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NOTES ON CRIMINALISTICS

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects their
motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a product of series
of experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is not an exact science rather it is applied
physics or applied science, which is subject to changes and improvement depending upon
the demands of the modern civilization. Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the
projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its
target or fall in the ground. A projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled
from a firearm. Its motion can be categories into three general types: Direct motion, Rotatory
motion and Translation motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by
the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel
firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently
ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and the word
“ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.
The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a
gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at a distance like stone, dead animal
or even dead person.
The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics,
Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the gun was fired until it
reach the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics is branches into four (4) and
this is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in connection with the administration of
justice particularly cases involving firearms and ammunition which is termed as Forensic
Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside
the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to the muzzle. The conditions
attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer
b. Ignition of the priming mixture
The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at the
cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin will
ignite and such action is known as “Percussion action”.
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
d. Expansion of heated gas.
e. Pressure developed
f. Energy generated
g. Recoil of the gun
 Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the
bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of the gun in relation to the
forward movement of the bullet.
Jumpis another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward and upward
movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the barrel
expressed in feet per second.
i.Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
j.Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after
leaving the gun muzzle.
a.Muzzle Blast
Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.
b. Muzzle energy
Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.
c. Trajectory
Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle
until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet during
its.
d. Range
It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the
target.
d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or gunner has
control of his shots.
d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet was fired it
is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity
Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time usually
express is feet per second (ft/sec.)
f.Pull of Gravity
It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its
weight.
g. Air Resistance
Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.
3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of
the projectile on the target.
a.Terminal Accuracy
It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy
Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as striking
energy.
c. Terminal Velocity
Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
d. Terminal Penetration
Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Forensic Ballistics
This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law. The idea
comes with the used of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word
“forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered for public disputation or public discussion.
When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a relationship to
the courts of justice or legal proceedings.
 Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as applied to law or
simply the science of firearm identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single
shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace
Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1 garand.
7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease gun) developed
in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union) adopted
by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in making
breech loading rifles.
10.Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company from July
1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
12.John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and model of
1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
13.Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
14.David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
15.Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.

IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous
Power of Arts and Nature), which noted Black powder formula.
1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech loaders were
attempted although never succeeded yet even multi shots arms due to lack of good
ignition system.
1500’s The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same principle as the modern day
cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce” was developed.
1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped in
chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-measured charges or
pre loaded rounds.
1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of FERGUSON
Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle, which is a flint lock repeating rifle
operated on a revolving principle and, the HALL Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John
Hall and was the 1st breechloader adopted by the U.S. Army.
1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a compound that would
ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock
ignition and was adopted in 1838 by the British and in 1842 by the American.
1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the BB and was
 considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.
1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech loading
revolver. 1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire
cartridge was
also developed in the same year by Houiller.
1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which was considered
the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In the same year, New Havens Arms
Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the effort of Tyler Henry developed a
.44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.
1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the year 1864 by
Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year 1884 by M. Vieille of
France.
1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver in history and
legend was manufactured.
1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic gun.

Firearms
Legal Definition of Firearm
Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers,
and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge
by means of gun powder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifle, except such of being
of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national
Internal Revenue Code).
Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive
force gases coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms Identification).
A. Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel
Construction)
1. Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their gun
barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun
barrel. Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern
weapons.

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)
1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch
diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter and it can
be handled, moved and operated by one man.
Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
2.1 Machine guns
Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use. Even in
investigation of shooting cases done in the city, it is not usual or common to encounter this
type of firearm having been used. It can be grouped in three general types:

Sub Machine Gun

Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having
a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and designed to be fired with both hands.
Shoulder Arms
Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.
Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled
bore
barrel, usually more than 22 inches.
Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a
single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the
trigger.
Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire a
shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of musketeers can be found on
chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.
Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead
pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore construction.
A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the barrel
B. choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter type towards
the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the shots. It makes
the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.=still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can be observed to
be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using one
hand.
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers
a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There were three
classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi automatic and the revolving
pistols now known as the revolver.
b. Revolver
Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for firing
with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two types of revolvers
according to its mechanical firing action. T
Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer before
squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of revolver that does not need
manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked and released the hammer causing
a much faster firing.

C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every
loading. Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one
loading. Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of the
trigger and while the trigger is press.
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and forth
manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.
Examples: Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the
both back and forth.
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the
firearms. Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for other purpose to
 which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish gun.
1. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
2. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.
4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.
5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed to
fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle
point.
8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally used for
construction of furniture.
1. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
2. Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

Ammunition
Legal Definition
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun, revolvers and pistols
from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or other
explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code.
(Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete
unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder
(propellant). Origin
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a “paper” and
also from the French word “Cartouche”meaning – a rolled paper. This only indicates that the
first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about the turn of the 16 th century
that the term “cartridge” comes to use.

