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MODULE 1
HISTORY OF BALLISTIC AND ITS BRANCHES
Introduction
Forensic ballistics is the study of identifying firearms based on the ammunition shot through
them. It is limited to the legal application of the science concerned with the study of the motion or
movement of the projectile or bullet going through the barrel of a firearm.
History of Ballistics
1. Ballistics – Greek word “Ballo” or “Ballien” mean “to throw”

2. Ballista – a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones at a
particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.
3. Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police
Parlance to Firearms Identification.
Definition of Terms
Ballistics is defined as the science of motion of projectiles.
a. Science – refers to the systematized body of knowledge.

b. Projectiles – the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from the firearm.
c. Motions – refers to the movement which involved: direct; rotatory and translational
Ballistics is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and development,
training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.
Technically speaking, it refers to the science of firearms identification which involves the
scientific examination of ballistics exhibits such as: a. fired bullets; b. fired shells; c. firearms; and d.
allied matters used in crime.
Legal Definition
It is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets together with the recording
and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by the microscope.
Classical Theory: ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as
bullets, artillery shells, rockets and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the destructive action of
such projectiles.
a. Galileo, Newton and Leibniz – principles of dynamics and the methods of calculus, studies which
helped the rapid development of external ballistics.
b. Galileo and Newton were both interested in the force called air resistance, now usually called
aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.
c. In 1707, Cassini, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle
velocity. The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three
parts:
a. Bow Resistance – due to air pressure at the head of the projectile.
b. Skin Friction – caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body; and
c. Base Drag – due to the under pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.
Branches of Ballistics
A. Interior Ballistics – is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. From the release
of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle
occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.
Things involved in Interior Ballistics

a. Ignition of the primer
b. Flames is produced
c. Combustion of the gun powder
d. Energy that is generated
e. Force/pressure developed
f. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
g. Rotation of the bullet
h. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the
relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum
size, shape and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of
maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.
a. British engineer Benjamin Robins – conducted many experiments in interior ballistics. His
findings justly entitled him to be called the father of modern gunnery.
b. Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the first
attempt to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder – was the most important
contribution to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.
c. About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of
barrel by measuring the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel
before taking the velocity of the next shot.
Related Terminologies
1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate – an arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas.
Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant
grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place.
3. Bulk Density – ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder versus the weight of the
same volume of water.
4. Chamber Pressure – pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched
pressure.
5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight Ratio – ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the
weight of the projectile.
6. Detonation – chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the
high explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different
explosive but in some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Energy – is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy,
which would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot.
Drop- Block Action – that type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces vertically
in cuts in the receiver side walls.
8. Expansion Ratio – ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water)
to the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
9. Foot-Pound – the amount of work required to raise one pound one-foot-high against the
force of gravity.
10. Foot Second – velocity expressed in foot per second.
11. Gas – a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion
and spontaneous tendency.
12. Hang Fire – occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
13. Knocking Power – the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that
put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
14. Loading Density – the ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the
powder chamber (case). It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the
capacity the powder chamber in grains of water.
15. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which
merely a delayed combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion.
16. Powder Chamber Capacity – as with most interior ballistics capacity measurement it is
usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that
a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth.
17. Pressure – outward push gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber
and bore.
18. Sectional Density – the ratio of the bullet’s weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
19. PSI – pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now
used to signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device.
Piezo- electric units operate in a similar fashion to the copper crushes units but use a
reusable crystal “crusher” that changes its electrical properties in response to pressure.
20. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the
bullet during the explosions.
21. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.
B. Exterior Ballistics – it deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle
of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not
exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation
of about 33.
a. Velocity – speed per unit of time ex. M16 – 3,300 ft/sec.

b. Energy – fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. Yaw – the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. Gyroscopic Action – refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.
In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation,
air resistance and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun
until it reaches the target.
The Italian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia, in a published work on gunnery, claimed

that no part of the path of a projectile could be a straight line and that the greater the velocity
of the projectile the flatter its path. Tartaglia invented the “gunner’s quadrant” used to
determine elevation of the muzzle of a gun.
Galileo proved that in a vacuum a projectile describes a parabolic arc. The description of
the law of gravitation by the British Scientist Sir Isaac Newton made plain the cause of the
curvilinear motion of projectiles. By the use of calculus, he determined the momentum
transferred from the projectile to the particles of air at rest; this method of calculating air drag
has been superseded by the use of tables prepared from experimental firings.
Ballistic Pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins, who was the first to
undertake a systematic series of experiments to determine the velocity of projectiles. The
principle of the ballistic pendulum, as well as of the gun pendulum, which was developed by
Thompson, is the transfer of momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high velocity
to a large mass with a resultant low velocity.
By the second method, the velocity of a projectile is determined by measuring the time
required for it to travel a known length of its path. In 1840 the British Physicist Sir Charles
Wheatstone suggested the use of electricity for measuring small intervals of time. This
suggestion led to the development of the chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical
means, the time required for a projectile to pass between two screens of fine wire.
Further, exterior (external) ballistics includes:
a. Muzzle Blast – the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of
the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the
muzzle point.
b. Muzzle Energy – energy generated at the muzzle point.
c. Trajectory – the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the
target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line; parabola-like flight;
and vertical drop.
d. Range – the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
• Accurate (effective) range – the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,
meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
• Maximum range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective
in only 50 – 70 yards, all of them can send their bullet much further than that and are capable of
inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder
content.
e. Velocity – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

Long Barrel Rifle – up to 3,000 yards’ accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000
ft./sec.
Bullet from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first
few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the
end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called
“Tailwag”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with tailwag
does not strike its target clearly.
f. Air Resistance – resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

g. Pull of Gravity – downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
h. Penetration – depth of entry on target.
Ballistics Measurement
The development of high-speed photography and of the Stroboscope by the American

engineer Harold Eugene Edgerton and others has led to greater understanding in all three
branches of ballistics. By means of such devices any projectile can be photographed in flight,
thus permitting accurate studies not only of its velocity but also of its position (to determine
degree of wobble) and even of the shock waves it produces.
The design, development and calibration of a wide variety of highly specialized optical
and electronic equipment in recent years have furthered considerably the advance of all
ballistics research, particularly with respect to the performance of guided missiles. Examples of
these instruments are long-focus tracking telescopes, photogrammetric cameras and miniature
radio transmitters and receivers installed in missiles.
Other Contributors in the Development of Ballistics
1707 – Cassini suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity
1748 – Henry Shrapnel he invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a
small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
1857 – Monsieur Noiles published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with
the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
1898 – Mr. Colin in Paris, France, published an article titled “La Determination de La Distance
a’Laguelle un Coup de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (determination of the distance at which a shot has been
discharged from a firearm).
1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA). A very significant article entitled
“The Missile and the Weapon” was published issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal. It is dealt
with a variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove markings is made on
bullets. He also discussed the examination of gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the
changes that take place over time after the weapon is fired.
1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England. He provided testimony as to some

experimentation that he had performed involving the distance of which a shot had been fired
into a human skull.
1921 – Mr. Jorge T. Filho he published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from which a
Bullet was Fired” (“Da Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo de
Caca”).
Emile Monnin Chamot – he authored a 61-paged monograph entitled “The Microscopy of Small
Arms Primers”.
Related Terminologies
1. Accuracy Range – the maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will
consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
3. Back Curve – this is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone
beyond the point black range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly
with range and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistics Coefficient – means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight
to the air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet’s flight and
which can be used to later predict a bullet’s trajectory under different circumstances
through what are called “drag tables”.
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to
keep going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense
importance, for obviously the more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more
effective it can be as a weapon.
6. Bullet Trajectory – this is the bullet’s path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape
and because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward,
the bullet’s path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone – this is the area of the bullet’s path were it neither rises nor falls greater than
the dimension specified. Most shooters set this as Ŧ 3” to 4” from the line of sight, although
other dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the
vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3” to 4” for
small game, and 6” to 8” for big game and anti-personnel use.
8. Drift – is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right
while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range – the maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to
travel accurately and kill a particular type of live target.
10. Extreme Range – the greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory – a comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the
bullet from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat
trajectory.
12. Gallery Range – the indoor target range. The national rifle association of America, gallery
rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for .22 rim fire rifle; 50
feet or 60 feet for .22 rim fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be
conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such
instillation is generally referred to as indoor range the term gallery being applied usually
only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Initial Point – the range at which the bullet’s trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is
normally occurring at a range of about 25 yards.
14. Instrument Velocity – the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument
called chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle
velocity.
15. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a
result of not snipping on its axis.
16. Maximum Point Blank Range – this is the farthest distance at which the bullet’s path stays
within the critical zone. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank
range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
17. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
18. Maximum Ordinate – this is the maximum height of the projectile’s path above the line of
sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero
range and it is determined by your zeroing range.
19. Mid-range Trajectory – this is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half
way to the zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height
which can be greater.
20. Minute of Angle (MOA) – a minute of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical
purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus, 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at
300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a
firearm.
21. Point Blank Range – popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it
drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no
sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
22. Ricochet – the bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal
path) after striking a resistant surface.
23. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the
victim.
24. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it
should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing
power.
25. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
26. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. This is
not the same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is
more properly termed effective or apparent drop.
27. Zero Range – the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet’s path intersect.
C. Terminal Ballistics – is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target.
Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety
requirements for target backstops.
Terminal Ballistics involves:
a. Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target.

b. Terminal Energy – energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known a striking
energy.
c. Terminal Penetration – depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
d. Terminal Velocity – speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the
end of the projectile’s flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of
two ways:
• the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or
• its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge.
D. Shots Ballistics – deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
Choke – when the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it
is called true cylinder.
• the bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the diameter
near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel.
The barrel is said to be chocked.
• Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼ mm;
and improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.
The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70
percent of its shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called
full choke. Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A
full choke 12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amount of
antimony.
A. Wound Ballistics – it is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW) – it is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet or slug within
the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from
the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.
Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon
a. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
b. Close Discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
c. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire – an important aspect of forensic ballistics
a. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The
whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, un-burnt or semi-burnt powder particles and
hot gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead,
they are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged
(torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
b. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly
believed. It is also known as burning or charring.
c. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close
ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material
available in the path.
d. Tattooing (peppering) – caused by the embedding of un-burnt and semi-burnt powder
particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke
particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause
tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.
Other GSW Characteristics
a. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
b. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile around the wound.
c. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black-varies
somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of
uniform in thickness.
d. Foreign Materials – their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury
but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.
Factors Influencing Entrance and Exit of Gunshot Wounds
a. Kind of Weapon – the higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of
the body.
b. Caliber of the Weapon – the higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be
the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
c. Shape and Composition of the Missile – the conical shape free end of the bullet slug has
more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical
free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
d. Range of Fire – the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of the
heated expanded gases, flame and particles of gunpowder. However, in long range fire, the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
e. Direction of Fire – a right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round
shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet
will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of
the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction
upon hitting the target.
f. Part of the Body Involved – when the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body, the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and
other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may
deflect to another direction.
Description of the Wound of Entrance based on the Distance of the Body from the Fired Gun
a. Contact Fire – there is burning of the tissues; singeing of the hair; and particles of
gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is separated from the underlying
tissues in the affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the
presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will cause caving-in or excavation of
tissues and the contusion collar is seen around the wound of entrance; size is small.
b. Near Contact Up to Six Inches Distance – there is bursting of tissues, burning and blackening
of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as well as
around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like and the
size is larger than the diameter of the missile.
c. Distance Above Six Inches Up to 24 Inches – the size of the wound gradually approximates
the size of the missile. The farther the target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues,
gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues and lesser until they
disappear beyond the 24 inches’ distance.
Differentiation between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit
Differential Points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

1. Size of the wound Smaller than the missile Bigger than the missile
2. Edge of the wound Inverted Everted
3. Shape of the wound Round or oval No definite shape
4. Contusion collar Present in contact Absent
5. Gunpowder Near contact fire Absent
tattooing
6. Presence or absence Always present Maybe absent if the slug is
lodged inside the body
7. Protrusion of tissue Absent Maybe present
8. Paraffin test Positive in contact and near Negative
fire
Determination whether the Gunshot Injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental
1. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

a. Accessibility of the involved part of the hand of the victim
b. Usually only one gunshot wound
c. Usually the distance is short range or close range
d. Presence of suicide note
e. History of frustration or despondency of the victim
f. Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
g. Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide
2. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

a. Wound is located at any part of the body
b. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
c. Signs of struggle (defense wound) maybe present in the victim
d. Disturbances of the surroundings
e. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
f. Testimony from the witnesses
3. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

a. Usually only one gunshot wound
b. Wound located at any part of the body
c. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
d. Testimony from witnesses
Shotgun Wound – it is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots within the
tissues of the body.
Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance
a. Contact Fire – irregular with bursting of the affected tissues. There is singeing of the hair;
presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of entrance.
b. Near Shot up to Six Inches Distance – there is marked laceration of the skin and destruction
of tissues due to the pressure of explosion; there is burning on the surface of the skin and
particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance; there is
singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the wound of entrance.
c. Distance about One Yard – the pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound
with irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with
slight burning, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
d. Distance about Two to Three Yards – the wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance,
there will be no more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of
the hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
e. Distance of Four Yards – a small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a
central core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produce separate wound
of entrance.
Points to Consider in the Reporting of Gunshot and Shotgun Injuries
a. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

b. Location of wound in the body
c. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
d. Number of wound of entrance and exit
e. Direction and length of the bullet tract
f. Organs or tissues involved
g. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
h. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound
Effects or Complications of Wound
a. Hemorrhage (bleeding) – it is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to
trauma or existing pathology.
b. Direct Mechanical Injury – this is the direct damage to the tissues
c. Shock – disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood
pressure, decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body
d. Infection – the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living
tissues.
e. Embolism – the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or
septic embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.
Points to Consider in the Reporting of Wound
a. Character of the wound

b. Location of the wound in the body
c. Measurement of the wound – it is declared in inches, centimeters and millimeters: length,
width; and depth
d. Number of wound
e. Direction of wound
f. Organs involved
g. Severity of the wound
h. Period of healing or incapacity of the victim
Other Pieces of Evidence in Dealing with the Wound
a. Evidence from the wounding weapon – presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other
body fluids on the wounding weapon.
b. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
• presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the victim or assailant
• presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
• effects or complications of wound such as found in the clinical manifestations on the victim
c. Evidence from the scene of the crime
• presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or flouring, walls, furniture and other
materials at the scene of the crime
• presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids at the scene of the crime
Sir Sydney Smith – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor
of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and
exit wounds, powder burns and powder tattooing on human skin and other medical phenomena
associated with gun fire.
Studies Concerning Terminal and Wound Ballistics
1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper titled “La Deformation Des Balles
de Revolver” (deformation of revolver bullets) in volume 5. Archives de I’Antropologie
Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales
Mr. Louis B. Wilson – he published an article entitled “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in Relation to
Wounds Effects”.
P. Chavigny and E. Gelma – they authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by Revolver
Bullets at short-range
J. Howard Mathews – chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In

this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill
an individual.
F. Forensic Ballistics – is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of
ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide
in fields investigations. This includes the following:
a. Field Investigations – conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the
investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and
transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
b. Technical Examinations of the Ballistics Exhibits – this is the job performed by the firearms
examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence
firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography
under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making of
reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
c. Legal Proceedings (court trials) – wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the
ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Forensic – as applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to Court of Justice
and legal proceedings.
Forum – it is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where people
gather for public disputation or public discussion. Thus, the title Forensic Ballistics aptly
describes the subject under consideration – the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms Ballistics, Forensic Ballistics and Firearm
Identification, have come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of the public, and they
can be used interchangeably.
Studies in Relation to Forensic Ballistics
Goddard (1835) – in one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he was
able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads –
on the field projectile. He also examined the paper patch – the paper patch provides the seal
between the ball gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as having been torn from a
newspaper that was found on the room of the guilty servant.
Paul Jesrich – he took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare and subsequently individualize
them through the minute differences.
Mr. Kockel (1905) – published an article “The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets”.
Professor V. Baltahazard (1913) – published the first article individualizing bullet markings
Mr. C. Williams (1922) – he wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which appeared in
outdoor Life magazine
R.E. Herrick (1920) – he published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
Dr. Sydney Smith (1924) – he wrote an article concerning the details of the investigating that
appeared in the British Medical Journal. He relates that he believes that scientific examination of
firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the publication of his
report on the case.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard (1920 – Modern Era) – pioneered the introduction of this science in
Criminology courses in the different universities.
(1947) – he came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed together with his aid, Col.
Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City.
Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman (1924) – a well-known shooter and sports writer, examined
firearm evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York
(USA), the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Col Calvin H. Goddard, Philip
O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
Major Sir Gerald Burrard (1934) – “The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which
discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
Major Julian S. Hatcher (1935) – wrote and published, “Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
Identification and Evidence” and the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers”.
John E. Davis (1944) – he joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first
criminology laboratory.
Derechter and Mage – wrote an article entitled “Communication on the Identification of Fired
Bullets and Shells”.
Arthur Lucas – published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic
Cases”.
Jack D. Gunther and Professor Charles O. Gunther – published the entitled “The Identification of
Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification
with approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to
include reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript.
John E. Davis (1958) – an eminent criminals and director of the Oakland, police department
criminalistics section wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the
Striagraph”.
Tom A. Warlow (1996) – he published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law and
Forensic Ballistics”. He has written a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm
and toolmark examiners.
Brian J. Heard (1997) – he published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of Firearms
and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
B. Wound Ballistics – it is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.
Gunshot Wound (GSW) – it is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet or slug within
the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from
the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.
Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon
a. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
b. Close Discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
c. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire – an important aspect of forensic ballistics
e. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The
whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, un-burnt or semi-burnt powder particles and
hot gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead,
they are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged
(torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
f.Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly
believed. It is also known as burning or charring.
g. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close
ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material
available in the path.
h. Tattooing (peppering) – caused by the embedding of un-burnt and semi-burnt powder
particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke
particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause
tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.
Other GSW Characteristics
e. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
f. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile around the wound.
g. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black-varies
somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of
uniform in thickness.
h. Foreign Materials – their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury
but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.
Factors Influencing Entrance and Exit of Gunshot Wounds
g. Kind of Weapon – the higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of
the body.
h. Caliber of the Weapon – the higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be
the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
i. Shape and Composition of the Missile – the conical shape free end of the bullet slug has
more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical
free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
j. Range of Fire – the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of the
heated expanded gases, flame and particles of gunpowder. However, in long range fire, the
characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
k. Direction of Fire – a right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round
shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet
will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of
the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction
upon hitting the target.
l. Part of the Body Involved – when the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body, the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and
other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may
deflect to another direction.
Description of the Wound of Entrance based on the Distance of the Body from the Fired Gun
d. Contact Fire – there is burning of the tissues; singeing of the hair; and particles of
gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is separated from the underlying
tissues in the affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the
presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will cause caving-in or excavation of
tissues and the contusion collar is seen around the wound of entrance; size is small.
e. Near Contact Up to Six Inches Distance – there is bursting of tissues, burning and blackening
of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as well as
around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like and the
size is larger than the diameter of the missile.
f. Distance Above Six Inches Up to 24 Inches – the size of the wound gradually approximates
the size of the missile. The farther the target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues,
gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues and lesser until they
disappear beyond the 24 inches’ distance.
Differentiation between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit
Differential Points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

1. Size of the wound Smaller than the missile Bigger than the missile
2. Edge of the wound Inverted Everted
3. Shape of the wound Round or oval No definite shape
4. Contusion collar Present in contact Absent
5. Gunpowder Near contact fire Absent
tattooing
6. Presence or absence Always present Maybe absent if the slug is
lodged inside the body
7. Protrusion of tissue Absent Maybe present
8. Paraffin test Positive in contact and near Negative
fire
Determination whether the Gunshot Injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental
4. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

a. Accessibility of the involved part of the hand of the victim
b. Usually only one gunshot wound
c. Usually the distance is short range or close range
d. Presence of suicide note
e. History of frustration or despondency of the victim
f. Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
g. Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide
5. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

a. Wound is located at any part of the body
b. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
c. Signs of struggle (defense wound) maybe present in the victim
d. Disturbances of the surroundings
e. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
f. Testimony from the witnesses
6. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

a. Usually only one gunshot wound
b. Wound located at any part of the body
c. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
d. Testimony from witnesses
Shotgun Wound – it is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots within the
tissues of the body.
Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance
f. Contact Fire – irregular with bursting of the affected tissues. There is singeing of the hair;
presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of entrance.
g. Near Shot up to Six Inches Distance – there is marked laceration of the skin and destruction
of tissues due to the pressure of explosion; there is burning on the surface of the skin and
particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance; there is
singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the wound of entrance.
h. Distance about One Yard – the pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound
with irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with
slight burning, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
i. Distance about Two to Three Yards – the wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance,
there will be no more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of
the hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
j. Distance of Four Yards – a small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a
central core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produce separate wound
of entrance.
Points to Consider in the Reporting of Gunshot and Shotgun Injuries
i. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

j. Location of wound in the body
k. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
l. Number of wound of entrance and exit
m. Direction and length of the bullet tract
n. Organs or tissues involved
o. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
p. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound
Effects or Complications of Wound
f. Hemorrhage (bleeding) – it is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to
trauma or existing pathology.
g. Direct Mechanical Injury – this is the direct damage to the tissues
h. Shock – disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood
pressure, decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body
i. Infection – the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living
tissues.
j. Embolism – the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or
septic embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.
Points to Consider in the Reporting of Wound
i. Character of the wound

j. Location of the wound in the body
k. Measurement of the wound – it is declared in inches, centimeters and millimeters: length,
width; and depth
l. Number of wound
m. Direction of wound
n. Organs involved
o. Severity of the wound
p. Period of healing or incapacity of the victim
Other Pieces of Evidence in Dealing with the Wound
d. Evidence from the wounding weapon – presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other
body fluids on the wounding weapon.
e. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
• presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the victim or assailant
• presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
• effects or complications of wound such as found in the clinical manifestations on the victim
f. Evidence from the scene of the crime
• presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or flouring, walls, furniture and other
materials at the scene of the crime
• presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids at the scene of the crime
Sir Sydney Smith – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor
of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and
exit wounds, powder burns and powder tattooing on human skin and other medical phenomena
associated with gun fire.
Studies Concerning Terminal and Wound Ballistics
1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper titled “La Deformation Des Balles
de Revolver” (deformation of revolver bullets) in volume 5. Archives de I’Antropologie
Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales
Mr. Louis B. Wilson – he published an article entitled “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in Relation to
Wounds Effects”.
P. Chavigny and E. Gelma – they authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by Revolver
Bullets at short-range
J. Howard Mathews – chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In

this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill
an individual.
F. Forensic Ballistics – is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of
ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide
in fields investigations. This includes the following:
d. Field Investigations – conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the
investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and
transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
e. Technical Examinations of the Ballistics Exhibits – this is the job performed by the firearms
examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence
firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography
under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making of
reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
f. Legal Proceedings (court trials) – wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the
ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Forensic – as applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to Court of Justice
and legal proceedings.
Forum – it is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where people
gather for public disputation or public discussion. Thus, the title Forensic Ballistics aptly
describes the subject under consideration – the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms Ballistics, Forensic Ballistics and Firearm
Identification, have come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of the public, and they
can be used interchangeably.
Studies in Relation to Forensic Ballistics
Goddard (1835) – in one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he was
able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads –
on the field projectile. He also examined the paper patch – the paper patch provides the seal
between the ball gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as having been torn from a
newspaper that was found on the room of the guilty servant.
Paul Jesrich – he took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare and subsequently individualize
them through the minute differences.
Mr. Kockel (1905) – published an article “The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets”.
Professor V. Baltahazard (1913) – published the first article individualizing bullet markings
Mr. C. Williams (1922) – he wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which appeared in
outdoor Life magazine
R.E. Herrick (1920) – he published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
Dr. Sydney Smith (1924) – he wrote an article concerning the details of the investigating that
appeared in the British Medical Journal. He relates that he believes that scientific examination of
firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the publication of his
report on the case.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard (1920 – Modern Era) – pioneered the introduction of this science in
Criminology courses in the different universities.
(1947) – he came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed together with his aid, Col.
Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City.
Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman (1924) – a well-known shooter and sports writer, examined
firearm evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York
(USA), the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Col Calvin H. Goddard, Philip
O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
Major Sir Gerald Burrard (1934) – “The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which
discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
Major Julian S. Hatcher (1935) – wrote and published, “Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
Identification and Evidence” and the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers”.
John E. Davis (1944) – he joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first
criminology laboratory.
Derechter and Mage – wrote an article entitled “Communication on the Identification of Fired
Bullets and Shells”.
Arthur Lucas – published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic
Cases”.
Jack D. Gunther and Professor Charles O. Gunther – published the entitled “The Identification of
Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification
with approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to
include reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript.
John E. Davis (1958) – an eminent criminals and director of the Oakland, police department
criminalistics section wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the
Striagraph”.
Tom A. Warlow (1996) – he published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law and
Forensic Ballistics”. He has written a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm
and toolmark examiners.
Brian J. Heard (1997) – he published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of Firearms
and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
A. Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction
a. Single Rifle Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every loading. Ex.
Pistol, rifle, shotgun
b. Repeating Arms – type of firearm designed to fire several shot in one loading. Ex. Automatic
pistol, revolvers, rifles, shotguns
c. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt; a firearm in which the
breech closure is in line with the bore at all times, manually reciprocated to load, unload
and cock and is locked in place by breech bolt lugs and engaging abutments usually in the
receiver. Ex.
Rifles, shotguns
d. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the
chamber takes place; a firearm design that feeds cartridges, fires and ejects cartridge cases
as long as the trigger is fully depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed system.
Ex. Rifles, pistol and shotguns
e. Slide Action Type (Trombone) – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the
under forearm of the gun; a firearm which features a movable forearm which manually
actuated in motion parallel by the shooter. Forearm motion is transmitted to a breech bolt
assembly which performs all the functions of the firing cycle assigned to it by the design.
Also known as Pump Action. Ex. Rifles and shotguns
f. Lever Type (Break Type) – loading takes place by lever action on the firearm; a design
wherein the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever generally below the receiver.
Ex. Rifles, shotguns
B. Types of Firearms According to Use

a. Military Firearms
Pistol, revolvers, rifles, shotguns, machine guns
b. Pocket and Home Defense
Firearms Pistol, revolvers, rifles,
shotguns
c. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
Pistols, revolvers, rifles
C. Unusual/ Miscellaneous Types – those that are unique in mechanism and

construction. Paltik pistol, paltik rifles, paltik revolvers, paltik shotguns
Miscellaneous Guns
a. Gas Guns – these will be found in all shapes and sizes and are used for firing tear gas and other
forms of disabling gases.
b. Traps – these are designed to be set in the woods and left where animals will encounter them.
They may fire a bullet or a poison charge, depending on their construction.
c. Cane Gun, Knife Pistols – many devices primarily designed for another purposes will have a gun
mechanism incorporated in them. Also known as Freakish Device.
d. Zip Guns – these may be any form, since the name has been applied to all homemade guns. A
great many of this class will be found to be exceedingly clever mechanisms and most effective
weapons.
e. Multi-Barrel Guns – in particular, one will find guns having three or four barrels all mounted in
one receiver. Some may have a combination of several different gauges of shotguns or a
combination of shotgun barrels and rifle barrels.
f. Liberator – made by the U.S. government for the use in occupied countries of Europe during the
recent war and fired the .45 ACP cartridges, single shot and smooth bore.
g. Flare Guns – used in cases such as for sending signals and enabling to see enemies in the dark.
h. Harpoon Guns – barbed spear in hunting large fish.
Classification of Firearms According to its Power Pursuant to R.A. 8294
Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms or

