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues
of the body.

2.    Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will
be the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.

3.    Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug
has more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical
free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.

4.    Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure
of the heated expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder.   However, in long range
fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.

5.    Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a
round shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the
bullet will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the
side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another
direction upon hitting the target.

6.    Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones
and other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or
may deflect to another direction.

Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from the
fired gun

1.    Contact fire.  This is burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the
heated and expanded gases.   There is burning of the tissues because it is within the flame
zone; singeing of the hair; and particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of
entrance; skin is separated from the underlying tissues in the affected area and the blasted
tissues are cherry red in color because of the presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the
bullet will caused caving-in or excavation of tissues and the contusion collar is seen around
the wound of entrance.  The size of the wound is rather small.

2.    Near contact up to six inches distance.  There is bursting of tissues, burning and

blackening of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as
well as around the wound of entrance.  The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like
and the size is larger than the diameter of the missile.  The excavation of tissues due to the
pressure of the penetrating bullet slug but it can be severe as in contact fire.

3.    Distance above six inches up to 24 inches.  The size of the wound gradually

approximates the size of the missile.  The farther the target, the lesser the burning or
blackening of tissues, gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues
and lesser until they disappear beyond the 24 inches distance.

4. DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN GUNSHOT WOUND OF ENTRANCE AND

WOUND OF EXIT

Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Entrance wound

1. Appears to be smaller than the missile owing the elasticity of the tissue.
2. Edges are inverted.
3. Usually oval or round depending upon the angle of approach of the bullet.
4. “Contusion collar” or Contact ring” Is present, due to the in***tion of the skin and
spinning of the missile.
5. Tattooing or smudging may be present when firing is near.
6. Underlying tissues are not protruding.
7. Always present after fire.
8. Paraffin test may be positive.

Exit wound:

1.    Al ways bigger than the missile

2.    Edges are inverted

3.    It does not manifest any definite shape.

4.    “Contusion collar” is absent.

5.    Always absent

6.    Underlying tissues may be seen protruding from the wound.

7.    May be absent if missile is lodged in the body.

8.    Paraffin test always negative.

5. PARAFFIN TEST

PARAFFIN TEST
The paraffin test is one of the crudest of Gunshot Residue Analysis (GRA )methods that
detects for nitrate residues. It uses liquified paraffin wax interlaced with gauze
sheets applied on the hand skin to open up skin pores and collect chemicals inside the
pores. When the wax cools, it forms a cast on which lab technicians apply either
diphenylamine or diphenylbenzidine. Nitrates will cause blue dots to appear on the casts
corresponding to the hand supposedly used to shoot. (Dalilis, 2003)

In the Philippines, paraffin testing has faced much scrutiny as well. Its unreliability as
evidence was discussed in the SC’s conviction of Claudio Teehankee Jr on 6 Oct 1995 for the
1991 murder of Maureen Hultman, the killing of Roland John Chapman and the frustrated
murder of Jussi Olavi Leino. At the lower court and the Court of Appeals, Teehankee
capitalized on the negative paraffin test on him.

However the High Court ruled: “Scientific experts concur in the view that the paraffin test
has ‘proved extremely unreliable in use. The only thing that it can definitely establish is the
presence or absence of nitrates or nitrites on the hand. It cannot be established from this
test alone that the source of the nitrates or nitrites was the discharge of a firearm.” 

In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has repeatedly ruled paraffin test as inconclusive and
cannot be used as the sole basis in determining whether the subject fired the firearm

6. GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS (GRA)

GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS (GRA)

Is a chemical technique under firearm forensics that attempts to identify heavy metals
particles that contaminates the skin of subjects believed to occur only when the subject has
fired a gun recently.

Gunshot residue is expelled as tiny particles from the barrel of gun when it is fired. The
residue contains heavy metals barium, lead, and antimony.

ASTM International, developer of standards for forensic laboratories, has developed a guide

for performing the technique that was approved in the United States in 2001. This states
that gunshot residue particles are made only of lead, barium and antimony, but antimony
and barium alone are “unique” to gunshot residue. The particles are identified using a
scanning electron microscope and their composition analysed using energy-dispersive
spectrometry.

Crime laboratory reports however provide a “most probably” result putting into question
the reliability of this analysis in concluding that if such heavy metals were detected that the
subject indeed fired the gun.
7. THREE METHODS USED FOR TESTING GUNSHOT RESIDUE EVIDENCE

THREE METHODS USED FOR TESTING GUNSHOT RESIDUE EVIDENCE

1.    NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (NAA)

2.    ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER (AAS)

3.    SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY/ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY

ANALYSIS (SEM/EDX)

How to determine the number of fires made by the offender:

1.    Determination of the number of spent shells

2.    Determination of entrance wounds in the body of the victim

3.    Number of shots heard by witnesses

Determination whether a Gunshot wounds may be suicidal, homicidal or accidental

Evidences that tend to show that the Gunshot(s) is Suicidal:

1.    The shot was fired in a closed or locked room, usually in the office or bedroom.

2.    The death weapon is almost always found near the place where the victim was found.

3.    The shot was fired with the muzzle of the gun in contact with the part of the body
involved or at closed range.

4.    The location of the gunshot wound of entrance is in an accessible part of my body to

the wounding hand.

5.    The shot is usually solitary.

6.    The direction of the fire is compatible with the usually trajectory of the bullet
considering the hand used and the part of the body involved.

7.    Personal history may reveal social, economic, business or marital problem which the
victim cannot solve.
8.    Examination of the hand of the victim may show presence of gunpowder.

9.    Entrance wound do not usually involve clothings.

10.  Fingerprints of the victim on the butt.

11.  Search of the place where the shot took place may reveal a suicide note which usually
mentions among other things the reason why the victim committed suicide.

12.  No disturbance in the place of death.

Russian roulette:

A group of persons may agree to load a revolver with a single live cartridge and each
member of the group will ** and pull the trigger with the muzzle pressed or directed to the
temple of towards other vital parts of the body. The person who will pull the trigger with live
cartridge in the firing chamber will suffer the fatal consequence.

Evidences to show that the gunshot Wound is homicidal:

1.    The site or sites of wound of entrance has no point of election.

2.    The fire is made when the victim is usually at some distance from assailant.

3.    Signs of struggle (defence wounds) may be present in the victim.

4.    There may be a disturbance of the surroundings on account of previous struggle.

5.    Wounding firearm usually is not found at the scene of the crime.

6.    Testimony of the witnesses.

Evidences to show that the gunshot Wound is accidental:

1.    Usually there is but one shot.

2.    There is no special area of the body involved.

3.    Consideration of the testimony of the assailant and determination as to whether it is
possible to be accidental by knowing the relative position of the victim and the assailant.

4.    Testimony of witnesses.

Determination as to the length of time a firearm had been fired had been fired:

            Physical and chemical examinations of the residue inside the barrel does not give a
conclusive evidence as to how long the firearm has been discharged. Most often the
examiner does not know whether the barrel was cleaned immediately after the discharge.
Smokeless powder which is now commonly used does not leave much residue for such
determination. However, inferences may be drawn from the following:

1.     Odor of the gas inside the barrel:

2.    Chemical changes inside the barrel:

3.    Evidences that may be deduced from the wound: