Crim. Prof.
421 – Forensic Ballistics Divisions of Ballistics
Chapter 1: Introduction to Ballistics
Ballistics in its broadest sense is the science that deals with
the study of motion of projectiles and the conditions
affecting the motion. The study of ballistics covered from
the time the gunpowder explodes, the time the projectiles
leaves from the barrel of the gun and the time it strikes the
target.
Technically, it is the science of firearms identification.
In its legal meaning, it is the microscopic examination of
fired bullet and ammunition.
Ballistics as a Science
It is a science because it is based on the
systematized body of knowledge, and also the scientific
equipment utilized in the crime laboratory for the
examination of physical evidence.
Motion refers to the movement or mobility of projectiles.
Projectile refers to the metallic or non-metallic object
propelled from the firearm by means of heated gas, coming
from burning gunpowder.
History
The earliest recorded ballistics by the trained
observer was recorded in the criminal investigation by Hans
Gross, considered as the “father of criminalistics”. This
refers to the French bullet fired by the soldier of Napoleon
Bonaparte’s Army, which lodged behind the eye of his
grandfather in 1799.
The bullet was recovered only after the death of his
grandfather in 1845. When Hans Gross saw it, he observed,
and found out that, it was still with traces of gunpowder and
this would prove evidentiary value.
Another was done by Charles Waite in the United
States. Charles Waite was an employee of New York State,
who conducted an investigation involving firearm. In 1915,
a farmer was accused of murder with a gun. Waite was not
convicted by the evidence of the firearm’s experts, and his
effort showed that the accused is innocent.
Through Waite’s effort, to trace the gun from
which the bullet was fired, consequently identify the
manufacturer of the gun. This is true and real foundation of
forensic ballistics, that portray an important and valuable
work achieved by this efficient man.
Origin
Ballistics was derived from the Greek word
BALLO OR BALLEIN, which means to throw. It was also
derived from an early Roman war machine, known as
BALLISTA, which means a gigantic bow or catapult which
used to hurl missiles or large objects at a particular distance,
to drive or deter animals or enemies.
1
I. INTERIOR /INTERNAL BALLISTICS
Is the study of the motion and traits of projectile,
while still inside the gun barrel, this covers from time, the
firearm is loaded with the cartridge, the explosion and the
movement of the bullet towards the muzzle end of the gun.
Subject of study under Interior Ballistics
1. Firing pin striking the primer
The firing pin should hit the primer, in order to
explode. It requires enough length of the firing pin to strike
the primer. If the firing pin is lacking in length, the
perforation in the primer created by the firing pin blow,
won’t crush the priming mixture in between the primer and
the anvil, then no explosion takes place. The failure of the
cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer is
called, misfire.
Defects in firearm that cause to misfire
A. Broken firing pin
B. Loose firing pin
C. Lacking length in firing pin
(Especially homemade guns)
2. Ignition of Priming Mixture
Priming mixture is a very sensitive chemical
compound located inside the primer cup. It is composed of
different ingredients which served as initiator and fuel. In
order to ignite the priming mixture, it must be live and
potent and must be devoid of any moisture. However,
despite of the absence of mechanical defects in the firearm,
as well as the highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound, it will not explode in a split of a second, but
delayed, and explode several seconds after the firing pin
blow the primer, the delay of explosion, is known as hang-
fire.
Probable defect in the contents of the primer cup
A. Wet priming mixture (due to moisture)
B. The anvil is not properly fixed (slanting
position)
C. No vent or flash-hole (factory defects)
D. No priming mixture at all (factory defects)
3. Combustion of Gunpowder
After the primer crushed the priming mixture
against the anvil, there will be an ignition of priming
mixture and the primer flash, passes through the vent or
canal towards the gunpowder. This primer flash, provide
ignition and combustion of the gunpowder. In order that the
cartridge will explode, both the priming mixture and
gunpowder must be live.
If the priming mixture is defective; there can be no
explosion of the cartridge. However, if the priming mixture
is live and the gunpowder is defective or wet, only the
priming mixture will explode. As a result of explosion, there
is a tendency that the bullet will exit the barrel very slow,
and sometimes the bullet will stock-up inside the barrel of
the gun, because the bullet is a little bit bigger in diameter
than the bore of the barrel.
To propel the bullet from the barrel, it needs
velocity to subdue rifling’s of the bore of the barrel that
gripped the bearing surface of the bullet. So, to have
complete explosion of the cartridge, both priming mixture
and the gunpowder must explode simultaneously.
4. Expansion of Heated Gas in the Chamber
There will be equal expansion of heated gas inside
the cartridge, after the combustion of gunpowder. The gas
expanded in the different direction that tends the bullet and
shell to separate from each other in the cartridge.
The shell or cartridge case, due to its tremendous
pressure inside the shell, will also expand towards the wall
of the chamber by force. As a result, the individual
characteristics in the walls of chamber will be transferred to
the body of the cartridge case, due to the theory that when
two things or objects come in contact with each other, one is
hard and the other is soft, the soft objects will have
received and engraved of whatever irregularities scratches,
roughness imperfection found on the hard objects, like
chamber. The marking created is called, Chamber
Markings.
Individual Characteristics found in the Chamber/Bore of
the Barrel of the Firearms
a. Irregularities – created during the manufacture, like in
spiral cutting of the grooves, the cutter’s edge is not
uniform; this will remain irregular between the edge
of the lands and grooves.
b. Scratches – caused by the tools used in the
manufacture of the chamber, and the metal chips
remove from drilling operation.
c. Roughness – not polish very well, the entire length of
the surface of the chamber/bore of the barrel.
d. Imperfection –this is beyond the control of the man,
like the accidental slope in making the bore of the
barrel, beyond the desire caliber, cause by the drill
blade.
5. Pressure Developed
When a heated gas created by the burning powder
charge is developed, a tremendous pressure is produced in
the chamber of the firearm. Assuming that the cartridge is
caliber .357, the chamber pressure is 46,000 per square inch
(PSI).
Tremendous pressures are developed, due to the
extra powder load .357 cartridge, and it has higher velocity
than the standard cartridge. When the cartridge case finally
separate from the bullet, the cartridge case, will be push
back to the breechface of the firearm, the impact between
the base of the cartridge case and the breechface of the
firearm will create marking called, Breechface Marking.
Breechface is the portion of the breechblock exactly the
same size with the base of the shell, near the firing pin hole.
6. Energy Generated
2
Energy refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet
compared to a pound that is drops from a certain height. If
for example a wrestler 500 lbs. is dropped from 50 feet
height of the building, you could imagine the effect of the
impact in the body of the person on the ground, struck by a
500 pounds falling body.
In horizontal flight of a bullet of caliber .357
magnum, with an energy of 872 foot pounds, struck the
bones of the victim, the devastating effect, is that, the victim
will probably be thrown to the ground, but if it pierces
through the body, especially in the soft tissue, the victim
will fall down.
7. Recoil of the gun
The recoil of the gun is cause, by the equal and
opposite reaction of the gun, against the forward movement
of the bullet after the explosion. Like kinetic energy
principle that in every action, there is corresponding
opposite reaction.
To minimize the recoil of the gun, the gun owner
should buy a gadget that will tend to reduce the recoil in
every firing of the gun. This is called Muzzle break or
Compensator and this gadget is placed or attached to the
muzzle of the gun to reduced recoil.
8. Velocity of the Bullet in the barrel
The bullet will travel the bore of the barrel
depending on the powder load of the cartridges, since it is
the powder load that will propel the bullet in the bore of the
barrel of the firearm.
The firearm is only an instrument used in the
propulsion of the bullets or projectiles.
Without the cartridges loaded the firearm’s
chamber. The firearms are nothing, because it is the
cartridge that will explode not the firearm. So, it is wrong to
say and ask “will your firearm explode?” the correct should
be “will your cartridge in the firearm explode?”
Hence, it goes to show, that the basis to classify a
firearm as high power is the powder load and not the bigger
bore diameter, although some firearm which possess bigger
bore diameter are really powerful and classified as high
power, no doubt about it.
9. Rotation of the Bullet in the Barrel
When the bullet is driven by the heated gas by
tremendous pressure towards the muzzle end, the bullet will
rotate following the rifling’s or lands and grooves inside that
gun barrel.
That is, if there are no lands and grooves, it called
smooth bore firearm and, not a rifled bore firearm. In
smooth bore firearm, the bullet would just move forward
without rotating inside the bore of the barrel until the bullet
left from the muzzle of the gun and you cannot ensure, you
can hit your target, because it has no gyroscopic stability
during the flight of bullet.
Gyroscopic Stability is the stability of the flight of
the bullet within the effective range, due to the twist of the
lands and grooves from the breech end to the muzzle end.
In rifled bored firearm, the bullets have a
gyroscopic stability during its flight, even there is air
resistance encounter immediately after the bullet left from
the muzzle of the gun, still, it can recover from the wobbling
flight, because of the presence of rifling’s or the
combination of lands and grooves. But with respect to the
smooth bore firearm’s bullet, when it leaves from the
muzzle of the gun, and encounter air resistance, once it
deviates from its direction, it cannot recover anymore to the
original direction.
10. Engraving of the Cylindrical Surface of the Bullet
The lands and grooves, starting from the breech
end up to the muzzle end of the barrel, will engraved in the
body of the bullet, depending on the number of the lands and
grooves as part of the class characteristics of the firearm.
Some of the metal of the bullet, especially lead
bullet will adhere inside the bore of the barrel. That’s why
the firearm should be clean with the use of steel brush to
remove the metal left in the barrel called metal fowling.
II. EXTERIOR/EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
Is the study of the motion and traits of the
projectiles, after has left from the muzzle of the gun, which
includes the condition of the bullets movements, and flight
up to the target.
Subject of Study under Exterior Ballistics
1. Muzzle Blast
A sound or noise created at the muzzle end of the
gun. This is caused by the sudden exit of the heated gas
coming in contact with the air in surrounding atmosphere at
the muzzle end.
The typically example on this is an ember of an
iron, intended for knife or bolo smith, while it is hot, of soak
in a basin of water it will create sound. The same is true,
between condensed water in cloudy sky and hot evaporation
coming from the soil, then come in contact with each other,
will create thunder.
2. Muzzle Energy
These are generated at the muzzle end, whenever
the cartridge explodes from a firearm. It will create energy
which is express in foot pounds, based on the powder load
of the cartridge.
Since powder load is vital to the energy of the
bullet when it leaves the muzzle of the gun. It is a false
belief to say, that when a palm is set up, to cover the muzzle
of the gun it will not explode, it is baseless an unfounded
idea, because in truth and in fact, the cartridge will explode
3
if the priming mixture, gunpowder and other parts of the
firearm, are both in good condition.
3. Trajectory
The curved path in the horizontal flight of the
bullet, which usually occurred a few meters away from the
muzzle of the firearm called wobbling. This is due to the air
resistance encountered by the bullet.
However, it can recover if the firearms have rifling
that creates gyroscopic stability of the bullet during its
flights. But beyond the effective range, particularly in the
parabola, another curved path is experience by the bullet;
this is due the loosen velocity, until it reaches the maximum
range and the followed by the final vertical drop on the
ground due to the gravitational force.
There are other factors that may affect also the flight of the
bullet, that is, if the bullet is a:
(1) typing bullet. In typing bullet, the base of the bullet is
not balance in density, or the portion of the base of the bullet
is lacking in its ideal size, due to factory defects, it will
cause unstable flight within the effective range, but it has
knocking power.
(2) air space in the other side of the bullet, due to air bubble
during the manufacture of the bullet. The create yaw of the
bullet in flight due to its unbalance weight.
4. Range
The straight distance from muzzle of the gun to the
target, range are classified into two:
a. Accurate/Effective range
Refers to the distance within which the shooter or
the firer has control of his shot, meaning he can place his
shot at the desire spot. A typical example on this, a caliber
5.56 millimeter (mm) cartridge, when fired it has a
maximum accurate effective range of 460 meter.
b. Maximum Range
Refers to the farthest distance that a projectile can
be propelled from a firearm, up to final vertical drop to the
ground, like caliber 5.56 mm, it has a maximum range 2,653
meters. But when the firearm is loaded and fired vertically
towards the sky, upon reaching the maximum range, it will
drop slowly, and as, it come closer to the ground it will
increase the velocity due to the gravitational force.
5. Velocity
The speed of the bullet per unit of the time, which
is express in foot per second, this could be determined by an
instrument known as chronograph. Another way also of
determining the speed of the bullet, is through comparison
of two different caliber of the firearms by firing a gallon
with water. The greater splash, determine which has a better
speed of the bullet.
6. Air Resistance
 The resistance encountered by the bullet in flight,
which is early experience by the bullet few meters away
from the muzzle of the gun. Air resistance usually called,
aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of the bullet.
Three parts of drag bullet
a. Bow resistance – this is due air pressure at the
head of the bullet.
b. Skin friction – this is cause by the friction of
the air moving along the middle portion of the
body of the bullet.
c. Base drag – this is due to the pressure and
disturbance to the air behind the base of the
bullet.
If the bullet travel sideways it is called yaw, and
hitting the target is impossible. So, if the cause of yaw is due
to the wind coming from the side of the firer, then to solve
this dilemma, the firer should use gadget known as
windage. The windage is place and attached in the rear sight
portion for adjustment.
7. Pull of Gravity
The downward reaction of the bullet towards earth
center, due to its weight. The pull of gravity will apply only,
starting from the parabola, then to the maximum range and
to the final vertical drop. That is why the weight, is the main
reason for projectile to control by the gravity. However, in
the effective range, the bullet could withstand the pull of
gravity due to its velocity and gyroscopic stability.
Ballistics Coefficient refers to the effect of the air
drag on the bullet’s flight and can be used to predict any
particular trajectory through, what they called drag table
which apply to particular bullet usually published by the
bullet manufacturer. Ballistics expert used these standard
tables and they themselves, calculate formula through test
firing and mathematics.
8. Penetration
The prime interest of the gun enthusiast is the
penetration of the bullet on the target which is based on the
power and velocity, to ensure depths of the entry of the
bullet on the target.
III. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
This refers to the study of the effect of the impact
of the bullet on the target. The knocking power of the
particular powder load of the cartridges, makes a devastating
lesion, caused by the bullet especially the type of bullet that
open the ogive or nose portion, and expand when penetrates
the body of the victim.
Subject of Study under Terminal Ballistics
1. Terminal Accuracy
The size of the bullet grouping on the target,
usually in the target paper during practice, determined
whether firearms has a defective front sight or rear sight,
4
otherwise, the firer himself has a problem, not on the
firearm.
2. Terminal Energy
The energy of the bullet when it strikes the
target. This refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet when it
struck the victim. The effect has a visual damage, aside from
being knockdown. It may also create an impending death of
the victim due to severe wound and hemorrhage.
3. Terminal Velocity
This refers to the speed of the bullet upon
striking or hitting the target, which is express in foot per
second or meters per second.
4. Terminal Penetration
This refers to the depths of the entry of the bullet
on the target.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
This refers to the investigation and identification
of firearms by means of ammunitions fired from the
submitted suspected firearms.
It means to say that, if the suspected firearm is
submitted together with the evidence, like firearm and shell.
The test shell will be compared with the evidence shell
through the Bullet Comparison Microscope. If the finding is
that, they have congruency of striations; the inference is
that, they were fired from one and the same firearm.
The investigator is guided by the different sciences
in criminalistics. Apparently, it gives a scientific aid in the
solution of the crime. Sometimes the suspect is not
identified, but indications of physical evidence are left
behind the scene, this often times provides information.
Phases of Forensic Ballistics under Investigation
1. Field Investigation
Under forensic ballistics, the role of investigator
will come into play when he responded to the crime scene.
The investigator will collect physical evidence in the crime
scene such as fired bullets, fired shells and evidence
firearms.
2. Examination of physical evidence by the forensic
firearms examiner
This is the role of the ballistician or forensic firearms
examiner in the field of science. First, forensic firearms
examiner will receive all physical evidence such as,
evidence bullets, evidence shells and evidence firearms and
other allied items related to the embodied or written in the
letter request and compare with the actual evidence if they
tally with the actual evidence submitted. Then proceed to the
check the engrave markings in the physical evidence, if all,
have each physical identity.
Purpose of Three Cartridges for Test Firing
a. For preliminary examination – to determine
whether the individual characteristics in the
evidence are appearing also in the test.
b. For confirmation – to observe and confirm
whether the individual characteristics are still
the same.
c. For conclusion – based on the two finding of
the first and second tests, the third test is the
finding that will be the deciding point to arrive
in a conclusion without any doubt.
3. Preparation for Court Trial
The forensic firearms examiner will prepare the
Ballistics Report, the photomicrograph and other physical
evidence firearms and necessary document related to the
physical evidence. It is mandatory to the part of the forensic
firearms examiner, to predict and review all probable
questions.
EXPERT WITNESS TESTIFYING IN COURT
By: Paul Camille Brouardel
A Man of Science
“If the law made you a witness, remain a man of science,
You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person
to ruin or save,
You must be witness within the limits of science”.
“Forensic Experts Are Expert Witnesses in Court”
Rules on Criminal Procedure
Section 11 of Rule 119 – Trial of Case provides the
following order:
a. The prosecution shall present evidence to prove the
charge and, in the proper case, the civil liability.
b. The accused may present evidence to prove his defense,
and damages, if any, arising from the issuance of a
provisional remedy in the case.
c. The prosecution and the defense may, in that order,
present rebuttal and sur-rebuttal evidence unless the court, in
furtherance of justice, permits them to present additional
evidence bearing upon the main issue.
d. Upon admission of the evidence of the parties, the case
shall be deemed submitted for decision unless the court
directs them to argue orally or to submit written memoranda.
e. When the accused admits the act or omission charged in
the complaint or information but interposes a lawful
defense, the order of trial may be modified.
Firearm
Section 877, of Revised Administrative Code, Firearms
or Arms
5
As herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
pistols, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from which
bullets, ball shots, shells, or other missiles may be discharge
by means of gunpowder or other explosives. This term also
includes air rifles, except, those of being caliber, limited
range and used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be
considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof.
Section 3, paragraph (l) of RA 10591 “Comprehensive
Firearms and Ammunition Act of 2013”
Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether
a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is designed to
expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, which is
discharged by means of expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any
similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this Act,
the barrel, frame or receiver is considered a firearm.
Technical Definition
A firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of expansive force of gases, coming
from the burning gunpowder. (FBI Manual of Firearms
Identification)
Origin of Firearm
The first handguns were used by Arabs around 1200 A.D.
Development of firearms, followed the invention of
gunpowder in Western Europe, early in 13th century. In
16th century, engineers realized that a spiral grooves etched
into the gun barrel, would impart a good spin of projectiles,
thus making its flight more stable and improve its aim.
In 1247, one of the recorded used of firearms in warfare
was an attack in Seville, Spain. In 1248¸ Roger Bacon an
English monk and a scientist, was credited for his invention
of gunpowder, which is known as black powder. In 1300,
Berthold Schwartz, a German monk was credited, for the
application of the gunpowder for propelling a missile. In
1346 cannon was used by King Edward III of England, in
Crecy, and in 1453, Mohammad II of Turkey.
The first firearms were inefficient, large and heavy, making
it difficult for a common soldier to carry. Hence, the
development of cannons proceeded to the invention of
small arm. The tube of a gun was then shaped like barrel
and made of wooden slaves that bound together with hoops
of iron.
But prior to the invention of high tech firearm, during the
ancient time, man has conscious about the protection of
himself and his family. He constantly struggles to improve
himself and his surroundings. The ancient man devised a
weapon as a means to conquer. He then invented primitive
weapons which subsequently developed into sophisticated
firearms.
Stages of development of man’s weapons
 stones
 knives
 spears
 darts
  slingshot
 bow, and arrows
 cross-bows
 gun and missiles
Terms to Ponder in the Study of Firearm
1. Action – the breech mechanism of a gun, by which the
gun is loaded and unloaded with the cartridge
2. Barrel – the passage or path of the bullet towards the
muzzle end.
3. Barrel Bushing – is an auxiliary parts of the firearm
fitted to the grooves, rolled inside and around the front of
the slide, designed to lock the recoil spring plug movement,
during the firing of the gun.
4. Breech Block – the steel block which closes the rear of
the bore against the force of the charge. The face of the
block is known as breech face.
5. Breech Bolt – the part of the breech that resist the
rearward force of the combustion that occurs when the
cartridge is discharge.
6. Breech End – beginning portion of the barrel where the
bullet enters or just located at the opposite side of the
muzzle end.
7. Center Pin – serves as a locking device for the cylinder
8. Center Pin Ring – hold the center pin in locked position.
9. Chamber – the part of the bore, at the breech to accept
the cartridge during the feeding.
10. Choke – constriction of the bore at a shotgun’s muzzle.
11. Comb – the part of a rifle or shotgun stock where the
shooter’s cheek is arrested.
12. Cylinder – serves as chamber and magazine of the
cartridge in revolver.
13. Cylinder Stop – the part that stops and holds the
cylinder in alignment for firing the cartridge.
14. Decocker – a lever on some semi-automatic pistols that
safety drops the hammer from the cocked position without
discharging the firearm, also called decoking lever.
15. Double Action Sear – built into the weapon to allow
double action, fires by squeezing the trigger.
16. Ejector – the mechanism in the firearm that causes the
cartridge case to be thrown out of the gun.
17. Extractor – uses to pull the empty shells from the
cylinder simultaneously.
18. Extractor rod – is a part that activates the extractor and
serves as a locking device.
6
19. Frame – the portion of the firearm that houses the
internal parts, serves as the cover of the parts.
20. Front Sight – a protruding on part of the barrel tip that
will align with the rear sight during the firing.
21. Gauge –the diameter of a shotgun, determined by the
number of lead balls of the given diameter required to weigh
a pound. Thus a 1 –ounce lead ball would fit in the bore of a
16-gauge shotgun.
22. Grooves – the depressed portion between the lands in
the interior surface of the rifled gun barrel.
23. Hammer – that portion where the firing pin is located,
that initiates ignition of the priming mixture.
24. Hammer Block – safety device that prevents hammer
blow towards cartridge’s primer.
25. Lands – the raised portion between grooves in the
interior surface of the gun barrel.
26. Lever Action – that type breech closure actuated by
lever suitably linked to the breech block to provide the
desired opening and closing action. The lever is usually
mounted under the receiver so as to form the trigger guard.
27. Magazine/Clip – this term is often incorrectly used
interchangeably. A magazine generally contains a spring and
follower to aid feeding. A clip had no spring and follower,
but simply holds the cartridges together.
28. Main Spring – a mechanism in a firearm that provides
energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism.
29. Muzzle End – the tip and front portion of the gun or the
forward end of the barrel.
30. Open Sight – any sight in which there is no tube or
aperture, through which the aim is taken.
31. Partridge – a common hand gun sight system,
consisting of a wide, flat top post front sight, and
corresponding square-notch rear sight.
32. Ratchet – this helps in the withdrawal of the cartridge or
cartridge case from the chamber of the cylinder of the
revolver.
33. Rear Sight – the rear most part of the gun, with a pair of
metallic gun sight.
34. Recoil Spring – uses to cycle the action of the pistol
firearm. Every time there is explosion, it moves back and
forth.
35. Recoil Spring Guide – usually inserted in the recoil
spring, and serves as stopper of the
recoil spring during the movement
36. Recoil Spring Plug – hallow part, use to accommodate
and hold the recoil spring while the recoil spring moves
back and forth.
 A handgun is primarily designed to be fired with one hand.
37. Reticle – the aiming device in a telescopic sight, usually While shoulder arm is intended to be fired resting on the
a crosshair but sometimes another shape such us dot post. shoulder.