Ammunitions or Instruments used or intended to be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or
Ammunitions. The penalty of prison correctional in its maximum period and a fine of not less than fifteen
thousand pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully manufacture, dealt
in, acquire, dispose or possess any low-powered firearm, such as rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other
firearm of similar firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or instrument used in the
manufacture of any firearm or ammunition, provided, that no other crime was committed.
The penalty of prison mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos
(P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which includes those
with bore bigger in diameter than calibre .38 and 9mm such as .40, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber
firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other
firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of two (2) or three (3): provided, however,
that no other crime was committed by the person arrested.
D. Three Main Parts of Firearms

a. Revolver c. Rifle – Cal. .30
1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel assembly
2. Cylinder assembly 2. Magazine assembly
3. Frame or receiver 3. Stock group
b. Pistol d. Shotgun
2. Slide assembly 2. Magazine assembly
3. Frame or receiver 3. Stock group
E. Detailed Parts
a. Revolver b. Pistol
a. Breech end a. Breech end
b. Muzzle end b. Muzzle end
c. Bore c. Bore
d. Riflings d. Riflings
e. Front sight e. Chamber
f. Make f. Interlocking ribs
g. Barrel lug
h. Barrel link
i. Barrel link pin
j. Barrel lead
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly
a. Chambers a. Front sight
b. Extractor b. Top strap
c. Extractor rod c. Ejection part
d. Racket d. Rear sight
e. Cylinder grooves e. Breech block
f. Yoke f. Breech face
g. Cylinder locking notches (touch holes) g. Extractor
h. Firing pin
i. Firing pin stop
j. Serrations
k. Trademark
l. Model
m. Interlocking lugs
3.Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver

a. Top Strap a. Ejector
b. Rear sight b. Hammer
c. Breech face c. Spur
d. Hammer d. Grip safety
e. Spur e. Disconnector
f. Thumb latch f. Thumb safety
g. Side plate g. Back strap
h. Back strap h. Butt
i. Firing strap i. Lanyard loop
j. Butt j. Front strap
k. Front strap k. Magazine well
l. Trigger guard l. Right side stock
m. Trigger m. Left side stock
n. Cylinder lock n. Trigger
o. Right side stock o. Trigger stock
p. Left side stock p. Modes
q. trade mark (monogram) q. Plunger
r. Serial number r. Serial number
Auxiliary Parts of Firearm (accessories) the following parts must be removed first before disassembly of
the weapon:
a. Recoil plug d. Recoil spring
b. Barrel bushing e. Recoil spring guide
c. Slide stop pin
Advantages
a. Revolver
1. Almost everyone knows something about how to handle it.
2. Safer for inexperienced people.
3. The mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better.
4. A misfire does not put the revolver out of action.
5. Can handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which reduces velocity.
b. Automatic Pistol
1. Has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally
2. More compact for the same fire power
3. Easier to load
4. Barrel when worn or corroded can be replaced without sending the gun to the factory
5. Gives greater number of shots
6. Easier to clean
7. Gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
8. No gas leakage during firing.
Disadvantages
a. Revolver
1. Bulkier to carry
2. Grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol
3. Hard to clean after firing
4. Slower to load
5. Harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to improper lining up of
cylinder.
b. Automatic Pistol
1. Ammunition must be perfect – it causes jam
2. Misfire stops the functioning of gun
3. When kept loaded for long period of time – magazine spring is under tension
4. Has poorer trigger pull
5. Magazine requires jacketed bullet
6. More dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people
7. Usually not adopted for reloading
8. Possible ejection of empty shell towards the face of the firer causing flinching
9. Throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence
10. Cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming
Precaution for Revolver
a. Obstruction in the barrel

b. Bulging or swollen barrel
c. Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position
d. An older revolver, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the firing pin hole
(insures blow in the center of primer)
e. Evidence of splitting lead around breech of barrel or for complaints of fellow shooters
f. Tightness of all side plate screw
g. Tightness of ejector rod head if the weapon is S&W
h. Cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust
Terms to Ponder
1. Accelerator – a device used in some automatic and semi-automatic weapons to accelerate the
rearward travel of the bolt of breechblock by applying leverage at the critical point in the bolt’s
travel.
2. ACP – Arms Corporation of the Philippines.
3. Barrel Length – in interior ballistic work this differs from the barrel length use in general
measurements. It is measured from the face of the muzzle to the base of the seated bullet or
base of the case neck.
4. Barrel Telescope – instrument used to make a visual inspection of the inset of a gun barrel to
see a sign of having been fired recently, to look for leading or metal fouling and to see how
distinct the lands and grooves appear.
5. Blow Back – as pertains to automatic and semi-automatic arms, a weapon in which no
mechanical locking system is employed. The breech is held closed at the moment of firing by the
action of recoil springs and the weight of the slide, hammer and other moving parts. The weight
of these parts is so much greater than the breech action has been appreciably overcome; then
the breechblock action is blown backward, by residual pressure.
6. Blow Forward – an automatic or semi-automatic firearm having a standing breech, in which the
barrel is blown to open the action and eject the fired cartridge case. The barrel is then forced
back against the standing breech by a powerful spring.
7. Bore Centerline – this is the visual line of the center of the bore. Since sight is mounted above
the bore’s centreline and since the bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore
must be angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will strike where the
sights point.
8. Breech Block – the steel block which closes the tear bore against the force of the charge; or the
face of the block.
9. Burr Hammer – an expose hammer having a serrated knob at the top to provide a griping
surface for cocking.
10. Camming-lug Bolts – that types which employs one or more bolt locking logs which are cammed
outward from the interior of the bolt cylinder to unlocked the action.
11. Chamber – the rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is inserted.
12. Cylinder – serves as chamber and magazine of a revolver.
13. Cylinder Stop – stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for firing.
14. Delayed Blowback – sometimes called hesitation locking the breech, although not positively
locked, must overcome a mechanical disadvantage, such as knuckle joint, to open.
15. Disconnector – the lever in the gunlock which prevents the release of the hammer unless the
slide and barrel are in forward position safely interlocked.
16. Double-Set Trigger – a pair of triggers so arranged that pressure on one trigger engages the sear
in such fashion that the slightest tough on the second trigger will then discharge the gun.
17. Double Action Sear – built into weapon to allow double action fire.
18. EC – Evansille Chrisler
19. Ejector – the mechanism in the firearm which causes the cartridge case or shell to be thrown
out from the gun.
20. Extractor – the mechanism in a firearm by which the cartridge case or shell is withdrawn from
the chamber mechanism in a revolver that pulls the empty shells simultaneously.
21. Extractor Rod – that mechanism in revolver that activates the extractor and is a locking device.
22. FA – Frankford Arsenal
23. Falling Block Action – that type of action, which the breechblock is pivoted at the rear of the
receiver so that the face of the breechblock swings down below the chamber to open the
action.
24. FCC – Federal Cartridge Company
25. Firearm (other definition) – means any pistol or revolver with a barrel less than 12 inches, any
rifle with a barrel less than 15 inches, other weapon which is design to expel projectile buy the
action of explosion.
26. Flying Firing Pin – a firing pin shorter that the length of its travel in the breechblock. A spiral
spring coiled around the pin forward compressing the spring and exploding the primer, the
compressed spring immediately draws the firing pin back into the breechblock. This is a safety
feature since the firing pin is not in contact with the primer except when driven forward by the
hammer at the instant of firing. Also known as rebound type firing pin Ex. Colt Government
Model Caliber .45 and Tokarev 7.62mm.
27. Folding Trigger – a trigger hinged so that it can be folded forward close to under side of the
frame. Ex. Italian 10:35 mm Bodego
28. Frame – part of the firearm that houses the internal parts.
29. Front Sight – a protrusion or attachment above the barrel near the muzzle. It may be fixed or
adjustable.
30. Grip or Automatic Safeties – flat lavers of plungers normally protruding from some portion of
the grip such position that when the hand firing the piece is squeezed around the grip, by the
firer, automatically releasing the firing mechanism.
31. Hair Trigger – a term loosely applied to any trigger which can be release by very light pressure.
32. Hammer – mechanism in a firearm that strikes the prime.
33. Hammer Block – safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer.
34. Hand (pawl) – mechanism of a revolver which rotate the cylinder.
35. Hanged Frame – a weapon in which the barrel including the cylinder in the case of revolver is
pivoted to the forward end of the frame. Closing the gun swings the barrel into firing position
where the chambers are firmly locked against the standing breech.
36. Headspace – the distance between the breech of the gun and the support for the cartridge rim;
in other words, it is the space occupied by the head of the cartridge when the gun is loaded.
37. Head Stamps – merely the letters or design placed on the base of the cases by the manufacturer
to identify his product.
38. Inertia Firing Pin – a firing pin assembled into the breech block and free to move forward and
backward. It is impelled forward by the blow of the hammer or striker and backward by the
explosions of the primer.
39. LC – Lake City Arsenal
40. Leaf Sight – any metallic sight which is hinged at the base to permit raising it to a vertical
position sighting and lowering it to a horizontal position to avoid damage and carrying leaf sight.
41. Line of Sight – the visual line of the aligned sight path. Since sight is mounted above the bore’s
centreline and since the bullet begins to drop when it leaves the muzzle the bore must be
angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the bullet will strike where the sights
point.
42. Mainspring – mechanism that provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism.
43. Metallic Sights – normally consist of a pair of front sight and rear sight.
44. Muzzle Brake – a device attached to the muzzle of a gun designed to deflect the propelling
gases emerging from the muzzle behind the bullet and to utilize the energy of these gases to
pull the gun forward to counter the recoil of the weapon.
45. