COMPENDIUM ON CRIMINAL 3 (FORENSIC BALLISTICS)

DEFINITION OF BALLISTICS
In its broadest sense, ballistics is defined as is the science dealing with the motion of projectiles and the
conditions governing that motion.

Types of Motion

Direct motion – is the forward movement of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the
expansive force of gases from a burning gun powder.

Gyroscopic motion/Rotatory – is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm
which is either twisted to the left or right.

Translational – is the action of the bullet once it hits a target and subsequently ricocheted.

In strict sense, it is the study of natural laws relating to the performance of gunpowder and projectiles in
firearms and the means of predicting such performance. It is also refers to the science of firearms identification
which involves the scientific examination of ballistics exhibits (fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied
matters) used in crimes involving scientific equipment’s such as bullet recovery box, bullet comparison
microscope and others.

As a science, Ballistics is classified, formulated and verifiable knowledge gathered by observation, research
and experiment and based on scientific theory and using scientific equipment and apparatus. Results of
firearms identification is an exact science because it permits an absolute precision in results free from
possibility of error normal to human perception.

Therefore, ballistics per se is not an exact science rather it is a branch of physics or applied science which is
subject to changes and development depending upon the demands of the modern civilization.

Definition of terms

Projectile - means to metallic and non-metallic object propelled by means of force.

Science- is a systematized body of knowledge which has been observed tested and proven.

Motion refers to movement or mobility.

Forensic – a term originated from the Latin word “forum”, meaning “marketplace where people gather for
public disputation or public discussion”.

Forensic Ballistics – it refers to the science of investigation and identification of firearms and ammunition
used in crimes.
It is a refined Tool Mark Identification where the firearm is made of a material harder than the
ammunition components, acts as a tool to leave impressed or striated marks on the various ammunition
components that come into contact with the harder surface of the firearm.

Personalities and events in Ballistics

The term ballistics was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which literally means “to throw”. Its
root word was also said to have been derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called “ballista” -
a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl missiles or large objects such as stones at a particular

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distance to deter enemy forces. The term ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in police
parlance to firearm identification and investigation.

Hans Gross- the great Austrian Criminologist and considered as the father of criminalistics. This refers to the
French bullet fired by soldier of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Army, which lodge behind the eye of his grandfather in
1799. The bullet was recovered in 1845 after the death of his grandfather. When Hans Gross saw it, he
observed and found out that it was still with traces of gunpowder and this would prove evidentiary value.

Charles Waite in the United States of America- He was an employee of New York State who conducted an
investigation involving firearms. In 1915, a farmer was accused of murder with a gun. Waite was not convinced
by the evidence of the firearms’ experts, and his effort showed that the accused is innocent. Through Waite’s
effort, to trace the gun from which the bullet was fired, consequently identify the manufacturer of the gun.

Alexandre Lacassagne (1844-1921)- was the first to recognize the significance of the striations etched found
on a bullet extracted from a murder victim and it’s to link to the gun from which it was fired, thus beginning the
science of ballistics.

Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – established the first forensic laboratory in France. His principles “objects or
surfaces which came into contact always exchange trace evidence”.

Col. Calvin H Goddard (1920) – pioneered the introduction of science of Ballistics in the different universities
in U.S., subsequently it was universally practiced and accepted in the different courts throughout the world.

Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, the pioneer in the field in forensic ballistics, was an expert in identifying firearm from
the fired bullets. Identification of the crime gun is in the principal purpose and objectives of criminal
investigation, to establish the identity of criminal offender and assist in their prosecution.

Middle of 19th century- Francis Herbert Wenham of London designed the first successful stereomicroscope.
The first modern stereoscopic microscope was introduced in the United States by Cycloptic.

April 1925 the Bullet Comparison Microscope was introduced by Dr. Calvin H. Goddard. He was the first to
own and use the first bullet comparison microscope, and through his efforts, he is considered as the father of
modern ballistics. He took active participation in the examination of the fired shells in the infamous General
Castañeda and Salgado Ambuscade in Quezon City year 1950.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

1. Interior (internal) Ballistics- It refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile while still inside the
gun. It covers from the time; the firearm is loaded with the cartridge, the explosion and the movement of the
bullet from the breech to the muzzle of the gun.

ATTRIBUTES OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS

Firing pin hitting the primer- In order that the primer should explode, the firing pin should hit such. This is
due to the theory of friction wherein there is a resistance to motion created by the firing pin. The failure of the
cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer is called misfire.
Defects in firearm that cause misfire
a. broken firing pin
b. Loose firing pin
c. lacking in firing pin length

Ignition of the priming mixture- Priming mixture is made up of very sensitive material that is commonly
located in the center portion of the cartridge case. In order to ignite the priming mixture, it must be live and

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potent and must be devoid of any moisture. The delay of explosion of the cartridge after the firing pin
subsequently hit the primer is called hang fire.
The Probable Defects in the content of the primer cup
a. wet priming mixture due to moisture
b. the anvil is not properly fixed
c. no vent or flash-hole (factory defects)
d. no priming mixture (factory defects)

Combustion of the gunpowder- As the primer crushed and ignited, the flash passes through the vent
towards the gunpowder that provides the combustion of gunpowder.

Expansion of the heated gas- There will be equal expansion of heated gas inside the cartridge, after the
combustion of gunpowder. The gas expanded in the different direction that tends the bullet and shell to
separate from each other in the cartridge. The markings created on the shell while inside the chamber is called
chamber markings.

Pressure developed- When the heated gas created by the burning powder charge is developed, a
tremendous pressure is produced in the chamber of the firearm. The markings created on the base of the
cartridge by the breechface are called, breechface marking.

Energy generated- Energy refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet compared to a pound that is drops from
a certain height.

Recoil of the gun- The recoil of the gun is due to the Newton’s third law of motion (law of interaction)
which states that in every action is always equal and opposite reaction. The forward movement of the bullet
after the explosion results to backward movement of the cartridge case. Recoil of the gun is affected by several
things such as tightness with which the firearm is held, height of the bore above the center of the stock line of
wrist for pistols, shape and design of the butt plate or the pistol’s grip, weight of the firearm and the physical
and mental condition of the shooter. The gadget used to minimize the recoil of the gun is called compensator
or muzzle brake.

Velocity of the bullet in the gun- The bullet will travel the bore of the barrel depending on the powder
load of the cartridges, since it is the powder load that will propel the bullet in the bore of the barrel of the
firearm.

Rotation of the bullet in the barrel- When the bullet is driven by the heated gas by tremendous pressure
towards the muzzle end, the bullet will rotate following the rifling’s inside the gun barrel. But if the firearm does
not have rifling’s inside the barrel, the bullet (shot) would just move forward without rotating inside the bore of
the barrel until the bullet left the gun muzzle. Gyroscopic Stability is the stability of the flight of the bullet
within the effective range due to the twist of the lands and grooves from the breechend to the muzzle end.

Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet- The rifling’s starting from the breech end up to the
muzzle end of the barrel will engraved in the body of the bullet, depending on the number of lands and grooves
as part of the class characteristics of the firearm. Metal fowling is the term used to describe the metal left in
the barrel after use. Graphite is the lubricant substance place on the groove of the body of the bullet during
manufacture.

2. EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS - It refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has
left the gun muzzle, which includes the condition of the bullets’ movement and flight up to the target.

ATTRIBUTES OF EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

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 Muzzle blast – it is the noise created at the muzzle point due to sudden escape of the expanding gas
coming in contact with the surrounding atmosphere. Due to this sound at the muzzle end of the gun, a silencer
was invented to minimize the sound, which the criminal took advantage to conceal the crime.

Muzzle energy – it is an energy generated at the muzzle point, whenever the cartridge explodes from a
firearm.

Trajectory – actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target. There are
three stages of trajectory namely, straight horizontal line, parabola like flight and vertical drop.
Wobbling- the curved in the horizontal flight of the bullet which usually occurs few meters away from
the muzzle of the firearm.
Parabola- another curved path experience by the bullet due to the loosen velocity.

Range – straight distance from the muzzle to the target.

Tipping Bullet- the unstable flight of the bullet within the effective range due to the imbalance of
density in the base of it.

Classification
1. Accurate /maximum effective range – it is the distance within a shooter has control of his shots.
2. Absolute maximum range – it is the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm. It is based upon the intrinsic accuracy of the firearm and ammunition, size of the target, marksmanship
ability of the shooter, the ability to discern the target, knowledge of the ballistics characteristics of the
ammunition, and the level of power needed to be delivered to the target.

Velocity – rate of speed per unit time.

Air resistance/aerodynamic drag – resistance encountered by the bullet during its flight which
reduces its speed. There are three parts of drag bullet, the bow resistance, skin friction and the base
drag.
Three Parts of drag bullet
a. bow resistance- this is due to the air pressure at the head of the bullet
b. Skin Friction- this is caused by the friction of the air moving along the middle portion of the
body of the bullet.
c. Base drag- this is due to the pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base of the bullet.

Yaw- the sideways travel of the bullet.

Windage- gadget use to address yaw due to the wind coming from the side of the firer.

Pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the center of the earth, due to its weight. The
pull of gravity will apply only, starting from the parabola, then to the maximum range and to the final
vertical drop. However, in the effective range, the bullet could withstand the pull of gravity due to its
velocity and gyroscopic stability.
Ballistic coefficient- refers to the affect of the air drag on the bullets flight and can be use to
predict any particular trajectory. Benjamin Robins was the first who determine the bullet drag during
flight making him the first to state the sound ballistic theories in his new principle of gunnery in 1742
using ballistic pendulum.

Penetration – depth of entry on the target based on the power and velocity of the bullet.

3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS - It refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile in the target. The knocking
power of particular powder load of the cartridges which makes a devastating lesion, caused by the bullet.

ATTRIBUTES OF TERMINAL BALLISTICS

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 Terminal accuracy – it is the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

Terminal energy/striking energy – it is energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. This refers to
the fatal equivalent of a bullet when it struck the victim.

Terminal velocity – it is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Terminal penetration – it is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

Maximum Range of Firearms of Different Caliber

Weapon Caliber Max. Eff. Range Max. Range
M9 Pistol 9mm 50 meters 1,800 meters
Service Pistol .45 50 yards 1,500 meters
AK47 7.62mm 800 meters
M14 7.62mm 460 meters
M16A1 U.S Rifle 5.56mm 460 meters 2,653 meters
M16A2 5.56mm 800 meters 3,600 meters

4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS- It refers to the investigation and identification of firearms by means of ammunition
fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in field
investigators. Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, pioneer in the field of forensic ballistics.

ATTRIBUTES OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Field investigations – it is conducted the first responders when they investigate a case wherein firearms
have been used.
Example of marking on evidence: APA-1 10/9/19
A- First Name
P- Middle Name
A- Family name
1- Number of the evidences as their identity each
10/9/19- date

Technical examinations of ballistics exhibits – it is conducted by the firearms examiners in the ballistics
laboratory to determine the value of firearms exhibits in the solution of the case.

Legal proceeding – it includes making of ballistics report and presentation of the result of the
examination conducted before the court.

5. SHOT BALLISTICS- It is the study of shotgun ammunition including its characteristics spread and trailing.

6. Wound Ballistics It refers to the study of the effects of a projectile on a target and the conditions that affect
them

Chapter II

Scientific Equipment Used in Firearms Identification

With the use of these equipments and with qualified men to use them, the police will be more effective in
their drive against crimes involving firearms. At times, an insignificant fire bullet or shell found at the crime
scene will serve as the only “missing link” in the final solution of a crime wherein a gun has been used. And this
is brought out to light only in the laboratory by the use of different equipment. It includes:
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1. BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE - It is designed to permit the firearm examiner to
differentiate two fired bullet or shell, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single
microscopic field. Fired bullet and shell are examined and compared in either INTERMARRIAGE
(half of the same image of the evidence bullet/shell and half of the same image of the test
bullet/shell of the same direction, the same magnification, and the same level or plane are merge
into one image to look for the congruency of stations or the same markings) and in
JUXTAPOSITION (critical side by side comparison at the same time, direction, magnification, image
and level or plane to find the same feature, structure of striations to the specimens under
observation).

The forensic examiner can take photomicrographs which are needed for court presentations as an
exhibit to support the ballisticians’ findings he observed under this instrument. The photomicrograph
will give a clue to the judge how the ballistician arrived with his findings and conclusions.

2. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE- It is generally used in the primary examinations of fired bullet

and shells to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for orientation
purposes. It can also be used in the closed-up examination of tampered serial numbers of firearms.

3. SHADOWGRAPH- It contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications that can be

used in examining fired bullets or fired shells to determine the class characteristics and also for
orientation purposes. This instrument contains a large circular ground glass, and a diameter about 14
inches, wherein the observation and comparison of class characteristics is dome similarly with the
bullet comparison microscope.

4. CP-6 COMPARISON PROJECTOR- Similar to bullet comparison micro-scope in which two fired
bullets of shell can be compared simultaneously by projecting the image on a large screen and is
observed at a vertical and comfortable viewing. The instrument was invented by William Howard
Livens, an engineer and British army.

5. BULLET RECOVERY BOX- It used is to obtain test fired bullets or test fired shells for examination
and comparison to the questioned bullets or shell. Several designs of bullet recovery box are now
adopted, for as long as it could meet the desired result in test firing and retrieved the fired bullet
undamaged. This is commonly filled with cotton but sometimes water tank, sawdust with oil, sand,
waste threads, darak, banana trunks or rubber strips can be used and separated by cardboards.

6. HELIXOMETER- It is used in measuring pitch of riflings of firearms. This instrument is generally used
in highly advanced ballistics laboratory. With this instrument, it is possible to measure the angle of twist
in a rifled pistol or revolver barrel. It is used in inserting the telescope and aligning it with the axis of the
bore. The scope is mounted in a rotatable bearing, with a graduated disc which permits reading circular
measurements to three minutes of an arc. This instrument was invented by John H. Fisher.

7. MICROMETER/CALIPER- This is used in making measurements such as bullet diameter, bore

diameter, barrel length and other important details.

8. ANALYTICAL OR TORSION BALANCE - Used for determining weights of bullets or shotgun pellets
– for possible determination of type, caliber and make of firearms from which fired.

9. ONOSCOPE- A small instrument that is sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel with a tiny lamp at the terminal portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal
examination.

10. TAPER GAUGE- Used primarily for determining the bore diameter of firearms.

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11. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- A high powered electron microscope used to identify left
over particles like gunpowder residues and primer residues. This is a computer system combined with
an electron microscope and laser spectrophotometry unit. Its power is so great that with a mere speck
of dust it could identify the elemental components of the particle under examination.

12. ELECTRIC GUN MARKER/STYLUS- Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells
and firearms submitted for examination.

13. CHRONOGRAPH- It is used to measure the speed of bullet. • It was invented by Alfred Lee Loomis
in 1918.

14. BULLET PULLER - It is used to separate the bullet form the cartridge case.

15. COMPUTERIZED COMPARISON MICROSCOPE - It is similar to the bullet comparison

microscope; the only difference is the magnified image is seen in the monitor. It is more convenient to
use than a manual one.

Firearms Chapter 3

FIREARM

“firearm” has two definition

Legal definition – it may be found in Section 877 of Revised Administrative Code as well as in Section
290 of National Internal Revenue Code and this runs as follows: Firearms or arms are herein used,
includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all other deadly weapon from
which bullets, balls, shots, shells or other missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. This term also includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and of limited range
use as toys. The barrel of any firearms shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes thereof.

Republic Act 10591 define firearm as: any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, which is
discharged by means of expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder or other form of combustion
or any similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this Act, the barrel, frame or receiver is
considered a firearm.

Technical definition – a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of
expansive force of gases coming from the burning gunpowder.

HISTORY OF FIREARM The development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in Western
Europe in the 13th century. Many stories have been told about the discovery of gunpowder, but most
are legendary and have little support facts. It also often that gunpowder was first invented by the
Chinese and that the Arabs, with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that time, may have
developed it independently.

One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was an attack in Seville, Spain in 1247. History
also showed that cannons were used by King Edward III of England in Crecy in 1346 and by
Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The first firearm were
inefficient, large and heavy, making it difficult for common soldier to carry; and later the development of
small arms weapons were rampant. It was many years later before the use of gunpowder was applied
to a portable arm which could be operated by single person.

MEN BEHIND FIREARM

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Roger Bacon – an English monk and scientist who credited for the invention of gunpowder in 1248.
Berthold Schwartz – credited for the application of gunpowder for the propelling of a missile in the early
1300s.

COL. CALVIN HOOKER GODDARD (1891–1955) He was a forensic scientist, army officer, academic,
researcher and a pioneer in forensic ballistics. In 1925 Goddard wrote an article for the Army Ordnance
titled "Forensic Ballistics" in which he described the use of the comparison microscope regarding
firearms investigations. He is generally credited with the conception of the term "forensic ballistics",
though he later admitted it to be an inadequate name for the science. He was considered as the father
of forensic ballistics.

HORACE SMITH (1808-1893) He was a gunsmith, inventor, and businessman. He and his business
partner Daniel B. Wesson formed two companies named Smith & Wesson, the first of which was
financed in part by Oliver Winchester and was eventually reorganized into the Winchester Repeating
Arms Company Smith was employed by the U. S. Armory service from 1824 to 1842, when he moved
to Newton, Connecticut. He was employed by various gun makers up to the 1840s, when he moved to
Norwich, Connecticut. He is then listed as a partner of Cranston & Smith. It is known that while in
Norwich, he engaged in the manufacture of whaling guns and he is credited with the invention of the
explosive bullet used to kill whales.

DANIEL BAIRD WESSON (1825 – 1906) He married Cynthia Maria Hawes, May 26, 1847 in
Thompson, Connecticut. He partnered with Horace Smith in Norwich, Connecticut in the early 1850s to
develop the first repeating rifle, the Volcanic rifle. He is an associate or partner of Smith in revolver
making.

JOHN MOSES BROWNING (1825 – 1926) He was an American firearms designer who developed
many varieties of firearms, cartridges, and gun mechanisms, many of which are still in use around the
world. He is the most important figure in the development of modern automatic and semi-automatic
firearms and is credited with 128 gun patents—his first was granted October 7, 1879. Browning
influenced nearly all categories of firearms design. He invented or made significant improvements to
single-shot rifles, lever action rifles, and slide action firearms. His most significant contributions were in
the area of autoloading firearms. He developed the autoloading pistol by inventing the slide design
found on nearly every modern automatic handgun. He also developed the first gas-operated machine
gun, the Colt-Browning Model 1895—a system that would surpass recoil operation in popularity. Other
successful designs include the M1911 pistol, the Browning .50 caliber machine gun, the Browning
Automatic Rifle, and a ground- breaking semi-automatic shotgun, the Browning Auto-5.

DAVID “CARBINE” WILLIAMS He was the maker of the first known carbine.

ALEXANDER FORSYTH (1768-1843) He was a Scottish Presbyterian clergyman who invented the
percussion ignition. He was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and succeeded his father as
minister of Belhelvie in 1791. While hunting wild duck he was dissatisfied with his flintlock fowling-piece
due to its hang-fire; by the time the bullet was discharged the duck had time to dive before the shot
reached them. He patented his scent-bottle lock in 1807; this was a small container filled with fulminate
of mercury

ELISHA KING ROOT (1808–65) He was the inventor, engineer, manufacturer; born in Ludlow, Mass.
In 1849 he became superintendent of the Colt Firearms Company, eventually becoming president. He
remained there until his death. Root invented a drop hammer in 1853, which was soon used in every
forge. He also invented a revolving cylinder firearm and developed numerous machines for tooling
firearms.

ELIPHALET REMINGTON (1793 – 1861) He was born in 1793 in the town of Suffield, Connecticut, to
parents whose origins lay in Yorkshire, England. He was a blacksmith, and at 23, he hand-made a

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revolutionary sporting rifle using a firing mechanism bought from a dealer, producing the barrel himself.
The gun received such an enthusiastic response that Remington decided to manufacture it in quantity,
and formed the firm of E. Remington and Sons, which he headed until his death in 1861 . By the mid-
1800s the gun had become immensely popular with American sportsmen and was one of the standard
guns used in what has been called "the winning of the West". The company continued to grow and to
develop its product and gradually began the manufacture of other sporting goods, such as bicycles. At
the present time, the company is known as the Remington Arms Co., Inc.

JOHN MAHLON MARLIN (1836 - 1901) He was an American firearms manufacturer and inventor.
Marlin was born in Boston Neck, near Windsor Locks, Hartford County, Connecticut as the son of
Mahlon Marlin and Jennette Bradford. He worked at the Colt plant in Hartford during the Civil War.
Starting in 1863, he made pistols in New Haven, Connecticut, expanding into manufacturing pistols and
then different types of firearms by 1872, then called Marlin Fire Arms Company, today Marlin Firearms.
Initially producing single-shot weapons only, his company started manufacturing lever-action repeating
rifles in 1881.

JAMES WOLFE RIPLEY (1794 –1870) He was an American soldier, serving as a brigadier general in
the Union Army during the Civil War. He was instrumental in the early days of the war in modernizing
the artillery's ordnance. However, Ripley also delayed the introduction of repeating rifles into U.S.
arsenals, an act has been widely criticized by later historians.

SAMUEL COLT (1804 - 1862) He was an American inventor and industrialist. He was the founder of
Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company (now known as Colt's Manufacturing Company), and
is widely credited with popularizing the revolver. Colt's innovative contributions to the weapons industry
have been described by arms historian James E. Serven as "events which shaped the destiny of
American Firearms. Colt never claimed to have invented the revolver, as his design was merely a more
practical adaption of Collier's revolving flintlock, which was patented in England and achieved great
popularity there.

HENRY DERINGER (1786 – 1868) He was an American gunsmith. He invented, and gave his name to
the Deringer pistol. Further development and copying of his design resulted in the derringer (note the
double-r) pistol that was generically manufactured widely by other companies. He was born in Easton,
Pennsylvania on Oct. 26, 1786 possibly to Johannes Heinrich (and Maria Catherina) Thuringer.
However, no family tree entry indicates that the senior Deringer had a son named Henry. He may have
been born to Henry Deringer, Sr., a colonial gunsmith who made Kentucky Rifles (and Catherine
McQuety Deringer). He married Elizabeth Hollobush at the First Reformed Church in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania on April 5, 1810. He gave his name to the whole class of firearms (rifles and pistol).

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JOHN T. THOMPSON - pioneered the making of Thompson SMG.

HIRAM MAXIM (1858) built the first fully automatic gun and the silencer.

Richard J. Gatling – patented his design of the "Gatling Gun", a six-barreled weapon capable of firing
a (then) phenomenal 200 rounds per minute.

Oscar Mossberge – maker of high quality caliber .22 rifle, sporting rifle and pump action shotgun.

Fedor Tokarev – designed the service pistol for Soviet forces.

Carl Walter – developed a reliable small caliber automatic pistol in 1866.

George Luger – designed the 9mm parabellum and cartridge.

Eugene Stoner – designed the M16 assault rifle.

Joseph Laumann – invented the first automatic handgun.

PARTS OF FIREARM

THE MAIN PARTS

A. Revolver

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B. Pistol

C. Rifle

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 D. Shotgun

ACTIONS OF REVOLVER

Single-action revolvers - the trigger performs only one task, when the trigger is pulled the
hammer falls, firing the handgun.
Double-action revolvers - as the trigger is pulled two actions occur. The hammer comes back
and falls forward to fire the handgun.

ACTION OF PISTOLS

Semi-auto operation When the pistol is fired, the slide moves to the rear, ejecting the spent
cartridge and usually cocking the pistol in the process. The cartridges located in the magazine are
forced upward by the magazine spring into the path of the slide. When the slide (under pressure from
the recoil spring) moves forward, it picks up and pushes the next cartridge into the chamber, ready to
be fired again.
Automatic operation The firearm can fire continuously as long as the trigger is pulled.
Selective These fires either on automatic or semi-automatic by using the selector level of the
firearm. Ex. Glock Pistols

Firearms

Legal Definition of Firearm

Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and all
other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge by means of gun
powder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifle, except such of being of small caliber and limited
range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof.
(Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue Code).

Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming
from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms Identification).
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Classification of Firearms

Three System of Power or Actuation in Conventional Small Arms

A. Gas Operated- An automatic or semi-automatic firearm with a locked breech, that uses small
amount of expanding gas, created by the burning powder charge to cycle the action. Example M16 rifle or
Armalite

B. Recoil Operated- a locked breech semi-automatic or automatic system, using a portion of the recoil
energy to cycle the action. Ex. Machinegun invented by Hiram Maxim in 1884.

C. Blowback Operated- a semi-automatic or automatic system, in which the breech is not locked
during the firing, but held close only by the recoil spring and the weight of the bolt. Ex. Ultimax.

Two General Classification of Firearms

(According to Interior Barrel Construction)

1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)

1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch diameter.
Examples:
Cannons- this is the first European firearm pre dated by many decades prior to the development of
small arms.
Mortars- developed by the U.S during the Second World War and termed it “little david”
Bazooka- this is a lightweight rocket launcher Invented in America. It was first used in the battle against
Germen tank in North Africa. The term bazooka was then derived from the weapons resemblance to musical
prop of an American Comedian Bob Burns in the early 1940’s.
Howitzer- this is a cannon used to deliver shells loaded along a parabolic trajectory.
Missile- An object as a weapon, thrown or projected to a target at a distance.
Guided Missile- a missile whose course maybe altered during the flight.

Pyrotechnic pistol- pyrotechnic is a Greek word for firework, this is designed to fire fireworks for the
purpose of illuminating, marking and signalling during military operation.

2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter and it can be handled,
moved and operated by one man.
Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
2.1 Machine guns
Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use. Even in investigation of
shooting cases done in the city, it is not usual or common to encounter this type of firearm having been used. It
can be grouped in three general types:
a. TSMG Model 1921-28- operating handle is located above the receiver.
b. TSMG Model 1940-41- operating handle is located at the side of the receiver.
c. M-3 this is called the Grease Gun.
Sub Machine Gun

13
 Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder stock that
may or may not be folded and designed to be fired with both hands.

2.2 Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.
Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled
bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.
Armalite Rifle- known as the 5.56 mm
1. Commercial AR15- Designed for Semi-automatic only
2. Military- designed for semi and full automatic
Magazine Type
1. Short Magazine- contains 20 rounds of ammunition
2. Long/banana type magazine- contains 30 rounds of ammunition

Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a
single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the
trigger.
Types of Carbine
1. M-1- Semi-automatic carbine
2. MIA1- Carbine with folding stock made of metal and usually used by paratroopers.
3. M-2- A type of carbine which is either automatic or semi-automatic.
4. M-3- type of carbine which has a telescopic sight and automatic firing.
5. M-14- improvised carbine version, full automatic.
Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire
a shots or a single round lead ball.
Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of
lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore

construction.
cylinder bore type = the bore size is the same throughout the barrel
choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter type towards
the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the shots. It makes the
shots travel longer before it spreads.
“paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can be observed
to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.

Types of Shotgun According to Number of Barrel

1. Single Barrel
2. Double Barrel (side by side, over or under)

2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using one hand.
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers

a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There were three classes of pistols in the
period. The single shot pistol, the semi automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.
b. Revolver
Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a rotating
cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T
b.1 Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer before
squeezing the trigger
b.2 Double action, a type of revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger
and it both cocked and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.
14
 b. 3Swing out Cylinder- in this type of revolver, the cylinder swing out to the left of the solid
frame.
b. 4Tip-up or Top Break- the top strap is unlatched from the breech and the barrel is swung
downward to open the gun.

Advantage of Revolver
1. It is safer to inexperience users to handle and carry, since there is no automatic feeding.
2. A misfire does not put a revolver out of action as the cylinder will still rotate.
3. Fired shells are not ejected from the cylinder chamber.
4. This does not always require jacketed bullet.

Disadvantages of Revolver
1. Difficult to dismantle and clean after firing.
2. Slower to load
3. difficult to replace worn out barrel.
4. Less fire power and less ease in firing.

Advantages of Pistol
1. Easy to dismantle and clean after firing.
2. Easier to load.
3. Worn out or corroded barrel are easily replaced without going to the factory.
4. Has greater fire power and greater ease in firing.

Disadvantages of Pistol
1. Dangerous to handle especially for the inexperienced users since automatic feeding takes place.
2. Misfire can put the pistol out of action since it stocks up.
3. Fired shells are ejected in the crime scene.
4. requires jacketed bullet to avoid being stock up due to the throating in the breech end.

The Largest Gun

1. Gustav Gun- largest gun ever used in combat built in 1941 by the Krupp Company. It had an 80 cm
bore and fired either 10,500 lbs projectile which can create a 30 ft wide and 30 ft deep crater. Has 500 men as
crew used by the German in April 1942 during the seized of Sevestapol. Gustav fired 300 rounds during the
seized wearing out the original barrel in the process.
2. Dora- this was set up in west Stalingrad in August 1944 but was hurriedly withdrawn to avoid being
captured.

Types of Firearms
(According to Mechanical Construction)

1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every loading.
Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one loading.
Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and
while the trigger is press.
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and forth manipulation of the
under/over forearms of the gun.
Examples: Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the bolt. back and forth.
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.
Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

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Miscellaneous Types of Gun
1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for other purpose to which a
gun mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish gun.
2. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
3. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification.
4. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.
5. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.
6. Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed to fire an
automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
7. Multi – Barrelled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point.
8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally used for construction of
furniture.
9. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
10. Zip Gun = refers to all type of homemade gun.

Other Miscellaneous Firearm

a. paltik pistols
b. paltik revolvers
c. paltik rifles
d. paltik shotgun

Classification of Firearm According to use

a. military firearms
b. pocket and home defense firearm
c. target and outdoor men’s firearms

Ammunition Chapter 4

LEGAL DEFINITION Found in Chapter VII, Section 290 of National Internal Revenue Code as well
as in Section 877 of Revised Administrative Code - It refers to a loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missiles may be
fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.

TECHNICAL DEFINITION It refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit cartridge – meaning a

complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also
refer to a “single round”.
Cartridge – is a complete round of ammunition for a firearm. The term cartridge and
ammunition can be used interchangeably.

ORIGIN The cartridge evolved about the turn of the 16th century. In 1635, the first cartridge was
invented by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. He was credited with this invention. These were
simple packages, which he furnished to his troops during the 30 years of war. The package was torn,
and the content was poured down inside the barrel. Most shooters during those days had to carry two
powder horns, the first is for the powder to be poured in the barrel, and the second is for the fine grains
powder for priming charge. The invention of paper cartridge eliminated the package of the use of horn
in carrying the powder mixture in bottles or tube.

The term cartridge evolved about the turn of 6th century. The earliest small arms ammunition or
cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in paper.

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 The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it came
through the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the original
cartridge were not the brass gliding metal tipped units which we are familiar with today. The paper
cartridge remained standard, for muzzle loading firearms though the middle of the 19th century. The
paper cartridge was designed for combustible cartridge. It was employed in muzzle-loading firearms,
revolving chamber firearms, and in several breech-loading firearms. The casing and enclosing the
gunpowder was made from nitrated paper, collodion, cloth, animal intestine or some other materials
which would not leave a residue in the chamber of the gun barrel after firing.

Parts of a Cartridge

1. Bullet- the projectile propelled through the barrel of s firearm by means of expansive force of gasses
coming from a burning gun powder.
2. Cartridge Case- the tubular metallic container for gun powder. Sometimes called as the shell or
casing.
3. Gunpowder- the propellant or the powder charge, which when ignited by the primer flash, is
converted into heated gas under high pressure and propels the bullets or shots charge through the barrel and
to the target. This is sometimes called, smokeless powder, ballistite or cordite
4. Primer- the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which
when hit or struck by the firing pin it would ignite or detonate.
Such action is called percussion and the primer could either be a boxer primer, which has one vent or flash
hole, and the berdan primer, which have two vents or flash hole.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMER
1. Needle-fire cartridge – the primer is placed in the base of the bullet. A long sharp firing pin is
pierced the paper or foil case to reach the primer.
2. Tit-fire cartridge – a copper case nipple containing the protruding cup, through which a hole rear the
breech block, to the struck and detonated by the falling hammer.
3. Tail-fire cartridge – the opening of the rifle for loading is compressed by spring, once the rifle has
been loaded and the breech is closed, operation of the trigger to crush against the underside of the
block, and detonate a flat percussion tail from the rear of the cartridge.
4. Pin-fire Cartridge – the first cartridge of self-exploding type developed by Monsieur Le Facheux of
Paris, around 1836. The primer was placed on the sidewall of a copper case and a brass pin was
installed in the opposite side of the case, the intended pin rested on the primer then the hammer fall on
the side of the case, driving the pin into the primer.
5. Rim-fire Cartridge – developed by Louis Nicolas Auguste Flobert of France, around 1845, the
priming mixture is contained or located in the cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is
a very sensitive area. This cartridge is usually applied to caliber .22 firearms.
6. Ring-fire cartridge – it is a type of cartridge used on the sabotage case. This is a special type of
cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the
cartridge.
7. Volcanic cartridge – a system made by Robin and Laurence around 1854. The cartridge was a mini
ball with a base cavity filled with propellant. A paper disc holding a fulminate pellet is closed at the back
of the base, this type of cartridge is similar to needle-fire but the firing pin can easily damaged.
8. Center-fire Cartridge – in 1858, the Moors cartridge marked the development of this cartridge. The
primer cap is forced into the middle portion of the head of cartridge case.

ACCORDING TO TYPE OF FIREARM USED

1. Revolver cartridge – it has a rimmed base, which allows the cylinder where the chamber is located
to clamp its rim.
2. Pistol cartridge – extracting grooves are designed to allow easier packaging of the rounds in the
magazine.

17
 3. Assault rifle cartridge – longer than a hand weapon and generally bottle necked for larger powder
capacity and increased powder.
4. Shotgun cartridge – the case is generally made up of plastic or paper designed to fire several
projectiles spreading out to create a comet of fire.
5. Caseless cartridge – the powder is the casing itself, of the projectiles. It requires varnishing to
protect it from moisture and moderate shocks. There are few residues left after the gunpowder had
exploded. The cross section is generally fragile to cause for fragmentation.

ACCORDING TO TYPE OF CALIBER The caliber of a gun is the diameter of its bore, measure in fraction
of an inch between two opposite lands for barrel with even lands. The caliber of a firearm designated only as
an approximation of the bore diameter, and is usually closer to the groove diameter. The different systems of
measuring caliber of firearm are Metric or European (millimeter) and English or American (inches) systems of
measurement. In converting millimeters to inches – multiple the millimeters by .03937 or divide by 25.4 while
converting inches to millimeters – multiple by 25.4 or divide by .03937.

Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm and use:

Inches MM.
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles
Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers
Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols
Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers
Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols
Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and
gunpowder .

Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms of its
diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in shotgun is
expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with
diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is
considered with the biggest diameter while the 40 gauge as the smallest one. Listed below are the
equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch
16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
40 .410 inch
Types of Shots
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of arsenic has
been added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type is
easy to deformed or flattened, loose their velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony mixed with lead to
increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less string and more uniform velocity and
penetration.

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3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated with thin copper through
electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity, great resistance to deformation and leading and
better pattern.
4. Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

SHOTGUN SHELL It is the cartridge for shotgun. It is also called a “shell”, and its body may be
made up of metal or plastic or paper with a metal head. The length of a shot shell is normally given in
inches and is based on the length of the spent hull.

PARTS OF SHOTGUN SHELL

1. Shot cup – it is a plastic cup that holds shot in pattern as it leaves from the muzzle of the
firearm.

2. Tube or case – prior to 1960, a paper tube were used, with mouth closed by rolled crimps or
with plastic body or hull with mouth closed by die crimp, eliminating need for overshot wad.

3. Primer – it is the very sensitive part of the cartridge located in the bottom portion of the case
which ignites the powder charge.

4. Propellant – a chemical compound used in firearms that burns upon ignition. The gases
produced by this rapid combustion propel the pellet down the bore of the firearm.

5. Crimp – portion of the cartridge that is bent inward to hold the shots in place.

6. Wads – it helps to contain the shot, seal off the shot payload from the ignition gases to
prevent deformation and protects the barrel from lead building up. The four types of wads are
base wad, under powder, over powder and filler.

7. Shot/pellet – small spherical projectiles for shotgun.

KINDS OF SHOT/PELLET

1. Buckshot (BS) – consist of a number of lead balls that spread out as they travel. These
pellets are not very effective (in 00 buckshot, each one is .33 inch in diameter), but collectively they
result in large and destructive wounds. At longer distance, however the shot spreads and fewer pellets
hit the target.
100.
2. Slug (SL) – instead of a group of lead balls, the shell contains a single huge bullet with
angled grooves cut into its side to spin it, as it travels down the smooth bore of a shotgun. The
penetration of a slug is better than shot, but the wound channel is not as wide as the shot.
3. Tungsten-Iron shot – it is formed either powdered tungsten and powdered iron, they are
blended together and pressed into pellet, then sintered or bonded together by heating process. The
shot is coated with a rust inhibitor and it is harder than both lead and steel.
4. Flechette Shot (FS) – a cluster of sturdy steel needles, replaced the shot of the standard
shotgun shell. These flechettes have tiny fins at their base to stabilize them in flight. Air resistance is
greatly improved over shot, than in armor piercing capability.
5. Armor-piercing Bullet (APB) – the discarding sabot slug processes an aerodynamic shape
that keeps it stable flight even though it does not spin. It is smaller in diameter than a standard slug,
and surrounded within the shell by a tow- piece plastic sabot. After exiting the barrel, the sabot splits in
half and falls away because of air resistance.
6. Steel Shot – it is made by cutting soft steel wire into short lengths, which are formed into
shot. The shot is then annealed and coated with a rust inhibitor. Wads for steel shot ammunition, are

19
molded from high density polyethylene. It has thick sidewalls to prevent the pellets from contracting the
shotgun bore surface. High velocity steel loads have a cushion to reduce recoil.
7. Tungsten-Iron and Steel – this shell has a layer of steel over a layer of tungsten-Iron. It
gives a dense combined pattern at longer ranges. It can be used in any shotgun recommended for steel
shot.

DIFFERENT CARTRIDGES AND ITS PARTS

20
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE

1. Straight
2. Bottle neck
3. Tapered (obsolete)

Bullet

DEFINITION It is a metallic or nonmetallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of an

expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder. The term may also include projectiles
propelled from shotguns, although strictly speaking, these projectiles designed for shotgun are called
“shots” or “pellet”.

ORIGIN The term bullet originated from the French word “boulette”, means “small ball”. The projectile of
most small arms ammunition primarily means a projectile from a rifled arm which is cylindrical or
cylindro-conoidal in shape as opposed to round projectiles which are commonly called either a ball or
shot.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLET

ACCORDING TO USE
1. Ball bullets – those have soft cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.
2. Armor piercing bullet – those that have steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other armored
targets in general.