38. Rifling – the combination of the lands and grooves 1. Revolver -a hand firearm in which the rotating cylinder,
inside the bore of the barrel which causes the bullet to rotate successively place cartridges into position for firing. Ex.
as it passes through the bore. Caliber .38,.22 and .357.

39. Selective Fire –a part of firearm that is capable of being
fired either fully automatic or semi-automatic mode.
40. Side Plate – provides access to the internal parts.
41. Side plate screw – holds the side plate and yoke on
place.
42. Slide stop – uses to locked the slide when the magazine
is empty during the firing. This is inserted in the barrel link
of the firearm.
43. Strain Screw – this controls the tension in the
mainspring.
Action: Single and Double Action
2. Pistol –a hand firearm applied to a single shot and
automatic loading. This type of weapon is designed to
combine optimum penetration stopping power and
improvement accuracy. Ex. 45, .380 and 9mm.
Action: Semi-automatic, automatic
3. Musket – an ancient smooth bore and muzzle loading
military shoulder arm designed, to fire a single round lead
ball.
Action: Single Shot

44. Thumb Latch – actuates the bolt to release and open the
cylinder for loading and unloading of cartridges.
45. Trigger – that part of the gun that activates necessary to
fire a gun.
46.Trigger Guard – protects the trigger from unnecessary
action, designed to avoid accidental firing of the firearm.
47. Trigger Spring – the part which provides energy for the
return movement or action of the gun.
48. Trigger Stop – prevents excessive rearward movement
after the hammer is released.
49. Tube Sight – a tube in which the front and rear sight are
mounted.
50. Yoke – the pivot connection between the frame and the
cylinder when swung out.
4. Carbine – a short rifle, with the barrel measuring not
longer than .22 inches. It fires a single projectile through a
rifled bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, by
pressing the trigger, to cycle the action.
Action: Single Shot, semi-automatic, fully
automatic
5. Machine Gun – is a weapon designed to shoot automatic
or semi-automatic. More than one shot without manual
reloading, just a single pull of a trigger. The machine gun,
provides a large volume power, not only to the ground
troops, but also for the aircrafts.
Action: Semi-automatic, fully automatic
6. Rifle – any weapon designed to be operated in the
shoulder, and uses energy from explosive to cycle the
action, and fires only a single projectile through the rifle
bore for each pull of the trigger. This type of shoulder arm is
intended for a target at a longer distance.

Three System of Power or Actuation in Conventional Action: Single-shot, semi-automatic, fully-

Small Arms automatic

A. Gas operated – an automatic or semi-automatic Three Main Inseparable Parts of Small Arms
firearm with locked breech, that uses small amount
of the expanding gas, created by the burning Pistol Caliber .45 Revolver Caliber .38
powder charge, to cycle the action. Barrel Assembly Barrel Assembly
Slide Assembly Cylinder Assembly
B. Recoil operated – a locked breech semi-automatic Frame or Receiver Frame or Receiver
or automatic system, using a portion of the recoil
energy, to cycle the action. Rifle Shotgun 12 Gauge
Barrel Assembly Barrel Assembly
C. Blowback operated – a semi-automatic or Magazine Assembly Magazine Assembly
automatic system, in which the breech is not locked Stock Group Stock Group
during the firing, but the held close only by the
recoil spring and the weight of the bore. Classifications of Revolver

Hand Arms and Shoulder Arms

7
 a. Single Action Revolver – this kind of revolver, .41 inch .410 inch 10.5 mm
when pressure upon the trigger release the hammer, .44 inch .440 inch 11 mm
but the hammer must be manually cocked first. .45 inch .450 inch 11.25 mm
.50 inch .500 inch 12.7 mm
b. Double Action Revolver – the mechanism of this
type of revolver, is made in such a way that Types of Shotgun, According to Number of Barrel
pressure upon the trigger, both cocks and releases
the hammer. 1. Single Barrel

c. Swing-out cylinder, solid frame or side ejector 2. Double Barrel

revolver – in this type of revolver, the cylinder
swing out to the left of the solid frame, in order to Three General Types of Shotgun, According to the bore
extract the fired cartridge cases from the chamber of the barrel

d. Tip-up or top break, break frame, hinged frame – in
this type of revolver, the top strap is unlatched form
the breech, and the barrel is swung downward to
open the gun, in order to extract the empty shells.
Pistol
Note: Caliber .45 pistols have the so called auxiliary parts
which must be removed first before dismantling the entire
parts.
The following are the Auxiliary parts:
1. Recoil Spring Plug
2. Barrel Bushing
3. Slide Stop
4. Recoil Spring Guide
5. Recoil Spring
Shotgun
A smooth bore weapon designed, to shoot a number of lead
pellets in one charge. In shotgun, the smaller the number of
gauge, the bigger the bore diameter of the barrel.
a. Cylinder Bore Shotgun
Is a shotgun, wherein the diameter of the bore of the barrel
is uniform from rear portion up to the muzzle end. The
cylinder bore shotgun is bored, in such a way, that the
diameter of the breech ends up to the muzzle end, are the
same. This type of shotgun is designed for use in short
ranges. The construction of the bore of the shotgun, enhance
the shot to spread out quickly upon leaving the muzzle of
the gun.
b. Choke Bore Shotgun
The bore of the barrel, is narrow towards the muzzle end.
Choke Bore Shotgun is created and designed, in such a way
that the diameter of the breech end is tapered towards the
muzzle end. The constriction of the barrel of the shotgun
compressed together to the shot charge, after it leaves from
the muzzle end. Even if the firearm used in long range, the
pattern of the shot will still accumulate together and still
effective.

Different Shotgun Bore Diameter c. Paradox Shotgun

Shotgun gauge number, with equivalent bore diameter of the A shotgun in which the barrel is rifled a few inches towards
barrel, is expressed in thousands of an inch, in the muzzle end. Paradox Shotgun can be used also to fire a
English/American System of Measurement, are as follows: single large lead ball or round lead balls. The last few inches
of the bore of Paradox shotgun is rifled, and it’s twisted
Gauge Inch Gauge Inch either to the left or to the right, so that it will impart a spin of
4 gauge .935 inch 20 gauge.615 inch the bullet. It is designed to fire a single cylindrical projectile
8 gauge .835 inch 24 gauge.580inch instead of a shot charge.
10 gauge.775 inch 28 gauge.550inch
12 gauge.729 inch 32 gauge.501inch General Classes if Firearm, According to the Mechanical
14 gauge.697 inch 40 gauge.410inch Internal Constructions of Gun Barrel
16 gauge.662 inch
1. Rifle Bore Firearm – a rifled firearm are those
Different System of Measurement of Caliber of a types of firearm wherein the bore is cut
Firearm/Cartridge longitudinally with a number of spiral grooves,
from the breech end to the muzzle end of the barrel,
American English Continental/European and remnants after the cutting of the spiral grooves
Caliber Caliber Caliber is called lands. A combination of lands and grooves
inside the gun barrel is called rifling. The grooves
.22 inch .220 inch 5.6 mm (5.56mm) are cut either twisting to right or left, in spiral form,
.25 inch .250 inch 6.5 mm (6.25 mm) depending on the factory specification of the
.28 inch .280 inch 7 mm manufacturers. Ex. Pistol, Revolver.
.30 inch .300 inch 7.65 mm (7.62mm)
.32 inch .320 inch 8 mm 2. Smooth-bore firearm – Firearm which do not
.35 inch .350 inch 9 mm have rifling’s, but just plain bore from the breech
.38 inch .380 inch (.357) 9.3 mm end up to the muzzle end. Ex. Shotgun and musket.
.40 inch .405 inch 10 mm
8
Main Types of Firearms According to the Projectiles
Propelled
1. Artillery – are those types of firearm that propel
projectile more than one inch in diameter.
2. Small arms –any firearms designed to fire projectile less
than one-inch diameter.
Types of Firearms According to Mechanical
Constructions
1. Single Shot Firearm
Single shot firearms are those firearms, designed to
fire only one shot for every loading which have to be
reloaded for each shot.
2. Repeating Firearm
Firearm design to fire several rounds of cartridge in
one loading is called repeating firearm. Divided into two:
automatic and hand operated.
3. Automatic Firearm
Automatic firearms are those firearms in which the
mechanism is so arranged that it will reload fresh cartridge
and unload fired cartridge case after firing. Automatic
firearm is divided in to two categories, namely; a) full
automatic and b) semi-automatic.
a. Full automatic firearm – are those firearm,
wherein the mechanism is so arranged, that it
will fire continuously while the trigger
depressed.
b. Semi-automatic – are firearm whose
mechanism is so arranged that it requires fresh
pull on the trigger for each shot.
4. Bolt Action Type
Bolt action firearms are provided with a box
magazine under the bolt, but some of them have tubular
magazine like a trombone action firearm. The breech block
is shape like an ordinary door bolt with a handle sticking out
to one side of the firearm. In bolt action firearm, reloading
takes place by the manipulation of the bolt.
5. Automatic Loading Type
In automatic loading firearms, after reverse shot is
fired, automatic loading or feeding in the chamber takes
place, as long as the trigger is squeezed by the firer.
6. Slide or Pump Action Type or Trombone
This is also called pump action. This type of
firearm can be operated by grasping the forearm which is a
wooded part of the gun, located under the barrel. This
forearm is designed to slide back and forth, and this is
connected in rod and in the breech mechanism. Under the
barrel, there is a tubular magazine for extra cartridge. To
paraphrase, loading of cartridges takes place, by back and
forth manipulation of under forearm of the gun.
7. Lever Action Type
9
The trigger guard of this type firearm is hinged at
the front end, which is connected with breech mechanism.
After firing, the finger lever is move downward so as to
cause the trigger guard the pivot on its hinged, and its
forward extension is to move back.
Cell Phone Gun
This gun looks like a regular cell phone, same size, same
shape and same in overall appearance of a cell phone. But
beneath the digital face, lies a .22 caliber pistol. A cell
phone gun capable of firing four rounds in quick succession
with a touch of the standard keypad.
Pen Gun
A gun designed like a writing pen. A bore inside the pen
was formed as a passage of a bullet of a caliber .22. This pen
gun, for those who are not aware, will think, it is just an
ordinary pen but it’s shocking to know when it will explode.
Zip Gun
Name applied to all homemade guns. This class of gun
found to have a clever mechanism most are effective
weapon.
Flare Gun
Used in some cases, such as sending signal and used as
illumination to see enemies in the dark.
Harpoon Gun
A gun that uses barbed spear for hunting fish.
Prominent Persons behind the Invention and
Development of Firearms
1.Col. Calvin H. Goddard – Father of modern Ballistics.
2. Horace Smith – Founder of Smith and Wesson and
pioneered the making of Breech loading rifles.
3. Daniel B. Wesson – An associate of Smith in revolver
making.
4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and
pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle.
5. John Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson
sub-machine gun.
6. David “Carbine” Williams – Maker of the first known
carbine.
7. Alexander John Forsyth – Father of percussion ignition.
8. Elisha King Root – Designed the machinery for making
Colt Firearms.
9. Elephalet Remington – One of the first rifle makers.
10. John Mahlon Marlin – Founder of Marlin Firearms
Company.
11. James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of
the Model 1855 rifle musket.
12. Samule Colt – Produced the first practical revolver.
13. Henry Derringer – He gave his name to whole class of
firearms, rifles and pistols.
14. John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-
automatic US Rifle, Cal. .30, M1.
15. Oliver F. Winchester – One of the earliest rifles and
pistols makers.
16. Charles Dorchester and George Sullivan – Armalite
business was formed 1950.
17. Richard Gatling – Developed the hand crank machine
gun. A development of Duver Gatling type of machine gun. 2. Cartridge Case – A tubular metallic container for the
18. Oscar Mossberge – maker of high quality cal. .22 rifle, gunpowder sometimes called shell.
sporting rifle and pump action shotgun.
19. Fedor Tokarev – Designed the service pistols for soviet 3. Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the
forces. primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and
20. Sergei Mossin – Russian Army Colonel, designed the propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on
Russian service rifle. the target.
21. Carl Walter – Developed a reliable small caliber
automatic pistol in 1866. 4. Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensitive
22. George Luger – Designed 9mm Parabellum and priming mixture of chemical compound which when hit or
Cartridge. struck by the firing pin would ignite, such action is called
“PERCUSSION”.
Shotgun Cartridge/Ammunition
Ammunition/Cartridge
Cartridge for shotgun have of course a shotgun
Legal Definition shell. It is also called shot shell and its body may be a metal
Ammunition – refers to a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, or plastic or paper with a metal head which is the subject for
carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball examination.
bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes It contains multiple projectiles or pellets called
ammunition/cartridge for air rifles. shots. A single projectile in a shotgun shell is called slug.
Shots and slugs are traditionally made of lead.
Technical Definition
Ammunition – a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, Parts of Shotgun Cartridge
cartridge case, gunpowder and primer. The term may be
called also as a single round. 1.Shot Cup – a plastic cup that holds shot in pattern as ot
leaves from the muzzle of the gun.
History
The cartridge evolved about the turn of 16th 2. Tube or Case – a paper tube or case with mouth closed by
century. In year 1635, the first cartridge was invented by rolled crimps.
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. He was credited with
this invention. These were simple packages which he 3. Primer – serves as to ignite the gun powder.
furnished to his troops during the 30 years’ war.
4. Powder Charge – one that burns upon ignition.
The package was torn and the content was poured
down inside the barrel. Most shooters during those days had 5. Crimp – a portion of a cartridge case that is bent inward to
to carry two powder horns, the first is for the powder to be hold the shot in place.
poured in the barrel and the second is for the fine grains
powder for priming charge. The invention of paper cartridge 6. Wad – it serves as a gas seal.
eliminated the package and the use of horn in carrying of
powder mixture in bottles or tubes. 7. Shots – refers to pellets such as: soft shot (pure lead), hard
shot (lead hardened by antimony), Plated shot, (coated with
The earliest small arms cartridge consists of a pre- cupronickel) steel shot.
measured powder wrapped in paper. The term cartridge is
derived from the word Charta, the Latin word for paper. Classification of Cartridge
Later on, another word cartouche, a French word meaning, a
roll paper which indicates that the original cartridges were According to the type of firearms;
not the brass gilding-metal, but a paper cartridge.
1. Revolver cartridges Used in revolver
The paper cartridge remained standard for muzzle 2. Pistol cartridges Used automatic pistol
loading firearms through the middle of the 19 th century. The 3. Rifle cartridges Used in rifles
paper cartridge was designed for combustible cartridge. It 4. Shot Cartridges Used in shot gun
was employed in muzzle-loading firearms, revolving
chamber firearms and in several breech loading firearms.
The casing and enclosing the gunpowder was made from According to Location of Primer
nitrate paper, collodion, cloth, animal intestine or some
other materials which would not leave a residue in the 1. Pin - fire cartridges no longer used.
chamber of the gun barrel after firing. 2. Rim fire – the primer is located at the rim or the base
portion.
Parts of Cartridge/Ammunition 3. Center fire – Priming powder is located at the center.