A. General types of Ammunition (Fig.

6)
a. Dummy ( used as a model)
b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)
c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)
d. Live Ammunition
B. Classification of Cartridge
I. According to the Location of the Primer
a. Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is concealed inside
the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
b. b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at the
hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the
rim of the case (cavity rim).
c. Center fire = t refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is centrally
placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by the
impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.
II. According to Rim Diameter
a. Rimmed Case type.
b. Semi-Rimmed type
d. Rimless type
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a rim
diameter smaller than the body of the case
 e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in front of
the extraction groove.
III. According Caliber
Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm and use:

Inches MM.
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and
rifles Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other
rifles Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and
revolvers Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols
Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers
Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic
pistols Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads
and gunpowder .
Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms of
its diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in
shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead,
each with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-
gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed
below are the equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch
16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
.410 .410 inch
Types of Shots
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of
arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as it falls down the
shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their velocity quicker, low
penetrating power and string out more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony mixed with
lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less string and more uniform
velocity and penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated with thin
copper through electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity, great resistance to
deformation and leading and better pattern.
Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

Bullets
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a small ball.
This term is generally used when we are referring to projectile fired from any small arms, which
has a variety of form, especially during the earlier history. In a more technical sense, bullet
refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes
called as shots or slugs.
 Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and purpose. In general
bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead metal. Its
used was due to its density; having a good weight is a small size and easy for
casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated
with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets

1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and general use.
2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its
mechanical construction makes it capable of penetrating through some light vehicles.
3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will detonate on
impact.
4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target, generally designed
to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to ignite.
5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or traces while
in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the shot or make
adjustments in the event of a miss

Cartridge Case
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass (70%
copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit. It is
also known as shell or casing.
Functions of the Cartridge Case
1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant gas upon
firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid
firing of firearms.

Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp marking
on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer and in some cases including the
date, trade name, and batch number.
2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the
cartridge to chamber.
3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for
automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be
put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the primer in place; (b) to
provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid support for primer anvil.
5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.
6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the cartridge which
is evident in a bottleneck type.
7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed
to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from being push down to the
powder charge. In some instance it is even being utilized for identification.
 8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in
a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.
9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two purposes: One
(1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out from the shell and Two (2) to offers
resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the passage way
for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

Primer
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type,
containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame
when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as the
percussion cup.
The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram
S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department.
The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal
Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc
and the anvil.
2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the
mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.
3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of
the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect
it from moisture attack.

Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of chemicals of
various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when
burned.
Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to gunpowder discovery
were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short description of how their names are
always mentioned in the history.
RogerBacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili Potestate Artis et
Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an anagram.
Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of
Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while
experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid,
and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot
(Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter (75%), charcoal
(15%) and sulfur (10%).
These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the introduction of
the smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army, made
the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the year 1864. (Although historically
nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in 1846). The basic ingredient used for smokeless
powder is a nitrocellulose that was first produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.
Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the year 1884
and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred Nobel invented a
smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition
and called it
“Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they utilized picrid acid in addition to cellulose powder which they called
“Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the one used, more powerful than picric acid
but much difficult to detonate. Also In the year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist
developed “Cordite” a smokeless powder with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or
sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless powder had replaced black powder and became uniformly
used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics
Stages in the manufacture of barrel
A. Drilling
B. Reaming
C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and such can be
performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system – (broach)
4. Button – system (button)
D. Lapped
The Breech face
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same important.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms which can be
determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are
considered to be a manufacture’s designs or specifications and security.
Class Characteristics of Firearms
1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was reamed.
The distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore in a
hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in either caliber in inch or
in millimeters.
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside the barrel of a
given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most in the
modern firearm are five and six.
Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the
lands.
3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width
and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the
grooves width.
4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or
edge of a grooves.
5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left
or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure
gyroscopic stability in its flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers
to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn
inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves
are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the height of the lands.
B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are being
determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured. They are the product of
machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the firearms.
 Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the
width of the lands and grooves are equal. (4 RG=L)
2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves
is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist , the width of
the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the
grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of
the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which
will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its
property based on the left marks on every bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are so
minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to discover
individuality.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the elevated
portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight depressions or
scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel
which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is
more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward
movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit” barrel
wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction brought
about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver cause by its
forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily or
oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case
more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim
cavity of a rim- fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most important marks for
identification of firearms using fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by backward
movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge
case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic
firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from the
firearm to the area of shooting.
 5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer
near the firing pin mark.
6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the
magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case cause
by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.
In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks can
be used as basis for identification, in the absence or none use of these two, both the ejector
and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary choice.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired
bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet
was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and
the same firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they were fired
from one and the same firearm.

Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10.Onoscope
11.Shadowgraph
12.Stereoscopic Microscope
13.Taper Gauge
Torsion Balance