3. Tracer bullet – those that contain compound at its base which is set on fire when the bullet is
projected. The flash of smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen, especially at
night time. This type of bullet is primarily used for target acquisition.

4. Incendiary bullet – those that contain mixture, such as phosphorous or other material, that can be set
on fire by impact. They are used against the targets that will readily burn such as aircrafts or gasoline
depots.

5. Explosive (fragmentary) bullet – those types of bullets that contain a highly charged explosive.
Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms
ammunitions.

21
ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
1. Lead bullets – those which are made of lead or alloys of this metallic lead, tin and antimony which
are slightly harder than pure lead.
2. Jacketed bullets – those with a core of lead covered with a jacket of harder material such as: gilding
metal, a copper alloy of approximately 90% copper and 10% zinc.
3. Synthetic bullets – those made of plastic/plasticize and other composition or those made of sand
polymer mixed. Such bullets were designed for special purposes.

BULLET DESIGNED FOR HANDGUNS

1. Full metal jacket – lead core is enclosed by a strong metal jacket on this non-expanding, deep-
penetrating, general purpose bullet which provides smooth, reliable feeding in all types of semi-
automatic handguns.

2. Jacketed hollow point – the exposed lead at the tip of the jacketed hollow point, rapidly initiates
uniform controlled expansion that progresses to the depth of the hollow point cavity. It has excellent
accuracy and bullet integrity.

3. Semi-jacketed hollow point – it has more exposed lead at the tips, which expand less than a jacketed
hollow point bullet.

4. Full metal cone – the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a light copper jacket, which has a cone
shape and a flat point. The result is less expansion than JHP bullet, but more than an FMJ, and deeper
penetration than SP bullet.

5. Lead wadcutter – the full wadcutter profile of this solid lead cuts clean signature in paper targets for
precise scoring.

6. Lead semi-wadcutter – solid lead bullet with semi-pointed nose. Formed by swaging process with
sharp shoulder for clean hole punching in paper targets. It is good choice for general purpose shooting.

6. Soft point – Exposed lead soft point initiates reliable expansion, provides deeper penetration than
hollow point bullets. Precisely engineered copper jacket and the swaged lead core provide the
necessary concentricity and balance required for top-level accuracy.

7. Lead round nose – solid lead bullet with rounded ogive for downrange accuracy.

BULLET DESIGNED FOR RIFLES

1. Full metal jacket – the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a heavy copper jacket, which results in
little or no expansion and deep penetration.

2. Full metal jacket boat tail – same with full metal jacket with boat tail heel to further reduce drag to
improve downrange velocity.

3. Hollow point boat tail – extremely accurate hollow point bullet with pointed aerodynamic design. Boat
tail heel to further reduce drag to improve downrange velocity. Precision balance and exceptional
concentricity greatly increase bullet stability to assure superb accuracy.

4. Soft point – Exposed lead tip on this bullet and broader point diameter provides rapid, controlled
expansion at somewhat lower velocities. Broad wound channel results from expansion up to 200% of
original bullet diameter.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BULLET

1. Hard ball – a copper sheath, the jacket, over a core of lead. It is the standard projectile type,
expanding very little, but giving good penetration.
22
2. Depleted Uranium – it is ideal for use in armor penetrators because it has an exceptional
performance against armored targets.

3. Semi-wadcutter – a bullet with a flat nose in front of a sharp wad-cutter style shoulder. This type of
bullet, when the shoulder is too sharp, this will have a clear cut hole on the target.

4. Silver tip – Winchester trademarks for certain bullet designs. The jacket will disintegrate into small
pieces that will precisely cause hemorrhage.
5. Fragmentation or explosive bullet – splits to fragment when hitting soft tissues, creating big wounds
but tends to retain its form when penetrating armor.

6. Spitzer – a type of bullet having a sharply pointed nose. This type of bullet when it hit the hard object
likes bones inside the body, it changes it bullet track hence, and the tendency is that, the bullet traveled
sideways which will create a wider size of exit wound.

7. Dumdum bullet – outlawed for use in war, any bullet with the core exposed. Expanding bullet.

8. Soft point or mushroom bullet – expands as it strikes an object and produces much more serious
shock and has correspondingly greater stopping power.

9. Hollow point bullet – a bullet with a cavity in the nose designed to increase the expansion when it hits
the target.

10. Steel jacketed bullet – composed of a soft steel jacket, often clad or plated with gliding metal to
prevent rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.

11. X-bullet – is a solid copper projectile, heat treated for extra toughness with no separate jacket and
no lead core. It designed by Randy Brooks.

12. Pointed bullet – more effective than round ball because there are fewer surfaces presented to the
air and thus the speed of the bullet is less retarded so quickly.

13. Boat tail – a bullet with a base tapering to smaller diameter.

14. Gas check – a small metal cup fitted to the base of a lead bullet, to protect it from the hot gases
created by the burning gunpowder.

15. Glaser safety slug – is high performance ammunition that gives superior penetration in solid targets,
while delivering maximum stopping power, with minimum danger from over penetration and ricochet.

SHAPES OF BULLET

23
PARTS OF BULLET
1. Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust and heat from the burning gunpowder.

24
2. Bearing surface – the area of the bullet that contacts the barrel riffling. A tight fit is required to
prevent chamber pressure leaks and to provide good contact with the rifling grooves.

3. Core – the bulk of the mass in the bullet.

4. Head height – length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.

5. Heel – the location of the bullet where the heel ends and the bearing surface begins.

6. Jacket – is material that covers some or the entire core.

7. Meplat – is the diameter of the flat or blunt end of the nose of a bullet.

8. Ogive – is the radius of curve between the bearing surface and the point usually stated with respect
to the caliber.

9. Point – the most forward point of the ogive.

10. Shoulder – is the place on the bullet where the parallel sides’ end and the ogive begin.

PARTS OF BULLET

Primers

DEFINITION It is a small, self-contained metallic ignition cap at the center or at the cavity of a cartridge
case that when struck by the firing pin combusts and sends sparks through the flash hole of the cases
and ignites the powder charge. (percussion)
ORIGIN Alexander John Forsyth (1847) is credited with being the first to conceive the idea by using
detonating compounds for igniting powder charge in small arms by percussion. A Scottish Presbyterian
clergyman, he invented the percussion ignition. While hunting wild duck he was dissatisfied with his
flintlock fowling-piece due to its hang-fire; by the time the bullet was discharged the duck had time to

25
dive before the shot reached them. His first successful priming mixture was composed of Potassium
Chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.

PARTS OF PRIMER
a. Primer cup – the container of priming mixture.
b. Priming mixture – a highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
c. Anvil – portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by blow of firing pin.
d. Disc – a piece of small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed to the priming mixture.
e. Vent/flash hole-

CLASSES OF PRIMERS
a. Corrosive Primers (potassium chlorate) - draws moisture from the air when ignited, and this moisture
speeds the rusting of gun barrel.
b. Non-corrosive Primers - potassium chlorate was replaced by barium nitrates. It was invented by
Swiss army and inventor Karl Ziegler.

TWO KINDS OF PRIMER

a. Berdan Primer The primer cup contains only the priming mixture and the anvil is part of the cartridge
case. It contains two of more vents and requires special tools to remove them easily and not generally
reloaded. It was invented by Hiram Berdan in March 20, 1866.
b. Boxer Primer The anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly and contains only one flash hole.
This kind of primer is commonly used in present time for centerfire cartridges. It was invented by
American Inventor Col. Edward M. Boxer on June 29, 1869.

Gunpowder

DEFINITION It refers to the chemical substances of various compositions, particles sizes, shapes and
colors, which when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the
bullet or shot charge through the barrel to the target. The term gunpowder is synonymous to the term
propellant, cordite and powder charge that can be used interchangeably. About the weight of the
powder charge in a cartridge, the weight of the gunpowder is expressed in grains in English System of
while in Metric System, the weight of gunpowder is expressed in grams.

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

1. Black powder – the oldest form of propellant and when fired, produces large volume of grayish
smoke and leaves considerable residue in the barrel. The person credited for the invention of such is
Roger Bacon in 1248. It is composed of potassium nitrates (75%), sulfur (10%) and charcoal (15%)
2. Smokeless powder – the powerful propellant used today and is made up of nitrocellulose. The term
smokeless is a misnomer for they are neither powder nor smokeless. The powder is said to be
smokeless only because it does not give off huge cloud of white smoke like black powder.

26
 In 1886, Paul Vieille, invented the smokeless gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single base
propellant called Poudre B, made from gelatinize guncotton mixed with ether and alcohol. It was cut
into flakes of the desired size. In 1887, Alfred E. Nobel of Great Britain developed smokeless
gunpowder called Ballistite, a double base propellant. In 1890, Sir Frederick Abel and James Dewar
obtained a patent on a modified form of smokeless gunpowder known as cordite.

KINDS OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single base/nitrocellulose – contains only pure nitroglycerin with nitrocellulose.
2. Double base – composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin as major ingredients; accompanied by
one or more minor ingredients such as centralite, vaseline phthalate and inorganic salts.
3. Triple base – the three principal ingredients used such as nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and nitro-
guandine.
4. High Ignition Temperature Propellant – the main constituent of high explosives from RDX group.

Arms Manufacturing

INTRODUCTION The barrel, which is one of the most important parts of firearm, is a cylindrical in
shape with projecting length. It is made of a carefully selected solid piece of metal, fitted for its chemical
and metallurgical structure which has the capability to withstand explosion and tremendous pressure
coming from the expansion of heated gas coming from burning gunpowder. This provides a high quality
product after the various machine operations, until it becomes a finish product and consequently as a
real firearm.

Making of Rifled Barrels

Drilling Stage – a solid piece of cylindrical metal is drilled by special deep-hole drill; through the center
of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure.

Reaming Stage – removes scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The reamer used is slightly
greater in diameter than that of the drill therefore removes excess metal from the entire surface of the
bore. There are three types of reamers used in reaming the bore of barrel; roughing, finishing and
burnishing.

Rifling stage – the creation of the land and grooves inside the bore to improve projection of the bullet
during firing.

Cut rifling technique – the oldest method of making riflings invented in Nuremberg at around 1942. A
hook cutter is pulled through the bore numerous times and indexed after every stroke to produce the
riflings.
Broaching system – broaching cutter that cuts a longitudinal spiral grooves inside the barrel. It
produces the desired number of lands and grooves in a single stroke.
Button system – it produces the desired number of lands and grooves simultaneously but in a
different manner. It does not cut longitudinal spiral grooves inside but it produces the same by
depressing a portion of the internal surface of the bore thus creating the grooves.

Lapping stage – this is the polishing operation wherein a lead plug is used in removing many of the
larger imperfections due to the cutting of forming operation.

COMPOSITION OF RIFLINGS

Lands – refers to the raised metal between grooves.

Grooves – depressed portion of the gun barrel.

Width of lands and grooves

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Depth of grooves

Pitch of riflings – the number of inches traveled by the bullet to make one complete run. • Twist of
riflings – the direction of twist whether left or right.

MAKING OF BREECHFACE AND FIRING PIN The breechface of all firearms are machine cut in the
first place, and in the higher grade weapons are finished off by hand filing and grinding. Similarly, the
firing pin of all weapons are cut and shaped, receiving different degrees of fire finishing according to the
grade of weapon in which they are to be used. The breechface is the portion of the firearm against
which the cartridge case and the primer are forced backwards upon firing while the firing pin is the part
of the firearm which strikes the primer of the cartridge.

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS BREECHFACE IMPRESSION

1.Powder charge of the cartridge
2.Softness of the primer cup and the surrounding brass
3.Sharpness of the striations on the breechblock
4.Presence of oil, grease or foreign matters on the block
5.Factory stampings on the cartridge head

Firearms ID Chapter

PRINCIPLE IN FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

It is a refined toolmarks identification.
• The natural wear and tear of the tools is involved.
• When the soft surface come in contact with the hard surface is left with the impressions or scratches
from any irregularities on the hard surface.
• Principle of individuality, i.e. no two things are absolutely identical.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

a. Lands marks – depressed portion caused by lands that can be found in the cylindrical surface of the
fired bullet.
b. Groove marks – raised or the elevated portions caused by the grooves that can be found in the
cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
c. Skid marks – found on the anterior portion of the fired bullets and caused by the forward movement
of bullet from the chamber before it initially rotates due to the rifling inside the barrel.
d. Stripping marks – found on bullet fired though loose fit barrels wherein the riflings are already worn
out.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

1. Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed through the action of an auto
loading or repeating firearm. Striated action marks can be produced on cartridge cases by contact with
a number of different areas within the firearm.
2. Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a cartridge case is fired in a
firearm. The two most common impressed action marks are firing pin impressions and breech marks.
1. Chamber mark – found in the body of the shell due to the irregular makings in the chamber.
2. Firing pin mark – found in the primer cup or the rim of the cartridge case.
3. Shearing marks – secondary firing pin mark found near the firing pin mark.
4. Extractor mark – found in extracting groove in automatic firearms.
5. Ejector marks – located in the rim in automatic firearms.
6. Pivotal mark – marks found on the shell caused by turning of the cartridge.
7. Magazine lip markings – these are markings found at the low points of the rim of the base of
the shell and these are caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the
magazine for firing.
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 8. Breechface marks – found on the base of cartridge case as a result of the rearward
movement of cartridge case during firing.

Characteristics of Firearms

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS Those are characteristics that are determinable even prior to the
manufacture of firearms. These characteristics are factory specifications and within the control of man.
These serve as basis for identifying certain group or class of firearms. These are:
a.Bore diameter/caliber – the diameter which the bore was reamed. It is the distance measured
between two opposite lands inside the bore. Caliber is of English origin while the millimeter (mm) is a
European origin.
b. Number of lands and grooves – the number of lands is always equal with the number of grooves.
c. Width of lands – it is the remainder of the circumference after subtracting the groove width.
d. Direction of twist – it cause the bullet to rotate as it passes through the barrel for the bullet to have
gyroscopic motion during its flight.
e. Depth of groove – measured on the radius of the bore as seen in cross section. It is equal to the
height of the side of lands.
f. Pitch of riflings – it is the twist of lands and grooves. It also refers to the distance advanced by the
riflings in a complete run.

TYPE OF RIFLINGS a. Steyr Type – 4RGL b. Smith and Wesson Type – 5RGL c. Browning Type –
6RG2X d. Colt Type – 6LG2X e. Webley Type – 7RG3X f. Army Type – 4RG3X

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS Those are characteristics peculiar and not found in all other
firearms. These serve as the basis for identification of particular firearm and identifiable only after the
manufacture of the firearm. These characteristics is beyond the control of the man and which have
random distribution inside the gun. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools used in
their manufacture in their normal operation resulting to the wear and tear, abuses, mutilations,
corrosions, erosions and other fortuitous causes. These characteristics are generally found in the
interior surface of the gun barrel and breechface.

PROBLEMS OF FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

1. Given a bullet; to determine the caliber and type firearms used.
2. Given a cartridge case; to determine the caliber, name of manufacturer and the type of fire arm used.
3. Given a bullet and firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from suspected firearm
submitted.
4. Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the cartridge case
was fired from the suspected firearm submitted.
5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not the bullets were fired from only one weapon.
6. Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine whether or not the cartridge cases were fired
from only one weapon.
7. Given a firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not.

BULLET HOLES Glass – a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. Two kinds of
Crack
a. Radial Crack – primary fracture resembles the spokes of a wheel radiating outward from the point of
impact.
b. Concentric Crack – secondary fracture forming in an approximately circular pattern around the point
of impact.

R RULE A principle used for radial crack which states that stress lines on radial crack will be at right
angle to the rear side of the glass.
RFC RULE A principle used for concentric crack which states that stress lines on a concentric crack will
be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which the impact or blow came.
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TEST FOR GLASS
1. Spectrographic test – used to determine the elements of the glass.
2. X-ray diffraction test – used to determine the type of glass pattern.
3. Physical properties examination – used to determine the density of the glass by flotation method and
refractive index by immersion method.
4. Study of polish mark – a test for fine glass wares and optical glass.
5. UV light examination – used to determine the differences in physical and chemical composition of
glass specimen.

Crime Scene Processing

INTRODUCTION The search of the scene for ballistic exhibits is one of the most important phases of
crime investigation. Crime of violence, especially wherein firearms had been used, sometimes involves
struggle, a break, and the element of unpredictability. In homicide, murder and armed robberies, the
criminal is in contact with the physical surroundings in a forceful manner. Traces of the commission of
the crime may be left in the form of fired bullets, fired shells, and suspected firearm. These firearm
evidences, or ballistic exhibits as they are sometimes called, might be of value in tracing the perpetrator
or perpetrators of the crime so committed. Together with these, there might be other traces that may
link him to the crime committed. A well-planned and organized method of investigation should guide the
basic search. The search to be followed by the investigator should be thorough and complete, and no
details of the surrounding area should be over-looked by the investigator. There might be some types of
evidence, which might be of the highest significance to firearms investigation.

DIFFERENT METHOD OF SEARCH

1. STRIP METHOD It involves the demarcation of a series of lanes down which one or more persons
proceed. Upon reaching the starting point, the searchers proceed down their respective lane, reverse
the direction, and continue in this fashion until the scene has been thoroughly examined.
2. DOUBLE STRIP METHOD It is also known as grid method. The researcher perform first the strip
method and after which turns and proceed back along new lanes but parallel to the first movement.
This method offers the advantage of being more methodological and through; examined from two
different viewpoints, the area is more likely to yield evidence that might have been overlooked.
3.SPIRAL METHOD It is usually employed in outdoor scenes and is normally executed by a single
person. It involves the searcher’s walking in slightly ever-decreasing, less-than-concentric circles form
the outermost boundary determination towards a central point and vice-versa.
4. ZONE METHOD It requires that area should be divided into four quadrants, each of which is then
examined using of the methods previously described. Where the area to be searched is particularly
large, a variation of the zone method would be subdivide the small quadrants into a smaller quadrants.
5. PIE METHOD It is also referred to wheel method. The searchers gather at the center and proceed
outward along radii or spoke. The principal drawback of this method is that the distance between the
researchers increases as they depart from the center.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE Anything that has material existence and which may be used to establish the
nature of the offense or the identity of the perpetrator and which may be presented to the court for its
evaluation or appreciation. Properly prepared and presented physical evidences may serve the same
purpose as taking the court to the scene of the crime and reconstructing the events which led to the
commission of crime. A thorough understanding of physical evidence, its protection, preservation and
examination is important.

Evidence – is the means sanction by law, of ascertaining in a judicial procedure the truth respecting a
matter of fact. “Evidence speaks by itself”

RECOGNITION OF EVIDENCE At the crime scene, the prober must exercise keen observation and
extreme care in his search for these physical evidences or ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired
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shells, firearm/s and allied items or objects. The success of the case will depend heavily on how the
prober conducts himself in handling those ballistics exhibits. He has to do his job well at “proper time”
and “proper place”. Proper time refers to when he is right there in the scene and proper place refers to
the right there at the scene. It is important therefore that the investigator be familiar with the modern
techniques in the proper recognition, collection, marking, preservation and transmittal of these physical
evidences.

COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

1. Collect all articles, which are, or may be in some future date, be of value as evidence. 2. Evidence
which may tend to show or indicate or not a crime was committed or may connect some particular
person with the crime or crime scene such as fatal gun, fired bullet, fired shell, metal fragment, broken
glass, holster, magazine, cartridge, gloves and masks.
3. Designate one officer to collect all evidence to centralized the collection.
4. Don’t MAC the evidence. M – mutilate the evidence A – alter the very nature of evidence C –
contaminate the evidence
5. Sketch and photograph the crime scene.

6. Photograph the articles before removing them.

7. In cases if the fired bullets lodge in an object, extreme care must be exercise in removing such.
8. If the bullet has broken into fragments, secure fragments as many as possible.
9. When firearm/s is/are found in the crime scene, note the following:
a. type of FA b. Caliber c. Serial number d. Condition of FA e. Position of FA relative to the body
at the scene f. Other details of FA
10. When bullet/s is/are found at the scene, the following shall be noted: a. Type b. Caliber c. Shape d.
Metal or bullet fragments e. Place and date of recovery
11. When shell/s is/are found in the crime scene, note the following: a. Number of shells b. Caliber c.
Trademark or brand d. Place and date of recovery

COMMON MARKS FOUND ON HEADSTAMP

• ACP – Arms Corporation of the Philippines
• Automatic Colt Pistol
• BAR – Browning Automatic Rifle
• RA or REM – Remington Arms Company
• RPA – Republic of the Philippines Arsenal
• LC – Lake City Arsenal
• FCC – Federal Cartridge Corporation
• EAA – European American Arms
• U or UT – Utah Ordnance Company
• WCC – Western Cartridge Corporation
• WRA – Winchester Repackaging Corporation • Luger

PROPER COLLECTION OF FIREARMS IN THE CRIME SCENE By using a handkerchief, string or

wire inserted through the trigger guard of the firearm. Be sure that in picking up the suspected firearm
the muzzle end of the barrel is not pointed to anyone in the vicinity. More so, if it is revolver and this
revolver is in full-cocked position, there is always the danger of a little amount of jarring when picking
up as the gun might fire, causing additional shooting or accident. After picking up the revolver, a piece
of crumpled paper or carton maybe place just in front of the trigger after which the trigger should be
checked. This is done to prevent accidental or unnecessary firing.

MARKING OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

1. Physical evidences should be properly marked or labeled for further identification as they are
collected and to complete the chain of possession or custody of the ballistics exhibits.
2. Mark at the time that evidence is removed from its original position. However, do not mark or move
until photograph has been taken.
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3. Keep a complete note on the marks placing it on every single or individual object recovered in the
crime scene.
4. Use distinctive initials of the recovering officer. Never use “X”.
5. Record the mark used, and the position of the marks present on the object.
6. Record serial number or other distinct marks present on the object.
7. Always mark the container in which the object is placed even if the object is already marked.
(Tagging)

MARKING FIRED BULLETS Fired bullet should be marked by the recovering officer with his initial
together with the corresponding date of recovery in the OGIVE or NOSE or its ANTERIOR PORTION
with stylus or any pointed instrument. But is cases that the fired bullet is badly damaged or disfigured
the marking could be place on the base but never in the bearing surface or cylindrical surface of the
fired bullet.

MARKING FIRED SHELLS Same in marking of fired bullets but the marking should be place either
INSIDE, NEAR THE OPEN MOUTH, OUTSIDE, NEAR THE OPEN MOUTH OR NEAR THE BODY OF
THE SHELL, but never place your marks on the base of fired shells.

MARKING A SUSPECTED FIREARMS Same in marking of fired bullets and fired shell but the marking
should be place on all the three main and inseparable part of the firearm. In addition, a tag may be
made indicating the type of firearm, make or model, caliber, serial number, date of recovery, name of
suspect or victim (if known) and other features of value.

PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCES Physical evidence should be preserve for future

identification and presentation during the trial of the case. The container of ballistics exhibits should be
properly labeled by the prober and put down all the steps he has taken in preserving all these physical
evidences for future use. Preserving the evidentiary value of physical evidence determine the
acceptability and reliability of evidence in court. TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE After the
collection and marking of physical evidences, the prober will transmit the evidences to their respective
departments and submit the same to the duty desk officer or designated receiving officer-in-charge.

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