1. Bullet – A projectile propelled from a firearm by means According to Rim Design

of explosive force of gases coming from burning powder.
10
1.Rimmed Type – the diameter of the rim is wider than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge.
2. Semi-Rimmed Type – the diameter of the rim is little bit
wider than the body of the cartridge.
The cartridge will have a shell life for more than 20
years. However, it can last at least 40 years without any
problem as long as proper storage is observed.
CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL

3. Rimless Type – the diameter of the rim is equal to the
diameter of the body of the cartridge.
4. Rebated Type – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge.
5. Belted Type – around the body of the cartridge near the
rim, there is a protruding metal.
According to Caliber
The caliber of a firearm is the diameter of its bore,
it is measured between two opposite lands. Note: Different
caliber of a firearm basically have different types of
ammunition such as the following:
A t abul ar m et al l i c or non- m et all i c
cont ai ner whi ch hol d toget her the bul l et ,
gunpowder and pri m er. A brass t hat com posed of
70% copper and 30% zi nc desi gned t o uni t e t he
bull et , pri m er and t he gun powder int o one uni t .
A cyli ndri cal , usuall y m et al casi ng capabl e of
bei ng l oaded wit h an expl osi ves charge.
The cart ri dge case i s a port i on of t he
cart ri dge t hat i s aut om at i cal l y ej ect ed from the
aut om at i c fi rearm duri ng fi ri ng and t his rem ai ns
at t he scene of the cri m e. Thi s is an evi dence
t han can hel p t race part i cul ar fi rea rm s use.
FUNCT IO N:

Cal. .22 Cal. .220 5.6 mm (5.56mm) 1. It serves as a m eans whereby the bul l et ,
Cal. .25 Cal. .250 6.5 mm (6.25 mm) gunpowder and pri m er are assem bl ed i nt o
Cal. .28 Cal. .280 7 mm a uni t .
Cal. .30 Cal. .300 7.65 mm (7.62mm) 2. It serves as a wat er proof cont ai ned for
Cal. .35 Cal. .350 9 mm gunpowder.
Cal. .38 Cal. .380 (.357) 9.3 mm 3. It prevent s the escape of t he gases to t he
Cal. .40 Cal. .405 10 mm rear as the si dewal l s of t he cart ri dges
Cal. .41 Cal. .410 10.5 mm cases are forced agai nst t he wal l s of t he
Cal. .44 Cal. .440 11 mm cham ber by t he pressure. It serves as t he
Cal. .45 Cal. 450 11.25 mm “gas seal ” at the breech end of t he barrel .
Cal. .50 Cal. .500 12.7 mm
PART S OF A CART RIDG E CAS E
Most Powerful Handgun Cartridge
1. R IM – S erve t he purpose of li m it i ng the
Based on the demand of cartridge, the most forward t ravel of t he cart ri dges i nt o t hei r
powerful handgun today is caliber .44 magnum which can cham bers and t hi s al so li m i t the
throw a 240 grain bullet over 1,400 foot per second from a cl earanc e. If any bet ween the heads and
seven to eight inches’ barrel. Recently, the cal. .454 Casull t he support i ng surface of t he bol t or
and the cal. .478 linebaugh became a production rounds of breech bl ock.
cartridges and it can throw a 260 grain bullet at 1,800 foot
per second or a 300 grain bullet at 1,625 foot per second. 2. PR IMER POC KET – P erform s t i ppl e
funct i on:
A caliber .357 magnum cartridge was developed
from the cal. .38 special case. Its case length is slightly a. Hol di ng prim er securel y i n cont rol
longer. Due to the longer case, the cal. 357 magnum can posi t i on
accommodate more powder load than the cal. .38 special. A b. P rovi di ng or m eans t o prevent the
bullet from a cal. 357 magnum will be projected much faster escape of jobs t o t he rear of t he
and have a greater force of impact than the same bullet fired cart ri dges.
from a cal. .38 special. That is why it is called a magnum c. P rovi di ng a sol i d support from
cartridge. pri m er anvi l wi t hout whi ch t he
l att er coul d not be fi red.
Blank Cartridge with Wax Bullet
3. VENTS OR F LAS H HOLE – is t he hol e
Blank cartridge contains no bullet in its real sense i n the web or bot t om of t he pri m er pocket
and does project bits of wadding material. Some of which t hought whi ch the pri m er “fl ash” im part
are fairly thick powder as well as a blast of high pressure i gni t i on t o the pri m er charges. The
and hot gases which can penetrate skin at a fairy great “openi ng” or “canal ” t hat connect s t he
distance. Sometimes blank cartridge has wax bullet. pri mi ng m i xt ure wi t h t he gunpowder.

Shell Life of Cartridge

11
 4. THE HEAD – THE B ODY – const it ut e C LAS S IF IC ATION AC C OR DING TO C AS E
t he “cork ” t hat pl ugs the breech of the S HAP E (3 GEN. S HAP ES )
barrel agai nst t he escape of t he gas.
a. S t rai ght
5. NEC K – That part of t he cart ri dges case Al l rim fi re shel l and m ost cent er fi re revol ver
t hat i s occupi ed by t he bul l et . cart ri dges that are new m anufact ured have
st rai ght cases.
6. C ANNELUR ES – are t he separat e
grooves t hat are som et im es found
“rol l ed” i nt o t he neck and bodi es of t he b. Tapered
cases at the locat i on of t he bul l et s bases Is very rare but present l y bei ng used in t he so
t o prevent t he bul l et from bei ng pushed cal l ed “m agnum j et ” cart ri dges
back or l oosened.
c. B ott l e Neck
7. C R IMP – Is t hat part of t he m out h of t he Most m odern cent er fi re ri fl e cart ri dges case i s
cases t hat i s t urned i n upon t he bul l et . of bot tl e neck types. Si nce t hi s case form
provi ded t he great est powder capa ci t y
a. i f ai d in hol di ng t he bull et in com m ensurat e wi t h over al l case l engt h.
pl ace
b. i f aft er resi st ance to the STANDAR D C AR TR IDGES HEAD F ORMS
m ovem ent of the bull et out of the AR E:
neck whi ch effect s the burni ng of
t he powder. A. R IMMED – desi gned t o use i n revol vers,
t he di am et er of the base of t he cart ri dges
8. B AS E – The port i on of case whi ch is very m uch bi gger t han t he di am et er of
cont ai ns: t he body of t he cart ri dges.

a. The pri m er whi ch cont ai ns t he B. SEMI- R IMMED – desi gned t o be used i n

pri m i ng mi xt ure aut om at i c weapons l i ke pi st ol s and sub-
b. The shel l head whi ch cont ai ns t he i nact i ve gums such as super .38 uz1,
head st am p cal i ber and t he year of 9mm .
m anufact ur e.
C. R IMLES S – case wi t hi n t he di am et er of
9. S HOULDER – That port i on whi ch t he body of t he cart ri dges is t he sam e as
support t he neck. t he di am et er of t he cart ri dges case.

10. EXTR AC TION GR OOVE – The ci rcul ar

grooves near t he base of t he case of shel l
desi gned for aut om at i c wi t hdrawal of t he
case aft er each fi ri ng.
CART RIDG E CRIMPING
D. R EB ATED – t hi s cart ri dge case was
desi gned t o provi de t he abi li t y of havi ng
a l arger di am et er case but wit h an
exi sti ng sm al l er bol t face. The rebat ed
ri mm ed cart ri dge case was m ade t o al l ow
l arge di am et er cart ri dge case.

The purpose of crimp is to securely hold the bullet

in the cartridge case to avoid being moved or loosened from E. B ELTED – t hi s bel t ed cart ri dge case
its grip. at t em pt ed t o com bi ne t he sm oot h feedi ng
charact e ri st i cs of t he ri ml ess wi t h t he
T YPE S OF CRIMP consi st ent headspaci ng of t he rim m ed.
Most com m on usage of t hi s cart ri dge case
1.R oll C ri m p – t he cart ri dge case neck was is i n m agnum ri fl e. The bel t ed case was
rol l ed i nt o t he bul l et m at eri al or groove i n t he desi gned t o provi de posi t i ve headspaci ng
bul l et . and al l ow m agazi ne feedi ng.

2. Taper C ri m p – i s used pri m ari l y i n t he

cart ri dge wi t h head space on t he cart ri dge case
m out h wi t h l ead bul l et s.

3. S t ab or R i ng C rim pi ng – it i s used onl y on

j acket ed bull et s consi st i ng of several im pressed
di m pl es or a groove pressed i nt o t he cart ri dge
case m out h.

12

Cartridge Primer
Primer is a complete assembly of priming
composition, paper disk, anvil and vent. It is also a portion
of the cartridge case, which consists of brass or gilding
metal cup. The primer cup inside the cartridge case, contains
a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which
when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such
reaction is called percussion.
Primers containing priming mixture are used for
igniting the gunpowder or the powder charge. A blow from
the firing pin on the primer, compresses the priming mixture
or priming composition between the primer and the anvil,
and this caused the composition to ignite and explode. The
ignition or explosion produces flame or primer flash, which
passes through the vent or flash hole located in the base of
the cartridge, igniting the gunpowder or the propellant in a
split of a second.
Alexander John Forsyth was credited being the first
to conceive the idea of using a detonating compound for
igniting powder charge in small arms by percussion. Forsyth
was a Scotch Presbyterian minister, but he was also a
chemist, a hunter and well-known authority on firearms. He
spent most of his time and attention in the development, and
improvement of ignition, and his first successful priming
mixture, was composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal and
sulfur in powdered form.
Primers are used for igniting propellant. The
promptness, adequacy and uniformity in the ignition of
powder charges, play a vital role in the performance of the
cartridge. It is not enough that primer will explode when
struck by the firing pin, but they must all explode alike.
Two Types/Kinds of Primer
1. Berdan Primer – was invented by U.S Army Colonel
Hiram Berdan. The primer of this type, have two
vents or flash holes towards the gunpowder. Berdan
primer is non-replaceable, since the anvil of the
primer, formed an integral part of the cartridge case,
and can be deformed by firing.
2. Boxer Primer – was invented by the British Army
Colonel Edward M. Boxer. The primer has only one
vent or flash hole towards the gunpowder. The boxer
primer can be replaced and can be reused, since the
primer cup is removable from the cartridge, and
consequently minimized expenses on expensive brass
cartridge case.
Parts of the Primer, Center-fire cartridge
1. Anvil – the portion of the primer, against which the
priming mixture is crushed by blow from the firing
13
pin. This must be hard, rigid and firmly supported,
to provide the resistance necessary for firing the
priming mixture.
2. Priming mixture – is a highly sensitive mixture of
chemical compound contained in the primer cup.
The priming mixture varies depending upon the
manufacturer.
3. Disc – piece of small paper or disk of tin foil, where
the priming mixture is contained and pressed over
the impact of the primer and the anvil, its purpose
are:
a. To hold priming mixture in place;
b. To exclude moisture.
4. Primer cup – the container of the anvil, disc and the
priming mixture. This is made of brass, gilding
metal or copper, depending upon the kind.
Classifications
1. Corrosive – contains potassium chlorate which when
ignited by the primer flash, it produces potassium chloride.
Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air, and this
moisture speeds in rusting the gun barrel.
2. Non-corrosive – primers that eliminate potassium
chlorate, and replaced barium nitrate, a non-corrosive type
of priming compound.
Chemical Compositions of Primers
a. Formula of a Typical Mercuric Primer
Potassium Chlorate (initiator & fuel) -----------------------
45%
Antimony Sulfide (element & fuel) -------------------------
23%
Fulminate of Mercury (initiator) -----------------------------
2%
b. Standard Mixture used by Frankford Arsenal, known
as FH-42
Sulfur--------------------------------------------------------21.97%
Potassium Chloride-------------------------------------47.20%
Antimony Sulfide-----------------------------------------30.83%
c. Winchester Repeating Arms Primer Company
Formula, the 35-NF
Potassium Chloride--------------------------------------------52%
Antimony Sulfide----------------------------------------------18%
Lead Sulpho Cyanide------------------------------------------
25%
Tri-Nitro Toluene-------------------------------------------- 5%
d. Typical Rim-Fire Priming Compound, Used in
Caliber .22 cartridge
Potassium Chlorate----------------------------------------
41.43%
Antimony Sulfide------------------------------------------- 9.54%
Copper Sulpho-Cyanide------------------------------------
4.70%
Ground Glass------------------------------------------- 44.23%
e. German Formula on Priming Compound (Barium
Nitrate Replaced Potassium chlorate)
Fulminate of Mercury--------------------------------------39%
Barium Nitrate-----------------------------------------------41%
Antimony Sulfide---------------------------------------------9%
Picric Acid---------------------------------------------------5%
Ground Glass----------------------------------------------------6%
f. Formula of the Swiss Inventor Karl Ziegler (Non-
Corrosive Priming Compound)
Fulminate of Mercury------------------------------------- 40%
Barium Nitrate-------------------------------------------- 25%
Antimony Sulfide------------------------------------------- 25%
Barium Carbonate------------------------------------------- 6%
Ground Glass--------------------------------------------------- 4%
Major Components Inside the Primer
1. The initiator – lead styphnate (Pb), which is set off
with a sharp low, as when firing pin strikes the
primer cup;
2. The oxidizer – barium nitrate (Ba), which gives up
its oxygen readily; the oxygen is needed to burn
the fuel;
3. The fuel – antimony sulfide (Sb), which burns at a
very high rate; the purpose of this initial burn, is
to ignite the gunpowder, which propels the bullet.
BULLET
Bullet is a part of a cartridge consisting of lead or
jacketed projectile propelled from a firearm by means of
heated gas coming from the burning powder charge.
The word bullet, originated from the French word
boulette, means a small ball. Sometimes the term bullet
may include projectiles propelled from shotguns. These
projectiles designed for shotguns are called shot or pellets.
Shots or pellets, refers to a small spherical projectiles
loaded in a shotgun cartridge. In ordinary layman’s
viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearm is called slug.
Two kinds of bullets
According to Mechanical Construction:
1. Lead Bullets – those made of lead or alloy of metals,
such tin and antimony which is slightly harder than pure
lead, in order to prevent the adherent of lead in the bore of
the barrel, lubricant should be placed on the groove around
the body of the bullets.
14
2. Jacketed Bullets – those made of lead core covered with
jacket of harder material, such as; gilding metal or copper
alloy approximately 90% and zinc10%.
Purpose of Jacket:
1) To prevent adherence of lead or metal inside the
gun barrel.
2) To have better penetration of the bullet to the
target.
Common Types of Bullet:
1. Ball bullet – have soft lead core inside a jacket and are
used against person. This is the original terminology for
bullet.
2. Armor piercing bullet – have hardened steel core, and are
fired at vehicles and other armored targets. These types of
bullet in small arms have a similarity to the standard bullet,
but in addition to the lead and antimony filler, a core of
tungsten chrome steel which continuous to penetrate the
armor target. Usually, with black color at the tip.
3. Tracer bullet – it contains a compound at the base,
usually similar to barium nitrates, which set on fire when the
bullet is projected. The flash of the light and smoke from
burning permits flight of the tracer bullet to be seen,
especially at night time. The path of the tracer bullet
apparently continuous its light, enabling the shooter to fixed
his target at a particular distance. Usually, with orange/red
color at the tip.
4. Incendiary bullet – contain a mixture, such as
phosphorous or other materials, that can be set on fire by
impact. These are used on targets that will readily burn, such
as aircrafts or gasoline depot. Usually, with blue color at the
tip.
5. Explosive or fragmentary bullet – it contains a high
charge of explosive. Because of their small size, it is
difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms
ammunition. For this reason, the use of high explosive
bullets, is usually limited to 20 mm and above.
Other Types of Bullet
1. Hardball Bullet – this type of bullet having a copper
sheath, the jacket covers a lead core. The jacket that covered
the lead core is called, full metal jacket.
2. Depleted Uranium – is ideal for use in armor penetrators.
These solid metal projectiles have the speed, mass and
physical properties and have exceptional performance
against armored targets. This kind of bullet is designed, to
defeat an armored target at a greater distance.
5. Fragmentation bullet – this bullet is similar to hard ball
bullet, with stress lines manufactured into the slug. The
results are that the bullet splits into fragments when hitting
soft tissue, creating a bigger wound, but tends to retain it’s
from when penetrating armor.
6. Spitzer – a type of bullet having a sharply pointed nose.
This is more effective than the round ball of the same weight
because, there is less surface presented to the air and the
speed of the bullet encountered less air resistance thus, it
moves with unhampered speed. This type of bullet when it
hit hard object like bones inside the body, it changes its
bullet track hence, the tendency is that, the bullet traveled
sideways. When the bullet traveled in its condition, if the
bullet exited from the wound, it will create a wider size exit
wound.
7. Dumdum bullet – includes all soft bullets, split nose
bullets, hollow point bullets and jacketed bullets with
exposed lead core. The expanding effects of these bullets
have tremendous damage.
8. Mushroom bullet or Soft Point bullet – is a bullet that
will expand upon striking an object and therefore produce
much more serious effects and have correspondingly greater
stopping power. Soft Point Bullets or Mushroom bullet,
when fired from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon
striking a flesh or soft tissue, until it looks like a mushroom.
They are designed to provide deeper penetration before
expansion. However, when it exited from the wound, the
exited wound will have bigger size.
9. Hollow Point Bullet – is a bullet with an open ogive or
nose, designed to increase an expansion when it hits the
target. These are also designed to provide rapid expansion
and when it exited from the wound, it will have a bigger exit
wound than the entrance wound.
10. Steel Jacketed bullet – is a bullet having soft steal jacket,
often clad or plated with gilding metal to prevent rusting,
and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
11. X - Bullet – is a solid copper projectile, heat treated for
extra toughness with no separate jacket and no lead core.
The bullet holds together for deep penetration. Deep forward
cavity causes the nose to peel back into four razor-edge
petals. Viewed head-on, the appearance of these four petals
gives the X-bullet its name.
12. Boat tail – a bullet with a base tapering to smaller
diameter.
13. Gas Check – a small metal cup fitted to the base of a
lead bullet, to protect it from the hot gases created by the
burning powder charge.
14. Glaser Safety Slug – the unique Glaser design uses a
special jacket and compressed short core with a plastic tip.
The construction prevents break-up on inanimate targets but
results in disintegration live target.
Parts of a Bullet
1. Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust
and heat from the burning powder. Sometimes gas check is
place on the base to prevent melting of bullet.
2. Bearing Surface – the body of the bullet that contacts the
lands and grooves in the barrel. The body of the bullet
15
should fit the bore of the barrel enough, to prevent the exit
of the heated gas ahead of the bullet.
3. Cannelure - a serrated groove or depression rolled around
the body of the bullet usually used in bottleneck cartridge.
Sometimes it is called crimping, when used in a straight
cartridge.
4. Core – a mass of lead in a bullet covered with jacket.
This lead component sometimes, contains other metals for
special purposes, such as, for better penetration.
5. Head Height – length in the portion of the bullet from the
shoulder to the tip.
6. Heel – the portion the bullet where the heel is measured
towards the beginning of bearing surface.
7. Jacket – part of the bullet, different from the lead that
covers the entire lead core. The usual materials used include
copper, brass, steel, and aluminum.
8. Meplat – from a French term for a flat surface, is the
technical term for the flat or open tip on the nose of a bullet.
The diameter of the flat or blunt end of the nose or ogive of
a bullet.
9. Ogive – the tapered or curved part of the bullet, beyond
the bearing surface, towards the tip of the bullet.
10. Point – the forward portion of the ogive or tip of the
bullet.
11. Shoulder – it is the end portion of the body of the bullet,
where the parallel side is inserted in the cartridge case.
Bullet Designs
1. Jacketed Hollow Point – the exposed lead at the tip of the
jacketed hollow point, rapidly initiates uniformed controlled
expansion that progresses to the depth of the hollow point
cavity.
2. Semi-Jacketed Hollow Point – with more exposed lead at
the tip, that expand less than a jacketed hollow point bullet.
3. Full Metal Cone, Truncated Cone - the lead core of this
bullet is enclosed in a light copper jacket, which has a cone
shape and a flat point. The result is less expansion than a
JHP bullet, but more than an FMJ, and deeper penetration
than an SP bullet.
4. Lead Wad cutter – the full wad cutter profile of this solid
lead bullet, cuts clean in paper targets for precise scoring.
5. Lead Semi-Wad cutter –for clean hole punching in paper
targets.
6. Lead Round Nose – solid lead bullet with rounded ogive
for down-range accuracy. Hard hitting, economical.
7. Full Metal Jacket – the lead core of this bullet is covered
with a jacket, except the base, which results in little
expansion, but with deep penetration. This also called ball 1) Potassium Nitrate 75%,
ammunition. 2) Sulfur 10%
3) Charcoal 15%
8. Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail – the lead core of this bullet is
enclosed in a heavy copper jacket, which results in little or 2. Smokeless powder-is a propellant which when fired,
no expansion but deep penetration. Boat tail heel further does not give off huge cloud of white smoke like black
reduces drag to improve downrange velocity. powder.

9. Hollow Point Boat Tail – extremely accurate hollow point
bullet pointed with aerodynamic designed. Boat tail heel
further reduces drag to improve down-range velocity.
Precision balance and exceptional concentricity (having
common center, having a common axis) greatly increase
bullet stability to assure superb accuracy.
Smokeless Powder Main Classes
1) Single-base propellant or nitrocellulose - it contains only
pure nitrocellulose. This type of propellant, have a perfect
shape in grains like small squares, disc, flakes, strips,
pellets, or perforated cylindrical grains and,

10. Soft Point – exposed lead on the tip of the bullet and 2) Double-base propellant - are those having nitrocellulose
broader point diameter, provides controlled expansion of the and nitroglycerine as major ingredients, mixed with one or
jacket on the bullet at the lower velocity. The large wound is more minor ingredients.
the results from expansion of the jacket that would be more
or less 200 percent of original bullet diameter.
Purpose of Ingredients in Double-Base
Gunpowder
1.) To ensure stability
2.) To reduce flash flames temperature and,
Gunpowder or powder charge in a cartridge is an 3.) To improve ignitability.
explosive propellant which when detonated by the primer
flash, will have a heaving effects that propels the projectiles Doubl e base P ropel l ant i s gray green col or and
with a tremendous pressure, from the heated gas that passes t he grai ns are si m il ar i n si ze and shape to t he
through the bore of the barrel then, towards the target. Roger si ngl e – base propel l ant s.
Bacon, an English monk and scientist, invented gunpowder
known as Black Powder in 1248. Al m ost al l sm okel ess powder grai ns have
perfect l y defi ni t e shape such as
In 1886, Paul Vieille, invented smokeless
gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single-base propellant, a. sm al l squares d. st ri ps
called Poudre B, made the gelatinized guncotton mixed b. disc e. pel l et s
with ether and alcohol. Ether is a light volatile flammable c. fl akes f. perforat ed
liquid. It was passed through rollers to form thin sheets, cyl i ndri cal grai ns
which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The
propellant today known as pyro cellulose contains less Explosive - a substance that can be made to explode,
nitrogen than guncotton and is less volatile. especially any of those used in bombs.
In 1887, Alfred E. Nobel of Great Britain, Two Types/Main Classes of Explosives
developed smokeless gunpowder called Ballistite, a double-
base propellant. A powder containing equal parts of soluble 1. Low Explosives
nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine.
The term smokeless powder as propellant is properly applied
In 1890, Frederick Abel and James Dewar obtained to low explosives, which is called gelatinized
a patent on a modified form of smokeless powder, known as nitrocellulose. Low explosives burn at the rate of inches per
Cordite; this is another term that is being used for powder section.
charge. All these terms can be used interchangeably because 2. High Explosives
they refer to the same thing
The other smokeless powder consists of a mixture of
Note: The weight of the gun powder is expressed in grains nitrocellulose with a high explosives and nitroglycerine, also
in English speaking countries, and in the countries using the known as double-base explosive known as cordite contains
metric system, the weight of the gun powder is expressed on of double base powder: Some high explosives are more
grams. sensitive than others.
Types of Gunpowder in Small Arms
Classified of Explosives, According to Sensitivity
1. Black powder - is a propellant which fired, it produces
large volumes of grayish smoke and considerable amount of a. Primary Explosives
residue left in the barrel of the gun.

The standard ingredients of black powder are;

16
These are extremely sensitive to chemical shock, friction,
and heat, which they will respond by burning rapidly or
detonating. Example; fulminate of mercury, lead Styphnate.
b. Secondary Explosives
These explosives are also called base explosive, and these
are relatively insensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They
are burn when exposed to heat or flame in small amount of
blasting caps, to boost their power.
Example; Dynamite
c. Tertiary Explosives
These tertiary explosives are also called blasting agent, are
insensitive to shock, they cannot be reliable detonated with
practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead,
require an intermediate explosive booster of secondary
explosives, like ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixture (ANFO)
and explosives that are primary used in large-scale mining
construction.
Common Primary Explosives
1. Fulminate of Mercury- is an explosive that appears in
crystalline form, and white when pure, but usually has a
brownish-yellow or gray tint. It is extremely sensitive to
shock, friction, or heat, and accidents during manufacture.
2. Lead Azide- is a crystalline, cream- colored compound
with high ignition temperature, and is less sensitive to
shock, heat, and friction than fulminate of mercury.
3. Lead Styphnate- varies in color from yellow to brown
and is extremely sensitive to fire and heat; when in a dry
state, even a small charge of static electric may cause a
detonation.
4. Tetracene- is as pale- yellow explosives that burns
around 13,000 foot per second and is extremely sensitive to
flame, producing a heavy black smoke.
5. Diazodinitrophenel (DDNP)- is a yellowish- brown
powder that is less sensitive impact than fulminate of
mercury and lead azide, but more powerful upon detonation.
DDNP is usually mixed with other explosives and used as a
primary mixture.
Common Secondary Explosives
1. Tri- Nitro- Toluene (TNT)- is a solid case explosive that
is a yellow crystalline substance with high brisance, or
shattering effect.
2. Nitro starch – is closely related to nitrocellulose, and is
less sensitive and less power than TNT.
3. Tetryl- is a clear –to-pale-yellow crystalline material with
a very high degree of shattering effect (brisance), has a
burning rate of 25,800 foot per second. Sometimes this is
used as a booster and in blasting caps.
4. RDX - considered one of the most powerful of the
military explosives.
17
5. Composition B, or cyclotol – is a product in combining
59%RDX, 40%TNT and 1% wax.
6. Composition C-4- is one of the best known of all the
military explosives, it is made of 91% RDX and 9%
plastic binder, and C-4 is used as a combat-issue military
explosive.
8. HMX- is one of the most powerful explosives made
today.
9. Ammonium Nitrate- is a white-crystalline substance, but
be dyed to other color.
10. Picric Acid- is a high explosive in crystalline state with
a burning rate of approximately 19,000 foot per second. The
Japanese used picric acid as a base explosive during World
War II.
11. Pentaerythritol Tetra nitrate (PETN)- is an extremely
powerful explosive used in detonating cord, blasting caps,
and ammonium primers.
12. Tetrytol- is a light yellow to buff in color and high
explosives that is used primarily as filter in artillery shells
and bursting mines. It is similar to TNT and Tetryl, firing at
24,000 foot per second. It is also used in demolition satchel
or bag containing charges.
Common Commercial Explosives
a. Dynamite - was developed by Alfred E Nobel, a substitute
for a highly volatile nitroglycerine. It is the most widely
used explosive in in the world.
Nitroglycerine has been replaced largely by ammonium
nitrate. Military dynamite contains little or no
nitroglycerine, nor does it absorb or retain moisture. It is
much easier to use and store than the commercial variety,
and is generally used in non-combat construction projects.
b. Ammonium-nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) – was developed for
commercial use in the 1950 employing prilled rather than
crystallized ammonium nitrate. ANFO is not a sensitive cap,
thus, it requires a heavy boosters charge to detonate it.
c. Water gels – also called slurry, were introduced in the late
1950, and are composed of ammonium nitrate, TNT, water,
and gelatinizing agent with a bonding agent. This explosive
is used primarily for quarry blasting, because of its
concentration of strength.
Firearm Characteristics
Dr. Edmond Locard (December 13, 1877 – May
04, 1966) was a French Criminologist. He formulated the
basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a
trace". A principle explaining that when two objects come in
contact, there is always transference of material from one
subject to the other, which means that it is not only a person
that leaves a trace. Hence, the investigator is given his lead
to solve the crime,
 Class characteristics- are those characteristics.
Marking that are determinable even prior to the manufacture
of the firearms. These class characteristics are factor
specifications and within the control of man. These serve as
basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms.
The following are class characteristics of a firearm:
1. Bore diameter or caliber 6. Width of the
grooves
2. Number of lands 7. Direction of the
twist
3. Number of grooves 8. Pitch of the rifling
4. Width of the lands 9. Depth of the grooves
1. Bore diameter or caliber- is the diameter in which the
bore was reamed.
2. Number of lands and grooves- the number of lands and
grooves inside the bore of a firearm are always the same.
Tools of the firearms inside the barrel;
a. Lands- the elevated portions inside the bore of the barrel.
Once the fired bullet passes through the barrel of the gun,
the landmarks created, becomes depressed portion in the
fired bullet.
b. Grooves- the depressed portions inside the bore of the
barrel. When the fired bullet passes through the barrel of the
gun, the groove marks is created. But the effects is just the
opposite, the groove marks created, becomes the raised
portion in the fired bullet.
3. Width of the lands- lands width is dependent on the bore
diameter, the grooves width and the number of the grooves,
since, the bigger the caliber, the wider the width of the lands
and grooves.
4. Width of the grooves- groove width is measured, as the
shortest distance between the two sides or edges of a groove.
5. Direction of the twist- the rifling inside the gun barrel
may twist either to the right or left.
6. Pitch of the rifling- It refers to the number of inches or
distance advanced by the rifling in one complete turn.
7. Depth of the grooves- groove depth in the bore is
measured on a radius of the grooves. The depth of the
grooves is equal to the height of the side of the lands.
Individual/Accidental Characteristic - Are those
characteristics marking which are peculiar in a particular
striation, and do not appear in all other firearms. These
characteristics markings are determinable only after
manufacture of the firearm. Their existence is beyond the
control of man, which has random distribution created by
the tools of the firearms.
Individual Characteristics found in the Bore of the
Barrel of a Firearm
e. Irregularities – created during the manufacture, like in
spiral cutting of the grooves, the cutter’s edge is not
18
uniform; this will remain irregular between the edge
of the lands and grooves.
f. Scratches – caused by the tools used in the
manufacture of the chamber, and the metal chips
remove from drilling operation.
g. Roughness – not polish very well, the entire length of
the surface of the chamber/bore of the barrel.
h. Imperfection –this is beyond the control of the man,
like the accidental slope in making the bore of the
barrel, beyond the desire caliber, cause by the drill
blade.
Their existence in a firearm is brought about by:
1. the failure of a tool used in its normal operation in
making the tools of the firearms that later on, in
actual contact with fired cartridge cases and fired
bullets;
2. Wear and tear, abuse, mutilation, corrosion,
erosion, and other accidental causes.
Corrosion is the eating away of the metal in the internal
surfaces of the bore of the barrel, by the formation of rust or
other process of chemical reaction, which may result, when
neglected to be cleaned after firing.
Erosion is the result of the breaking and wearing away of
the metal at the surface of the bore, where the rifling is
located.
Different types of rifling, enumerated below:
1. Steyr-type- 4R G=L- refers to 4 lands, 4 grooves, right
hand twist. The width of the grooves is equal to the width of
the lands.
2. Smith & Wesson- 5R G=L- refers to 5 lands, 5 grooves,
right hand twist.
The width of the grooves is equal the width of the lands.
3. Browning type- 6R G2X- refers to 6landss, 6 grooves
right hand twist. The width of the grooves is two times
wider than width of lands.
4. Colt type- 6L G2X- refers to 6 lands, 6 grooves, left hand
twist. The width of the grooves is three time wider than the
width of the lands.
5. Webley type- 7R G3X- refers to 7 lands, 7 grooves, right
hand twist. The width of the grooves is three times wider
than the width of the lands.
6. Army type- 4R G3X- refers to the 4 lands, 4 grooves,
right hand twist. The width of the grooves is three times
wider than the width of the lands.
Factors that affects Breechface Impression
1. Powder charge of the cartridge- when the powder charge
on the cartridge is lacking, it will affect the breechface
impression, because the explosion is very slow, and there is
tendency that the backward reaction of the cartridge case is
slow towards the breechface. Then, Breechface marking is
not legible due to less impact of the base of the shell.
2. Softness of the primer cup and the surrounding brass- if
this is the condition of the base of the cartridge case, the
tendency is that, the base of the shell including the primer
will be destroy and the striation is no longer legible, because
of the destruction.
3. Sharpness of the striations on the breechblock- this will
affect also the breechface impression, since it will break the
portion of the base, particularly the primer cup. It is useless
to examine anymore, but look for other tool markings on the
fired shells.
4. Presence of oil, grease or foreign matters on the block-
presence of these material like oil or grease to cover the
breechface, will cause the impact between the breechface
and the base of the shell to slide. The dragging of the base of
shell will cause to erase and destroy the breechface
markings on the base of the shell. If it is dust or sand, it will
screen the portion of the base of the shell, so, there will be
no impression created, because of the foreign object.
5. Factory stamping on the cartridge head- in engraved
factory stamping. When the striation, struck on the portion
of the engraved design of letters, digits of the year of
manufacture and the caliber of the ammunition on the base,
then, impression is no longer legible to examine. It will
virtually affect, the breechface impression.
Marks/Striations on Fired Bullet
Mark or striations on fired bullets are enumerated below:
1. Land marks- this mark is caused by the lands.
2. Groove marks- this is caused by the grooves.
3. Skid marks- it is caused by the worn out barrel.
4. Stripping/shaving marks- this is caused by bullet jumping
towards the forcing cone or breech end of the barrel,
creating shaving marks. Usually, it is caused by
misalignment of the chamber of the revolver and the breech
of the barrel.
5. Slippage marks- it is caused by rotating resistance of the
bullet entering in the rifling of the breech ends.
Marks/Striation on Fired Cartridge Case
Marks or striation on fired shells are enumerated below:
1. Firing pin marks 6. Chamber
marks
2. Breechface marks 7. Magazine lips
marks
3. Extractor marks 8. Pivotal marks
4. Ejector marks 9. Ejector port
marks
5. Shearing marks
1. Firing pin marks- found on the primer of the primer cup,
which is the central area of the base of the cartridge,
especially in center-fire cartridges, wherein the priming
mixture is contained in the primer cup located at the center
19
of the base. But it would be different in rim-fire cartridges,
the firing pin strikes in any portion of the rim, where the
priming mixture is located.
2. Breechface markings- are found on the base or the shell
head of the cartridge case and also found in the primer of the
primer cup. This is cause by the tools of the firearm called
breechface. The backward reaction of the shell after the
explosion of the gun powder, which comes in contact with
the breechface, is the subject for comparison in firearms
identification.
3. Extractor marks- are marks caused by the tools of the
firearms, which is called extractor. The extractor marks are
located in extracting grooves of the shells, fired either from
pistols, rifles, or machine guns. The extractor will grasp the
extracting grooves of the shell by force, to remove the shell
from the chamber of the firearm.
4. Ejector marks- are located in the rim in the base of
cartridge cases, fired from automatic firearms. The purpose
of this tool called ejector, is to throw out the shell from the
ejector port, in preparation for next empty shell.
5. Shearing marks- are sometimes called secondary firing
pin mark. It is just a rebound or duplication of the firing pin
marks. This can easily be detected because it is shallow,
compared to the firing pin marks. This is a form also of
individual character like shearing marks in the base,
especially near the firing pin marks of the primer.
6. Chamber marks- are found in the body of the cartridge
case. It is cause by the irregularities, imperfection,
roughness and scratches inside the chamber of the firearm.
That’s why the investigator or forensic firearms examiner
should be, very careful in making the body of the shell. It
should be marked only after examining the presence of
chamber marks.
7. Magazine lips marks- are markings of two parallel lines
on the rim or on the body of the empty shell. These are
caused by the magazine lips during the loading and dragging
of the cartridge by the slide from the magazine to the
chamber of the firearm for firing. Eventually this mark
serves as a good guide for the firearm examiner, in
determining the relative position of the cartridge in actual
explosion in the chamber of the suspected firearms.
8. Pivotal marks- these marks are caused by the break type
revolver. After firing of this type of revolver, in order to
unload the empty shell in the chamber, it must be folded
downward, from the portion of the breech end and the hand
grip of the firearm. This tool of the firearm will, at the same
time, pull the empty shell from the chamber, and replace
with another live cartridge for firing. The pivotal marks can
be found in the base of the rim, of the rimmed type
cartridge.
9. Ejector port marks- these are marks caused by the contact
between the cartridge case and the ejection pork of the
firearm.
Note: All markings or striations imprinted in the
bullet and cartridge case are all produced by the tools of the
firearm. Sometimes it is called tools marks. These are the
most important piece of evidence needed by the forensic
firearms examiner to include fired bullets, firearms
cartridges, shot pellets, shot wads.
Crime Scene Search Operation for Physical Evidence
Introduction
Several crime incidents committed in the country
are unsolved and if the perpetrator is arrested, the
consequence is that, it will be dismissed by the court,
because of insufficiency of evidence. Important pieces of
evidence will usually provide clue that will precisely
identify the suspect/s identity that can be found in the crime
scene.
However, these vital evidences in the crime scene
are either left behind or destroyed by unscrupulous
investigators. The physical evidence recovered in the crime
scene are significant in the prosecution of the case in court.
With the new scientific equipment and modern technologies,
they could have analyzed scientifically.
Recovery of physical evidence during investigation
at the crime scene is one of the most important task and
tools adopted by the current law enforcement. In the most
cases, the material itemized as evidence and descriptive
information collected from the scene of the crime make a
vast difference in the success and failure of cases in court
proceeding.
Existence of the Crime Laboratory to provide
scientific interpretations and information is vital in the
solution of the crime. Nevertheless, it depends on the
recognition, recovery and documentation of the evidences in
the crime scene. Field investigators, work as part of the
forensic team, as that of the Laboratory Technicians. If the
evidences collected in the crime scene are not properly
accomplished, the work of the crime laboratory is impeded
and it’s all in vain.
Learning experience show that well-trained team,
properly equipped with knowledge is a great advantage in
effectively and efficiently recovering evidences. Personal
knowledge and instinctive actions are of great help in the
solutions of the criminal cases. However, there is no
substitute for the adoption and consistent practice of
scientific investigation which is a mean reason behind
success.
Crime Scene
Is the place where the physical evidence is left by
the perpetrator, after the commission of crime. These
involved the routine jobs of the investigator, in recognizing,
sketching and photographing, collecting, marking,
preserving, and transmitting physical evidence to the Crime
Laboratory for forensic examination.
The primary objective of crime scene search:
20
Is to preserve the physical evidence in the place of
the commission of the crime, and to retain its evidentiary
value in preparation for proper searching, collection, care,
handling, preservation in appropriate container and
transporting of evidence from the scene of the crime to the
Crime Laboratory, until it reaches the court for final
disposition of the case;
To conceptualize, the purpose of the crime scene
search operation in the law enforcement is to render public
service effectively and efficiently, Inform and guide field
investigators about the importance of crime scene search,
with the application of scientific investigation, to assist
investigators in the speedy solution of criminal cases
specially, heinous ones, through the proper processing of
evidences.
To institute a clear-cut delineation of duties and
functions among investigators of different operating units, to
deter overlapping and duplication of functions and to avoid
pointing accusing finger attitude, in case of dismissal of
criminal cases in trial court.
Procedure in Crime Scene Search
A. Received of Report/Complaints;
The police officer of the station who first received the report
of the incidents, shall record the time and date that the
complaint was received. Identify the person who made the
report, the place of the incident and the circumstances of the
incident. The desk officer, who received the report, shall
immediately inform his superior officer, and immediately
inform the duty officer, regarding the report.
B. Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene;
Record the time and date of the arrival at the crime
scene, location of the scene, condition of the weather,
condition and type of lighting, direction of wind and
visibility, and then secure the crime scene by installing
crime scene tape, rope or police line.
Before touching or moving any object of the crime
scene, determine first the status of the victim, whether he is
still alive or already dead. If the victim is alive, the
investigator should exert effort to gather information from
the victim himself, regarding the circumstances of the crime,
After the victim is removed and brought to the
hospital, for medical attention, the personnel shall proceed
to the conduct of searching of evidences.
C. Conduct of Search and Recording of Activities at the
Crime Scene
Assess the situation before conducting an actual
search, immediately, designated a safe area, where you
could stay, in which there are no possible evidences that
may accidentally be destroy or altered.
After assessing the situation, adopt appropriate
search plan by using any of the following methods, namely:
1. strip or lane method of search, 2. double strip or grid
method or search, 3. spiral or circular method of search,
4. zone or sector method of search, 5. point to point
method of search and 6. wheel or spoke method of
search, then use an appropriate instrument or equipment to
collect the evidence, and place them in a container with
proper label or tag.
1. Strip or Lane Method of Search - used when the shooting
incident cover a large, small, open or closed areas. The team
will line up shoulder to shoulder with an arms distance away
from each other and move slowly while examining parallel
strips of terrain. When the evidence is located, the team
leader will be called, before taking any action. The team
should try to maintain the straight line and move forward
together.
2. Double strip or Grid method of search - this method is
used when the shooting incident took in bigger areas or
outdoors. The team will search in strip wherein this method
provides a double check of their search areas.
3. Spiral or Circular Method of Search - this search pattern,
is typically used outdoor scenes. This is conducted by a
searcher who walks one after other in a slightly decreasing,
less than concentric circle, from the outermost boundary
towards the center.
4. Zone or Sector Method of Search – this method is applied
in a bigger area to be search. This should be divided into
zones or sectors. Each member should be assigned to each
sector to perform a thorough search.
5. Point to Point Method of Search – unsystematic method
of search, it can be used in a confined small area.
6. Clockwise and Counter Clockwise Method of Search – it
is usually applied indoors. This involved two members of
the team, one member will search in clockwise direction
searching the area, from waist up to the ceiling. Then, the
other member will search in counter clockwise, from waist
down to the floor. Once completed in one round, this will be
repeated in the reverse process. Wheel or spoke method of
search started at the center, then proceed in outward radii.
D. Photographing the Crime Scene
1. Over-all photographs – are done clockwise until the four
general views of the areas have been taken.
2. Photograph of the victim – a set of picture showing the
relationship of the cadaver over the surroundings including
the injuries sustained.
3. Photograph of evidence – weapons, blood stains, hair,
fiber, paper, and other evidence must be photograph, before
removal.
4. Photograph of the vicinity or environment.
The following sketches should be made:
21
a. Sketch from locality – provides a picture of the scene, the
crime and its vicinity including neighboring buildings and
roads leading to the crime scene;
b. Sketch of grounds – pictures out the scene of the crime
with the nearest physical surroundings such as, house with
its garden, floor plan, and other.
Recognition of Physical Evidence
At the crime scene, the investigator must recognize
and exercise keen power of observation and extreme care in
his search for those physical evidences like: fire bullets,
fired shells, firearm/s, and allied items related to the use of
firearms.
The success of the case lies solely on how the
investigator conducted in handling these ballistics
evidences. Supposedly, and as part of recognition, the
investigator should aware already what kind of incident,
whether it is a shooting incident or stabbing incident.
Knowing this simple thing are vital in the preparation of the
necessary equipment needed in the crime scene before they
responded, to avoid unnecessary delay.
The investigator must perform his job well, at the
proper time and at the proper place. Proper time refers to
the situation where, he is supposed to be there in the crime
scene. Proper place refers to the situation where the
investigator should be there in the crime scene. It is
important therefore, that the investigator must be familiar
with the modern techniques in the proper recognition,
collection, marking, preservation and transmittal of these
physical evidences.
Likewise, it is significant on the part prosecutor to be
able to present his evidence, in such manner that he can give
the court a complete and clear picture, on how the crime was
committed. Physical evidence refers to the means by which
the policemen or police investigator brings to the court the
evidences, which the guilt of the accused is based. It is a
presentation of facts to the court, wherein the police officer
has determined, that the accused is responsible for a criminal
act.
Properly prepared physical evidence may serve the
same purpose, as if taking the judge to the crime scene, and
perhaps reconstructing on how the events transpired which
led to the commission of the crime. Well preserved physical
evidence, its protection and careful examination the task.
are necessary and important duty, in the fulfillment of task.
Collection of Physical Evidence
Sample of Recovered Fired Bullets
Sample of Recovered Fired Bullet
In collecting physical evidence, the officer or
investigator should collect all articles, which may, in some
future date, be of value as evidence. Any physical object
which may show, and indicate that crime was committed,
and anything that may connect to particular person with the
crime or crime scene, should be collected. The following
enumerated below are the example of physical evidences:
a. Firearm/s.
b. Fired bullet/s
c. Fired shell/s
d. Metallic fragment/s
e. Broken glass or allied items
f. Holster
g. Magazine for automatic firearm
h. Cartridge/s
i. Gloves
j. Masks
Extra ordinary care, should be afforded in the exercise
of collecting physical evidences. Evidence should not be
mutilated in any way, such as crushing. It should not be
altered in any way that may change its original nature.
Should alterations of the evidence occurred, the police
officer or investigator should include in his report why this
happened. The evidence should not be contaminated, that
is, by adding anything which may change the very nature of
the physical evidence. In short, don't mutilate, alter and
contaminate physical evidence.
Should the situation permit, that fired bullets lodged in
walls, furniture, wood trims, or even trees, extreme care
must be exercised in removing this evidence. Don't dig out
the evidence bullet with a knife or ice pick, that may cause
cut around the evidence, so as not to touch anything that
would scratch, that will impair its evidentiary value.
If the bullets lodge on wood, it is better to split open
the wood along the grain, until the bullet falls off. Otherwise
just bring the portion of the wood to the laboratory intact,
and it will be removed by the laboratory personnel. In case
22
the bullet has been broken into fragments, secure as many
fragments as possible. Metallic fragments can be fitted
together to determine whether they came from one evidence
bullet. In case of bullet hole on the glass, take note that the
glass has elasticity limit, after it was hit by the bullet.
Beyond the elasticity limit, it will crack and the glass
will return to its normal feature, however, the glass fragment
will be scattered in powdered form in the crater of the bullet
hole. The appearance of the hole, will depend on the speed
of the bullet, if it is of high velocity, the hole on the glass is
almost circular without a sign of cracking. However, if the
velocity is low, there appears so many cracks proceeding
outward, forming a star. Although, it is a chemistry jobs, it
is wrong for the investigator, to base the size of the bullet on
the glass hole, to determine the caliber of the bullet.
In case of stone crack or hole in the glass, it does not
leave a uniform fracture and usually, it does not penetrate
the glass, so the stone should be searched at the bottom of
the glass hole. If you have to compare glass bullet hole and
stone glass hole, the former is more on regular geometrical
appearance, while the latter is more on irregular appearance
of fracture.
When evidence firearm found at the crime scene, it
is necessary that the following pertinent facts or features
should be noted
a. Type of firearm - ex. pistol, revolver, rifle or
shotgun etc.
b. Caliber of the firearm - ex. caliber 9mm, .45, .357.
c. Serial number of the firearm, the most important -
ex. SN. 2744679.
d. Number of load in the cylinder, if revolver - ex. 5
live ammunitions or load, and in the magazine, if
pistol - ex. 7 live ammunitions.
e. Position of firearm relative to a body at the scene -
ex. held by victim's hand.
f. Other distinct or significant features - nickel plated
barrel, etc.
When bullets are found at the crime scene, the
following description should be noted
down:
a. Type of bullet - ex. lead or jacketed.
b. Caliber of the bullet - ex. caliber 45, .38, etc.
c. Shape or form of the bullet - ex. round nose, flat
nose, pointed, etc.
 d. Other metallic fragments - ex. deformed broken
jacket.
e. Place of recovery and date of recovery - ex. San
Fermin, Cauayan City, Isabela 04/10/2023.
When shells are found at the crime scene, the
following description should be noted down:
a. Number of shells - should be in order of recovery
with physical identity each.
b. Caliber of the shells - if it is found on the base of
the shell, it should be noted.
c. Trademark or brand of the shells - ex. Luger, Ap,
ACP, WCC etc.
d. Place of recovery and date of recovery - the
location of the crime scene and the actual date of
recovery -04/20/2023.
All the facts relative to a shooting case are greatly
significant to the investigator, because these will guide him
accordingly. All these factors will also enable him to
simplify his answers during the cross-examination of the
trial of the case. He cannot always rely on his memory, so it
is necessary that he should take notes, on every information
regarding physical evidence.
The investigator will surely find that these things are
valuable, when the proper time comes, as his reference
during the trial of the case, especially at the witness stand
when he is called to testify.
In collecting firearms at the crime scene, extra caution
should be taken by the collecting officer. In the old police
methods, it is stated that the suspected firearm or fatal gun
should be picked up by inserting a rod or pencil into the bore
of the firearm. This procedure is no longer practiced or
adapted in the modern scientific techniques of crime
detection and investigation, because it probably mutilates,
alter and contaminate the evidence.
The proper way at the scene, the firearm should be
picked up by the investigator using handkerchief or small
string or small wire inserted through the trigger guard of the
firearm. Be sure that in picking up the suspected* firearm,
the muzzle end of the barrel is not pointed towards the
person picking it up, nor it is pointed to anyone in the
vicinity. If it is a revolver, and this revolver is in full cocked
position, meaning that the hammer is pulled back
completely into a position for firing. It is very dangerous of
23
jarring (sudden or unexpected shake) when picking up, as
the gun, might cause accidental firing.
The practical precautionary measure that can be
exercised when picking up a cocked revolver is that, before
picking up the cocked revolver, it must be inserted with a
crumple paper, then place in front of the open hammer. This
is done to prevent accidental or unnecessary firing.
Procedure in Marking of Physical Evidences
Procedure in marking fired bullets, fired shells,
firearms and other objects or items, it is very important on
the part of the investigating officer, to identify these
evidences during the trial of the case in court, as a witness. It
would be useless, if these evidences or ballistics exhibits
cannot be identified during the trial, since this is one of the
vital tools, in the prosecution of the case against the
perpetrator.
Shooting incident is usually filed and tried in court
several years. Collected evidence therefore, should be mark
by the investigator each, since each physical evidence, must
have each own identity for the purposes of identification. It
is necessary that the investigator should also engrave his
secret marking, to avoid switching of physical evidence.
Marking of Fired Bullets
The investigator should mark his initials, or the
initials of victim in the ogive or nose or on the base of the
bullet, together with the corresponding date of recovery. If it
is deformed bullet, the marks should be in base or in the
place where there are no more landmarks and groove marks.
The officer can do this with the use of stylus or any pointed
instrument. Never in any instance that the initial, should be
placed at the cylindrical or peripheral surface of the bullets,
because this portion of the bullet, contains the rifling marks,
where the striations, are also located.
These are important for the forensic firearms
examiner, when the evidence is examined under the bullet
comparison microscope. Reminder: don't use X in marking
evidences, because X is a universal mark, it is difficult to
distinguish one X from another X. To avoid confusion,
never use X in marking physical evidence.
Marking of Fired Cartridge Case
Fired shells should be marked with the initials of the
investigator or initials of the victim together with the date of
recovery. The officer can do this also, with the use of the
stylus or a sharp pointed instrument. For the fired shells, the
following are the best areas where the investigating officer
should place his marks:
1. Inside, near the open mouth;
2. Outside, near the open mouth, and;
3. On the body of the shell, after examining the
presence of chamber markings
These portions are the best areas, where the officer
can place his marks. Never place the marks on the base of
the fired shells, because this part of the shell contains the
breech face markings transferred during the explosion of the
cartridge inside the chamber of the gun. These breech face
marks, are vital to the forensic firearms examiner. This
portion of the shells, are examined under the bullet
comparison microscope. These breechface markings are the
one used as basis for determining, whether or not the fired
shell was fired from a suspected gun.
Marking of Suspected Firearm
Aside from noting down its pertinent features of the
evidence firearms, it should be marked also with the initials
of the recovering officer or the initials of the victim, either
in the three main inseparable parts, such as the barrel,
cylinder, and the frame as in revolver. The initial, if it is a
pistol, should be placed on the barrel, slide and frame or
receiver.
Marking should be done in any of the three main
inseparable parts of the gun. A tag should be filled up with
the following entries:
a. Type of firearm - ex. revolver, pistol, rifle, shotgun.
b. Make or Model of the firearm - Remington
1911A1.
c. Caliber of the firearm - ex. caliber 9mm,.45.
d. Serial Number - ex. SN.1866236.
e. Date of Recovery - ex. 10:35 pm. April 15, 2023.
f. Name of Victim - ex. Pedro O. Penduco.
g. Name of Suspect - ex. Cardo C. Dalisay.
h. Other physical features of value - ex. absence of
thumblatch.
Preservation of Evidence
Evidences like firearms, fired bullets, fired shells,
should be properly preserved for future identification and
presentation. These physical evidences should be kept in
proper storage, in proper place and conditions conducive
for preservation, so that it will retain their top evidentiary
24
value for effective presentation and final prosecution of the
case.
For small objects, like bullets and metallic
fragments, after having been marked by the recovering
officer, it should be wrapped in tissue paper and sealed in
pill box, match box, vial or any similar container. The
container should also be properly label with tag. Evidence
should be placed each in a separate container and each
container should be marked accordingly. The container
should be durable enough, that it will not easily break, and it
should be large enough for the evidence to be easily
removed and replaced.
Evidence firearm should be properly placed in the
container box or cartoon properly formed, to protect latent
print and to prevent loss or tampering from unscrupulous
person. It should be put on record, all the steps taken in
preserving all these physical evidence for future use,
question might be asked by the defense lawyer.
Transmittal Process
The physical evidence after marking and
preparation of letter request will be transmitted to duty
personnel or the designated receiving officer in the
laboratory. The duty officer, who received, must itemize the
evidences, and must be duly aware of the Chain of
Possession of Physical Evidences.
The investigator must bear in mind and must be able to state
clearly the following:
a. Name of the person, who recovered the evidences
in the crime scene.
b. Name of the person, who received the evidence
from him when it was submitted.
c. Date and time, when the evidences were submitted
to the laboratory.
d. Date and time, received.
e. Name of the person, who issue the receipt. Note:
the file copy received by the officer, who delivered
the request and the corresponding itemized physical
evidence, is already the receipt itself, based on the
filled up facsimile, stamped on the letter request.
Hence, this file copy is the proof of chain of
custody.
The evidence custodian must be able to explain the
following:
a. To establish where the evidences keep at all times
prior to the presentation of evidence.
b. There must be no unknown gap as to the
whereabouts of the physical evidences, all must be
clearly stated in the chain of custody.
c. The officer must be able to impress the judge that
all the evidences have been properly protected and
preserved until the presentation of evidences in
Court
CHAPTER 10: BALLISTIC EQUIPMENT USED IN
FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
INTRODUCTION

Firearm identification as a science is a prominent

current issue of discussion with its primary objectives is to
present in a general manner a varied approach to the study
of firearm identification. This is an endeavor to make the
information regarding laboratory equipment understandable
and usable in the examination of physical evidences and
perhaps recognized in the legal profession. Without these
laboratory equipments, crimes committed with the smoking
gun, the law enforcement personnel’s efforts would be
futile, especially without witness at the time of the
commission of crime.
The policemen can be more effective in their drive
against crimes involving the use of firearms which are now
rampant. When some of the policemen are well verse about
the application of these equipment, it entails more
accomplishment in the field of forensic science. This is not
only limited among the other members of the law
enforcement agencies but also other private institutions.
Their endeavors to share their effort to reduce crime is
significant indication for them to know how these equipment
functions and give scientific aid in the solution of the crime.
Sample of Bullet Recovery Box
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
This instrument is especially designed for use by
the forensic firearms examiner to examine and compare two
fired bullets or two fired shells mounted in separate stage
plate, simultaneously observing the merged magnified
image in the eyepiece of the bullet comparison microscope.
In April 1925, the person responsible for the
invention of the bullet comparison microscope was Col.
Calvin H. Goddard. He is known as the father of modern
ballistics.
The forensic firearm examiner can either apply the
two position in comparing the two evidence bullet and test
bullet, either; 1) Intermarriage, or 2) Juxtaposition. It can be
applied also in comparing evidence shell and test bullet.

List of Equipment’s used in the Forensic

Laboratory

1. Bullet Recovery Box

2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Stereoscopic Microscope
4. Shadowgraph
5. CP-6 Comparison Projector
6. Helixometer
7. Micrometer
8. Caliper Image of Bullet Comparison Microscope
9. Analytical balance or torsion balance
10. Onoscope Two Position in Comparing Evidence and Test
11. Chronograph Specimens
12. Taper gauge
13. Electric gun marker a. Intermarriage- is the position of both evidence bullet
14. Stylus and test bullet, wherein half of the same image of evidence
bullet and half of the same image of the test bullet of the
1. Bullet Recovery Box same direction, the same magnification and the same level
Use to test suspected firearm and to retrieve the test or plane, are merged into one image. In this position the
fired bullets easily. Obtaining test standards of fired forensic firearm examiner will try to look for the
ammunition components (bullets and cartridge cases) as a congruency of striation or the same marking created by
basis for comparison with the class and individual the tools of the firearm, like for example lands and grooves
characteristics of evidence items is the first step in the of the barrel of the firearm.
identification process.
Fired bullet samples must be collected using In comparing or examining the evidence
techniques that decelerate and securely capture the fired shell/bullet and test shell/bullet, the following should be
bullets within a short distance. This must be performed considered:
without damage to the microscopic detail on the surface of
the fired bullets. a. At the same time – referring to the time,
when both evidence and test bullet are
compared in the bullet comparison
microscope. For example, if your schedule
for examination 2 O’clock, then both
should examine on that particular time, not
one after of different time each.

25
 b. At the same direction-referring to the 3. Stereoscopic Microscope
direction of both evidence and test bullet. It is designed for low magnification observation of
For example, if the evidence bullet is a specimen It is generally used in the preliminary
facing to left, the test bullet should be examinations of fired bullets and fire shells, to determine the
facing also to the left side. relative distribution of the class characteristics or the so-
called orientation purposes. It can also be used in the
c. At the same magnification - referring to close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of
the magnification adjustment, of both the firearms.
evidence and test bullet mounted in each
stage plate. It should be both clear when
you peep in the eyepiece of the bullet
comparison microscope. For example, if
one object is bigger in size of the image
and the object is smaller in size of the
image in each stage plate, it is not the
same magnification.

d. At the same image – referring to the same

picture image of both the evidence bullet
and test bullet, in the bullet comparison
microscope. For example, if you are going
to compare, the landmarks of the evidence
bullet, it should be the landmarks also of
the test bullet to be aligned or compared.

e. At the same level or plane – referring to Image of Stereoscopic Microscope

both equal or balance height of the
elevation of the stage, plate, where the
evidence bullet and test bullet mounted.
For example, if the stage plate is not equal
or balance, one of the object is blurred and
the other one is clear, that can be observed
in the eyepiece of the bullet comparison
microscope.
4. Shadowgraph
This is equipment used in forensic ballistics.
Shadowgraph is a type of flow visualization. In principle, a
difference in temperature, a different gas, or a shock wave in
the transparent air cannot be seen by the human eye.
Example: The motion of a bullet after leaving the muzzle
end of a firearm can be observed by way of its shadow
through a shadowgraph equipment.

Samples of Intermarriage Position (Fired Bullet/Fired

Cartridge Case)
When observed through the eyepiece of the bullet
comparison microscope, the forensic examiner can observe
the test bullet in one stage plate and the evidence bullet in
the other stage plate. These two stage plate when you
observed through the eyepiece, it is divided into what we
called prism or dividing line that separate the two objects
that are mounted in the two stage plate.
b. Juxtaposition – is the critical side by side comparison of
evidence bullet and test bullet, through the bullet
comparison microscope, to find the same feature, structure
of striations or markings from the base portion, up to ogive
or nose portion of the fired bullet, created by the same tools
of the firearm. If all the portion of evidence bullet and test
bullet is the same, then they have congruency of striations,
and therefore, it is fired by one and same suspected firearm.
5. CP-6 Comparison Projector
An equipment very much similar with the bullet
comparison microscope, in which two fired bullets or fired
shells, can be compared simultaneously. The instrument was
invented by William Howard Livens, an engineer and a
British Army
6. Helixometer
This is a type of instrument used in measuring the
pitch of rifling of firearms. Pitch of the rifling is the
distance advanced by the rifling in one complete turn,
equivalent to 360 degrees or it may mean the distance
travelled by the bullet in completing a 360 degrees’ rotation.

26

Image of examining the Pitch of Riflings
7. Micrometer
This device is similar with caliper.
Sample of Micrometer Instrument
8. Caliper
Caliper is an instruments used in making
measurements of the bullet diameter, shell length, rim
diameter, bore diameter, barrel length. This instrument is
precisely used in determining the caliber of the bullet and
the firearm with each standard measurement.
9. Analytical or Torsion Balance
This is used for determining weight of bullets or
shotgun pellets for possible determination of type, caliber,
and make of firearm from which it was fired. This device
could either be expressed in grains or in grams.
10. Onoscope
A small instrument sometimes used in examining
the internal surface of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at
the terminal portion, and this is inserted inside the bore, for
internal examinations. This instrument can detect
irregularities, imperfection, roughness, and scratches inside
the bore of the barrel.
11. Chronograph
This is the first portable instrument used for
measuring muzzle velocity and striking power of a bullet.
12. Taper Gauge
Used primarily for determining the bore diameter
of firearms. It could be applied in smooth bore firearm or
rifled bore firearm. The sole purpose of this instrument is
the determination of the caliber.
13. Electric gun marker
27
Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets,
fired shells and firearms submitted for examination. This
equipment operates with a cord that is plug to the female
outlet.
14. Stylus
A pointed instrument used to mark fired bullets,
fired shells, metallic fragment and firearms. This is a solid
or harder metal than the original firearm. This is used in
manual version for engraving and marking physical
evidence for the purpose of identify.
PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS EXAMINATION
Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected
firearms once submitted by the requesting party will be
physically examined. It will start with preliminary
examination of the evidence for similar characteristics in
which common to a particular group or family of items.
Test firing – The firearm is test fired from a bullet
recovery box in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridge
case. Because a bullet or cartridge case cannot be directly
compared to the rifling present in the barrel of a firearm.
Test Bullets – are those recovered from bullet
recovery box for comparison with the evidenced bullet
under the bullet comparison microscope.
Evidence bullet/cartridge case – items that are
recovered from the crime scene.
Seven Purposes in Firearm Identification
1.One (1) bullet was submitted – to determine the caliber of
the firearm from which the bullet was fired.
2. One (1) shell was submitted - to determine the caliber of
the firearm from which the shell was fired.
3. Two (2) bullets were submitted – to determine the caliber
of the firearm from which the two (2) bullets were fired.
Also, to determine whether the two (2) bullets were fired
from one and the same firearm.
4. Two (2) shells were submitted - to determine the caliber
of the firearm from which the two (2) shells were fired.
Also, to determine whether the two (2) shells were fired
from one and the same firearm.
5. One (1) FA and one (1) bullet were submitted – to
determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm.
6. One (1) FA and one (1) shell were submitted - to
determine whether or not the shell was fired from the
suspected firearm.
7. One (1) FA was submitted – to determine the
serviceability of the suspected firearm.
Possible Results of Examination
Firearm examiner will arrive at one of the three conclusions:
1. Identification – this signifies a match between two
bullets/cartridge case.
2. Exclusion – represents a non-match between the
examined items. A possibility of an association between the
items is excluded.
3. No Conclusion – indicates that the bullet/cartridge case
could be neither be identified nor eliminated as having been
fired by a particular firearm based on the quantity and
quality of microscopic markings. The markings present are
insufficient to draw any conclusion.
FOR CONCLUSIVENESS OF FINDINGS
There shall be at least 3 SET OF
TEST/EXAMINATION FOR A BULLET/CARTRIDGE
CASE.
a. Preliminary Examination – to determine
whether the individual characteristics in the
evidence are appearing also in the test.
b. Confirmation – to observe and confirm
whether the individual characteristics are still
the same.
c. Conclusion – based on the two finding of the
first and second tests, the third test is the
finding that will be the deciding point to arrive
in a conclusion without any doubt.
PERIPHERY – are the sides of the bullet that are in contact
with the inner surface of the barrel.
STRIATIONS – are individual characteristics that can found
on the fired bullet/cartridge case that brought by firearm tool
marks.
Three Points of Basic Positive Identification
Markings must be:
1.prominent/noticeable;
2. significant; and,
3. consistent.
PRINCIPLES OF FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
Two things marked by one and the same tool will
bear the same markings, likewise two or more things marked
by different tools will have different markings.
Scientifically proven that no two firearms even
those of the same make and model will produce the same or
unique marks on fire bullet and cartridge case.
Manufacturing process, use, and abuse, leaves
characteristics on the firearm that cannot be exactly the
same with other firearm
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED
BULLET
1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the
surfaces of their bore all possess individual characteristics
and markings of their own.
28
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel it becomes
engraved by the rifling and this engraving will vary its
minute details with every individual bore.
3. Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which
is fired through it.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED
CARTRIDGE CASE
1.The breech face of a firearm leaves microscopically
individualities of their own.
2. The firearm leaves its fingerprint on every cartridge case
which it fires.
3. The whole principle of identification base on the fact that
since the breech face of every firearm must be individually
distinct the cartridge cases which it fired are imprinted with
this individuality. The imprinted on all cartridge cases fired
from the same firearm are always the same, those on
cartridge cases fired from different firearms must always be
different.
CHAPTER 12: PREPARATION OF BALLISTICS
REPORT WRITING
Introduction
Ballistics report writing is significant to the success
and failure of the case in court. The objective of the
ballistics report is to prosecute and precisely to convict the
accused and to give justice to the victim. Hence, it would be
fatal on the side of the prosecution if there is a blatant
irreconcilable, inconsistencies or error committed by the
forensic firearm examiner, whose testimony is repugnant or
it conflicts to the findings and conclusion.
Definition
Ballistics report is a written report after critical
study of specimen, physical examination and observation of
striations through the bullet comparison microscope. Report
writing is a basic activity in a police work, thus, for every
police action there must be corresponding report reaction.
Preparation of a Report
The forensic firearms examiner, before preparing
ballistics report in report writing, he should have already an
idea, to include the familiarization of six points of
investigation. One of this is to ascertain whether a particular
firearm submitted for ballistics examination is in working
condition. This includes also the examination of the said
firearm, whether it was already fired, and is subject to the
examination by the chemistry section.
When a firearm is submitted for examination, it is
important to know whether the condition of firearm is
serviceable. It is also important that misfired ammo., it
should be compared with the test fired ammo. Since there is
firing pin tip marked created in the misfired cartridge, while
there are static or exerted force marks on the test cartridge
case.
 In a fragmentized bullet, a part of it is submitted to
forensic firearm examiner to determine if that fragment is
part of the bullet. At the same time, take note of the
individual characteristics of the firearm and compare it with
the recognized standard.
Cardinal Principles in Report Writing
Report writers should observe a sound principle of
good report writing, as follows:
1. Accuracy
Is achieved by conforming to the truth of
information, which was gained through physical senses
applied in investigation. An investigator should be able to
distinguish the following:
a. Fact from hearsay;
b. Fact from opinion, and;
c. Fact from conclusion.
2. Completeness
It is achieved by inclusion of all relevant, pertinent
and material information, narrating the facts discovered
during and in the course of the investigation. When in doubt,
the investigator must verify the following;
a. What information is lacking?
b. What efforts should be made to obtain information?
c. Why the information was not obtained?
d. What must be done to obtain the information
lacking?
3. Brevity
It is achieved by excluding unnecessary details not
relevant to the statement of objectives or avoiding repetition
of facts from the report, but at the same time achieving
completeness by including all relevant, pertinent and
essential information surrounding the case.
4. Fairness/Impartiality
It is achieved by reporting detailed facts without
any addition or deduction. The investigator should be
consistent with the facts, and keep an open mind not to
conceal any information and should remain unbiased in the
course of the narration of facts until the end of the
investigation or examination.
5. Fore/Form and Style
Refers to front part of the report written in a style
which will clearly presents the relevant facts and is achieved
by arranging the contents of the report in such a way that it
is easy to identify any section, part or items of the materials
presented and their visual arrangements. The arrangement of
materials presented should be in a manner which will make
the report easy to read.
Important Parts of a Ballistics Report
29
1.Ballistics Report Number – this represents the number of
cases examined and the year of the case was examined.
Example: FAID – 120 – 10. FAID refers to office symbol or
initial. The number 120 refers to the last case number that
the forensic examiner had examined. The number 10 refers
to the year the case was submitted and examined.
2. Time and Date Received – this is the date actually the
letter request and the physical evidence was received by the
forensic examiner.
3. Time and date completed – refers to the time and date the
examination and ballistics report was accomplished.
4. Specimen submitted – the specimen submitted should
tally with the actual specimen itemized and those specimens
reflected in the letter request.
5. Findings – this is actually the result of what the forensic
examiner observed on the evidence and the test, mounted in
the stage plate of the bullet comparison microscope whether
it is positive or result.
6. Conclusion – this is an inference wherein it passes already
the three stages of examination. (Preliminary, Confirmation
and Conclusion.).
Purpose of Writing Ballistics Report
To provide a permanent record of information
obtained in the course of examination of the case. Then to
communicate the information obtained in an examination
of the case especially the result. Provide other investigators
with the results and furnish evidence as a basis for
continuation of the investigation, to gather additional
physical evidences.
To give opportunity for the Chief in reviewing the
case and work of the forensic firearm examiner in
determining whether the examination is properly developed,
then provide the proper authorities with a record of facts of
the crime, the name of the perpetrator, names and addresses
of witnesses, the nature and location of physical evidences
and other matters pertaining to the crime.
Sample of a Ballistics Report
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Interior and Local Government
Philippine National Police
Regional Forensic Unit - 02
Cauayan City Forensic Unit
San Fermin, Cauayan City, Isabela
BALLISTICS REPORT NO. FAID 234 – 2023
CASE: “ HOMICIDE”
SUSPECT: JUAN A. DELA CRUZ
VICTIM: JUANA A. CRUZ
TIME AND DATE RECEIVED: 0800H, 21 of
April 2023 . CHAPTER 13: LEGAL ASPECTS OF FORENSIC
BALLISTICS

REQUESTING UNIT/PARTY: The Chief of Police Witness and their Qualifications (Sec. 20, Rule 130,
Cauayan City Rules of Admissibility)
Police Station
Tagaran, All persons who can perceive, and perceiving can
Cauayan City, Isabela make known their perception to others may be a witness.

SPECIMEN SUBMITTED: Religious or political belief, interest in the outcome

1. One (1) cal. 45 Pistol, Armscor 1911A1 model with
one (1) magazine, SN 00000012345 marked “CVR
-01”.
2. One (1) fired cartridge case marked as “CVR – 02”.
3. One (1) fired bullet marked as “CVR – 03”.
PURPOSE OF EXAMINATION:
To determine whether or not, specimen marked
“CVR – 02” and “CVR” -03” were fired from the above –
mentioned firearm marked as “CVR - 01”.
FINDINGS:
Microscopic examination and comparison of
specimen marked “CVR - 02” and “CVR” - 03” revealed the
same individual characteristics with the test cartridges and
test bullets fired from the above – mentioned firearm
marked as “CVR – 01”.
CONCLUSION:
The specimen marked “CVR -02” and “CVR – 03”
were fired from the above – mentioned firearm marked as
“CVR – 01”.
REMARKS:
of the case or conviction of a crime unless otherwise
provided by law shall not be ground for disqualification.
Circumstances that qualifies a person to be a witness.
1. His possession of organ of sense;
2. His ability to perceive and perceiving;
3. He can communicate what he has perceived to
others; and,
4. That he is not disqualified from becoming a witness
by the law.
Disqualification by Reason of Mental Incapacity or
Immaturity (Sec. 21, Rule 130, Rules of Admissibility)
1. Those whose mental conditions at the time of their
production for examination is such that they are
incapable of intelligently making known their
perception to others;
2. Children whose mental maturity is such as to
render them incapable of perceiving the facts
respecting which they are examined and relating
them truthfully.
Disqualification by Reason of Marriage (Sec. 22, Rule
130, Rules of Admissibility)
During their marriage, neither the husband nor the
wife may testify for or against the other without the consent
of the affected spouse, except in a civil case by one against
the other.

The original copy of this report and the specimen Opinion Rule” Section 48, Rule 130, Rules of
submitted are retained in this laboratory for future reference. Admissibility)

General Rule – The opinion of a witness is not admissible,

EXAMINED BY: except:

Section 49, Rule 130, Rules of Admissibility

P/MSGT PEDRO A. MASUKAL
Opinion of Expert Witness – The opinion of an expert
witness on a matter requiring special knowledge, skill,
Forensic Firearm Examiner
experience or training which he is shown to possess, may be
received in as evidence.
Cauayan City Forensic Unit
Section 50, Rule 130, Rule of Admissibility

CERTIFIED BY: Opinion of Ordinary Witness – The opinion of

ordinary witness for which proper basis is given, may be
P/MAJ JUAN P. SANTOS received in evidence regarding:
Chief, Forensic Unit
Cauayan City, Isabela
30
 1. The identity of a person about whom he has
adequate knowledge;
2. A handwriting with which he has sufficient
familiarity;
3. The mental sanity of a person with whom he is
sufficiently acquainted.
The witness may also testify on his impression of
the emotion, behavior, condition or appearance of a person.
Rule 132, Rules of Court, Presentation of Evidence
Section 1, Examination to be done in Open Court – The
Examination of witness presented in a trial or hearing shall
be done in open court, and under oath of affirmation. Unless
the witness is incapacitated to speak, or the question calls
for a different mode of answer, the answers of the witness
shall be given orally.
Section 3, Rights and Obligations of a Witness – A
witness must answer questions although his answer may
tend to establish a claim against him. However, it is the right
of a witness to:
1. To be protected from irrelevant, improper, insulting
questions and from harsh or insulting demeanor,
2. Not to be detained longer than the interest of justice
requires;
3. Not to be examined except only as to matters
pertinent to the issue.
4. Not to give an answer which will tend to subject
him to a penalty for an offense unless otherwise
provided by law; or,
5. Not to give an answer which will tend to degrade
his reputation, unless it be to the very fact at issue
or to a fact from answer to the fact of his previous
final conviction for an offense.
Section 4, Order in the Examination of an Individual
Witness – The order in which an individual witness may be
examined is as follows:
1. Direct Examination by the proponent;
2. Cross-examination by the opponent;
3. Re-direct examination by the proponent;
4. Re-cross examination by the opponent.
Section 5, Direct Examination – is the examination of a
witness by the party presenting him on the facts relevant to
the issue.
Section 6, Cross - Examination; its purpose and extent –
Upon the termination of the direct examination, the witness
may be cross-examined by the adverse party as to any
matters stated in the direct examination or connected
therewith.
Section 7, Re-Direct - Examination; its purpose and
extent – After the cross – examination of the witness has
been concluded, he may be re-examined by the party calling
him to explain or supplement his answers given during the
cross- examination.
31
Section 8, Re-Cross – Examination – Upon the conclusion
of the re-direct examination, the adverse party may re-cross-
examine the witness on matters stated in his re-direct
examination, and also on such matters as may be allowed by
the court in its discretion.
Sample of Script for an Investigator Testifying in Court
1. Direct examination - The purpose of direct examination
is to establish the facts that the crime of homicide was
committed.
(Start of the hearing)
Judge...Is the prosecution ready?
Prosecutor... Ready your honor.
Judge... How about the defense counsel, ready?
Defense counsel... Ready your honor.
Judge... Present the first witness.
(After introduction and identification of the witness)
Prosecution... Your honor the purpose of the testimony of
the witness, is to prove that the physical evidences; one
caliber .38 revolver, one bullet and one cartridge case were
recovered from the crime scene. This is in relation to
homicide case that we are handling.
1Q. Mr. Witness, please state your name, address, status and
other personal circumstances.
A. I am P/MSGT Pedro S. Penduco, 29 years of age,
married and residing at 232 Pardo, Cauayan City.
2Q. What is your present assignment?
A. I am assigned as investigator at homicide section, Camp
Sotero Cabahug, Gorordo Avenue, Cauayan City.
3Q. How long, you have been assigned in homicide section?
A. Seven years.
4Q. What is your educational attainment and training, if you
have any, with respect to the homicide cases?
A. I am a registered criminologist. I have attended seminar
relative to homicide investigation. I have also received
special training on criminal investigation and detection
course at Philippine Public Safety College, Cauayan City.
5Q. In connection with investigation of homicide cases, how
many firearms involved in a homicide case, you have
already recovered?
A. More than 100 firearms sir..
6Q. What evidences you have recovered, in- connection
with this particular homicide case?
A. I have recovered one caliber .38 Smith and Wesson
homemade revolver, one fired bullet and one fired shell.

7Q. Showing to you this caliber .38 revolver, what is the
relation of this evidence to the present homicide case?
Please examine.
A. This is the caliber .38 revolver, I found at the scene of the
crime.
8Q. How do you know that, that is the same revolver, you
have found at the crime scene?
A. Because I recognized the marks that I made, on the
revolver after I found it, and there is my secret marking
engraved in the revolver.
Prosecutor... May I request your honor that the evidence
identified by the witness, be mark as exhibit "A".
Judge ...Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
9Q. After you have recovered these evidences, what was
your next move?
A. I made notes regarding the make and type of the revolver,
and also its location and condition, in my small notebook
that I carried for that purposes.
10Q. When did you find this revolver?
A. I found it on November 1, 2022, the date of the shooting
incident.
11Q. At what time?
A. At around 9:30 in the morning.
12Q. Where did you find it?
A. At Legaspi Street corner Manalili Street, Cauayan City,
near the Bucagay Store.
13Q. Where was the body of the deceased, when you found
the revolver?
A. It was still in the crime scene, around 2 feet near the
Bucagay Store..
14Q. What is the model, type and serial number of the
revolver that you recover?
A. Model Smith and Wesson, homemade revolver and serial
number 123456.
15Q. Aside from the firearm you recovered, what else, you
recovered from the crime scene?
A. I recovered also one bullet and one shell.
16Q. When did you find these bullet?
A. On November 1, 2022, the date of shooting.
17Q. At what time?
32
A. At around 9:31 in the morning shortly after finding the
revolver.
18Q. Where did you find it?
A. At the crime scene near the body of the deceased.
19Q. How far the bullet from the body of the deceased,
when you find it?
A. More or less 5 feet away from the body of the deceased.
20Q. After you recovered the bullet, what did you do next?
A. I marked it with my initial at the base of the fired bullet,
at the time I found it. I place it inside the envelope and jotted
down on the envelope my name, the date, and the place
where I found the bullet.
21Q.S..howing to you this bullet, is this the bullet you
recovered from the crime scene? Please examine.
A. This is the bullet I recovered from the crime scene.
Prosecution ... May I request your honor that this bullet, be
mark as exhibit "B"
Judge... Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
22Q.Mr. witness, how about the shell, where did you find it?
A. I found it in the cylinder of the revolver.
23Q. Showing to you this shell, Mr. witness, is this the shell
you recovered from the cylinder? Please examine.
24Q. Yes sir, that is the shell I found in the cylinder.
Prosecution. May I request your honor that the . evidence
shell be mark as exhibit "C".
Judge... Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
25Q…Is there cartridges inside the cylinder?
Defense counsel... Objection your honor, leading question
your honor.
Judge... Objection sustain. Reform the question.
Prosecution... Aside from the shell you recover in the
cylinder, what else you found in the cylinder of the
revolver?
A. None sir.
26Q. What did you do with these bullet and shell, after you
found it and marked at the crime scene?
A. I took and carried it, along with the revolver and the other
evidence I found at the crime scene and bring it to the
homicide section.
27Q. What did you do with this revolver, bullet and shell
when you returned to the homicide section?
A. I prepare a letter request address to the Regional Chief of
Crime Laboratory, for the purpose of determining whether
the evidence bullet and shell were fired from caliber .38
revolver.
28Q. When these items submitted to the crime laboratory?
A. At about 2:00 O'clock in the afternoon of November 1,
2022.
29Q. Whose custody these items remain, before you
delivered to the crime laboratory?
A. They remained in may custody until I delivered them to
the crime laboratory.
30Q.Who received the revolver, bullet and the shell, that
you turn over?
A. It was received by the duty personnel P/CPL Juan G.
Domingo.
31Q.After you have turn over the evidences and was
received, what did P/CPL Juan G. Domingo do?
A. He checked the evidences, then he give me a receipt. The
receipt is the file copy itself stamped and filled up of the
time and date received and the name of PCPL Juan G.
Domingo and then signed by him.
32Q.Showing to you this receipt, is this the receipt you are
referring to? Please examine.
A. Yes sir, that is the receipt I received.
33Q.There is signature appearing on the receipt, whose
signature is this? Please examine.
A. That is the signature of PCPL Juan G. Domingo.
34Q. When did he affix his signature to this receipt?
A. On November 1, 2022, when he received the revolver,
bullet and shell.
Prosecution... May I request your honor that the receipt
itself, as well as the signature appearing in the receipt, be
mark as exhibit "D" and "E" respectively.
Judge... Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
Prosecution... That's all for the witness your honor.
Judge... Any cross examination from the defense counsel?
Defense counsel... I have few questions your honor.
Judge... Okay, proceed.
2. The Cross Examination of an Investigator
NOTE: The purpose of cross examination is to destroy the
established fact during the testimony of the witness.
33
Defense counsel May I proceed. With due permission your
honor,
Judge... Proceed.
Defense counsel: Thanks your honor
1Q. P/MSGT Penduco, how come, that you know that there
was a shooting incident on Nov. 1, 2022?
Witness Answer:
A. There was a concern citizen who called up thru
telephone, informing us about the shooting incident.
2Q. When was that, Mr. witness?
A. On Nov. 1, 2022 at around 9:25 in the morning.
3Q. Who is your companion when you responded to the
crime scene?
A. The driver of the Patrol car and one personnel from
homicide section.
4Q. In your testimony Mr. witness, you said that you are the
one who mark the revolver, bullet and the shell, do you
mean to say that they did not assist you in collecting the
physical evidence?
A. They assist me in locating the physical evidence, but I
was the one who mark it because, I will be the one to testify
in court.
5Q. In the crime scene Mr. witness, were you able to pick up
the suspect?
A. yes, Sir.
6Q. Did you ask some question to the suspect?
A. Yes sir. But the question is limited only to the personal
question, I did not ask him about the crime, because it needs
already the assistance of a counsel.
7Q. Do you know the name of the victim?
A. Yes sir. Maria Aguas.
8Q. How did know the name of the victim.
A. Thru her identification card and she is the live-in partner
of the suspect.
9Q. How many days before the case was filed in court Mr.
witness?
A: Sixteen days sir,
10Q. It elapsed already the reglementary period Mr. witness,
that's an arbitrary detention already under Art. 100 of the
revised penal code. What is your reason Mr. witness, why it
happen like this?
A. Because the accused James signed a waiver of detention
and his waiver of detention already expired, that's why, I
filed the homicide case.
11Q. Would you entertain an idea Mr. witness that the gun
recover in the crime scene, is not the gun use in the
commission of crimes?
A. I have no authority answer that, sir, it is not my job, it is
the job of forensic firearms examiner, to determine whether
the gun recovered, is the gun used in the crime.
12Q. Did you take a photograph of the evidence you
recovered, Mr. witness?
A. No, because the SOCO Team arrived at the crime scene,
and since they have complete equipment, they are the one
who facilitated the photographing.
13Q. Why you dare to mark the physical evidence, even
though the SOCO Team are present, Mr. witness?
A. Because we arrived ahead with the SOCO Team, so I
take charged everything before they arrived.
14Q. Why, the SOCO knew about the shooting incident?
A. Because, I advice one of my companion to call the crime
laboratory for assistance of SOCO, since they are well
trained, regarding preservation of evidence.
15Q. What is the weather condition when you, and your
companion responded to the crime scene?
A: It's raining sir, that's why the evidences have a presence
of mud.
Defense Counsel... No more question you honor
Judge... Okay, any re-direct examination from the
prosecution?
Prosecutor... No re-direct examination you honor.
===========================================
Sample of Script for an Expert Witness Testifying in Court
1. Direct Examination to an Expert Witness
Judge...To the prosecution... present your witness.
Prosecutor...I'm going to present the witness your honor, the
Forensic Firearms Examiner of
Crime Laboratory by the name of PLT. Alex A. Andres.
Judge... Okay, call him to the witness stand.
Witness... Proceeded to the witness stand.
Judge... Sworn in, the witness.
34
Interpreter... Do you swear to tell the truth, nothing but the
whole truth?
Witness... Yes sir.
Interpreter... Will you please state your name address, status
and other personal circumstances?
Witness... I am P/LT. Alex A. Andres, legal age, married
with the postal address of 311 D. Jakosalem Street, Cauayan
City, a registered criminologist and a Forensic Firearms
Examiner at the Regional Crime Laboratory Office 02,
Cauayan City.
Prosecution….. May I ask the defense counsel, if he will
admit the witness, as expert witness?
Defense Counsel... I will not admit him as an expert witness
your honor, this is the first time I met him.
Judge... Okay, qualify first the witness.
Prosecution... With due permission your honor. By the way,
the purpose of the testimony of the witness is to establish the
fact that the evidence bullet and evidence shell were fired
from one and the same suspected firearm caliber .38
revolver.
1Q. What is your educational attainment Mr. witness?
A. I am a Juris Doctor graduate, a registered criminologist, a
Master in Public Administration graduate, have 45 units in
Master in Science Teaching Major in Educational
Technology and a part time teacher of the College of
Criminal Justice in the University of Cauayan, Cauayan
City.
2Q. When did you enter in the police service?
A. I joint in the police service on Nov. 10, 1990.
3Q. Where were you assign, after your appointment as
policeman?
A. I was assigned in Cauayan City.
3Q. What school, what course and what year you graduated
in college?
A. I graduated Bachelor of Science in Criminology in March
1980, at the University of Cauayan, formerly Cauayan
Central Colleges.
4Q. When did you take the board examination?
A. I took the board examination for criminologist in 1982,
and I was a 2nd placer.
5Q. When did you joint the Forensic Unit of the PNP?
A. I joined the service thru lateral entry in 1991, then I was
assigned in Regional Crime Laboratory Office 02, Santiago
City.
6Q. When, were you assigned at Regional Crime Laboratory
Office 02, Cauayan City?
A. I was assigned at Regional Crime Laboratory Office 02,
CauayanCity in August 1993.
7Q. What year, you were assigned as Forensic Firearm
Examiner?
A. I was designated as Forensic Firearms Examiner on Dec.
16, 1995.
8Q. What training or seminar do you have, before you
become a Forensic Firearms Examiner?
A. I have on the job training on firearms identification, from
October 16 up to December 1, 1995, and I have seminar on
the modern technology in the manufacture of firearms and
ammunitions from March 16 to 20, 1998. I have another on
the job training in advance technique in firearms
identification on March 16 up to April 21, 1999, and again I
have on the job training on June 16 up to August 31, 1999.
All of these trainings your honor were sponsored by national
and international private and government agencies.
9Q. How many cases involving suspected firearms, you
have examine?
A. As of now your honor, more than 100 cases sir.
10Q. How many case you have testify in court Mr. witness?
A. I testified more than 80 cases already sir.
11Q. You said, you have examine more than 100 cases and
testified more than 80 cases, what happen to the remaining
cases, you have not testified?
A. Still in my custody waiting for the subpoena your honor.
12Q. What is your basis in examining this particular case,
you are testifying now?
A. There is a letter request from the homicide section sir.
13Q. What is the content of the letter request?
A. The Homicide Section requested our unit/office to
determine whether the evidence bullet and shell were fired
from the evidence revolver.
14Q. Showing to you this letter request, is this the letter
request you are referring to?
A. Yes sir.
Prosecution…. May I request you honor that this letter
request be mark as exhibit "F"
Judge... Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
15Q.Aside from the letter request you received, what else
did you received?
35
A. One caliber .38 revolver, one fired bullet and one fired
shell.
16Q.Showing to you the caliber .38 revolver, is this the
revolver you received? Please examine.
A. Yes sir.
Prosecution... May I request your honor that the revolver be
mark as exhibit "G.
Judge... Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
17Q….How about this bullet of caliber .38, what is the
relation of this, to the other evidence?
A. That is one of the evidence included in the letter request.
18Q.Showing to you the bullet, is this the bullet you are
referring to? Please examine.
A. Yes sir.
Prosecution... May I request your honor that the bullet, be
mark as exhibit "H"
Judge...Give order to the court interpreter... mark it.
19Q…How about this one shell, what is the relation of this
to the other evidence?
A. That is also included in the letter request.
20Q...Showing to you this shell, please examine if this same
shell, you received from Homicide Section?
A. Yes sir, that is the shell I received.
Prosecutor... May I request you honor that the evidence be
mark as exhibit "I" Judge...Give order to the court
interpreter... mark it.
21Q.After you received those evidences, what did you do
next?
A. I proceed to the chemistry section for the test of Gun
Powder Residue.
22Q. Then what transpired next?
A. After the GPR was conducted, the revolver was return to
me.
23Q. When did you received the evidences, and what did
you do with the evidences?
A. Nov. 1, 2009 at around 4 O'clock in the afternoon. After I
received, I physically examine the revolver whether it is
serviceable or not, including the markings in the evidences,
whether each evidence have already an engraved physical
identity each, and since all the marking engraved in the
physical are proper, I adopted their markings.
24Q. Then what is the next procedure did you apply?
A. I marked 3 live ammunitions for test firing.
25Q.After that, what is your next move?
A. I proceeded to the bullet recovery for test firing.
26Q.Then, what procedure did you apply next?
A. After test firing, I compare the evidence shell and test
shell and, then the evidence bullet and test bullet physically,
then examine thru the bullet comparison microscope.
27Q. What is your findings?
A. After I observed the striations of both the 3 test shells and
test bullets and compared with evidence shell and bullet, it
reveal the same individual characteristics.
28Q. What is your conclusion?
A. My conclusion is that, the evidence shell and the
evidence bullet as well as the test shell and test bullet, were
fired from one and the same suspected firearm caliber .38
homemade revolver serial number 123456.
29Q. With your findings and conclusion, did you prepare a
report?
A. Yes sir.
30Q. Showing to you this Ballistics Report, is this the report
you are referring to?
A. Yes sir.
31Q. Whose signature appearing on top of the name PLT.
Alex A. Andres?
A. That's my signature sir.
32Q. How about the signature appearing in the left side,
name PMAJ. Nestor A. Santos , whose signature is that?
A. That is the signature of my Regional Chief.
33Q. How do you know that, it is his signature?
A. Because, I was present at the time he signed it.
Prosecution... May I request your honor that the Ballistic
Report, the signature of the Forensic Firearms Examiner and
the signature of the Regional Chief, be marked as exhibit
"J", "K" "L" respectively.
Judge... To the court interpreter... mark it.
Prosecution... That's all for the witness your honor.
Judge: Any cross examination from the defense counsel?
Defense counsel: Yes your honor, I will conduct cross
examination.
36
2. The Cross Examination of an Expert Witness
Defense counsel... May I proceed your honor.
Judge... Proceed.
Defense counsel…. Thank You your Honor.
1Q. Mr. witness, did you not come up with an idea that the
caliber .38 revolver was switched with other revolver before
you received the same?
A. No sir, because my findings, and conclusion are positive.
If it was change, the result after my examination and
comparison would have been negative, but the result was
positive.
2Q. What do you mean by positive finding and conclusion?
A. It means to say sir, that evidence shell and the evidence
bullet were fired from the submitted suspected caliber. 38
firearm.
3Q. When the evidence firearm was shown to you, you said
that it is same firearm submitted by the Homicide section,
what is your basis Mr. witness?
A. Aside from the markings I engraved in the firearm for
identification purposes, I have also a secret markings
engraved, which I'm the only one who knew the location.
4Q. You said that you proceed to chemistry after you
received the firearm from Homicide Section for GPR or
gunpowder residue, what is your purposes?
Prosecution... Objection your honor, the question is
misleading, the witness did not say that he received it from
Homicide Section but from the duty personnel of the crime
laboratory.
Judge... Objection sustained... reform the question.
5Q. Who submitted the firearm caliber.38 to you, after the
GPR was conducted?
A. It was submitted by P/ MSGT Arthur Diosa.
6Q. Can you show proof to this Honorable Court, as to when
you received the evidence firearm from P/ MSGT Arthur
Diosa?
A. Yes sir, but I will ask permission to the Honorable Judge
to allow me (witness) to refer to the written note at the back
of the letter request from Homicide Section, which is
already submitted as exhibit.
Judge... Request is granted... Show the back portion of the
letter request.
Witness... Showing the back portion of the letter request to
defense counsel.
7Q. Mr. witness, would you admit that every firearm have
chamber and this chamber will create chamber markings?

A. Yes sir.
8Q. And in the revolver, the chamber is located in the
cylinder, isn't it Mr. witness?
A. Yes, sir.
9Q. And the evidence revolver you examine have six
chamber, isn't it Mr. witness?
A. Yes, sir.
10Q. And you said a while ago, that you marked and test
fired only 3 live ammunitions?
A. Yes, sir.
11Q...Mr. witness, why you test fired only 3 lives
ammunitions, when in fact there are six chamber in the
evidence revolver? Will you explain this to the honorable
court?
A. Sir, we will test fire only 6 live ammunitions, if there are
chamber markings in the evidence shell, because we don't
know which of the 6 chambers of the cylinder of the
revolver, the evidence shell was fired. But in this particular
case, when I physically examine the body of the evidence
shell with the use of magnifying lens. There is no presence
of chamber marking. That's why I test fired only 3 live
ammunitions, because I don't have to examine the chamber
markings in the body of the shell.
12Q. ..How about the striation impressed in the body of
shell, is it enough to view the presence of chamber marking
with the use of magnifying lens Mr. witness?
A. Yes sir, it is enough, because with the use of the
magnifying lens, the image you intend to observed will be
enlarge and this is done during the one by one physical
examination of the evidences.
13Q……By the way Mr. witness, what are the purpose of
the 3 live ammunition for test Firing?
A. The 1st purpose is for preliminary examination, by
comparing the evidence shell and the 1st test shell, whether
they have the same striations or markings. The 2nd purpose
is for confirmation, whether the striation in evidence shell, is
still appearing in 2nd test shell. The 3rd purpose is for the
conclusion by comparing whether the striations of the
evidence shell are consistent with the 3 test shells.
14Q….I'm sure Mr. witness that you have carefully examine
the evidence bullet and the test bullet in the bullet
comparison microscope, how did you arrive into a
conclusion?
A. Before I mounted the evidence bullet and test bullet, I
examine each physically, looking for the landmarks from the
base to the ogive, and if they are the same, then both
evidence and test, will be mounted in the stage plate at the
same time, then compare whether they have the same
striations. It is not enough that the striations in one
landmarks of the test bullet and the evidence bullet are the
37
same, because it might be, just a pseudo matching. The
proper way is that, both evidence bullet and test bullet
should be rotated at the same time to find prominent
striations, significant striations and consistent striations in
order to arrive in a conclusive findings.
15Q. Supposed only one evidence bullet is submitted and
the striation is not sufficient, what will be your conclusion,
Mr. witness?
A. If the evidence is not sufficient like for example, only
jacket and only one landmark is legible of the bullet
recovered, then no conclusion could be made, due
insufficiency of evidence.
16Q. Follow up question Mr. witness, can you determine
whether the bullet was fired from a pistol or revolver?
A. Yes sir, if there is shaving marks on the bullet, it was
fired from a revolver. The cause, is due to misalignment of
the chamber located in the cylinder and the breech end of
the barrel especially if the firearm is homemade. If there is
no shaving marks, it is fired from the pistol, due the fact
that, in pistol, the cartridge is already inside the chamber,
and next to chamber, is the breech end. The ogive of the
bullet in the cartridge is already attached to the breech end.
Upon explosion of the cartridge, the bullet that will separate
from the shell and will just rotate, following the twist of the
rifling.
17Q.Mr. witness, when the evidence shell and the test shell
were examine as to the breechface marking and your finding
is positive, supposed you turned the test shell 45 degrees to
the right without turning the evidence, is your finding still
positive?
A. Yes sir, it is still positive, because only the position was
change, not anyone of the test shell or evidence shell,
mounted in stage plate of the Bullet Comparison
Microscope, was change.
18Q.As an expert, Mr. witness, can you determine the
distance of the accused in shooting the victim in the crime
scene?
A. I have no authority to answer that sir, the right person to
answer, is the investigator or the witness. The forensic
firearms examiner, is just waiting in the office for any
specimen requested for examination.
19Q….Mr. witness, I noticed engraved letters "PSP" in
bullet, what these letters stance for?
A. These are initials of the name, middle name and family
name of the investigator.
Defense... That's all for the witness your honor. Judge... Any
re-direct from the prosecution?
Prosecution...No re-direct your honor.
NATURE OF AN EXPERT WITNESS TESTIFYING
IN COURT
By: Paul Camille Brouardel
A Man of Science

“If the law made you a witness, remain a man of science,

You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person

to ruin or save,

You must be witness within the limits of science”.

“Forensic Experts Are Expert Witnesses in Court”

===========================================
==========================

38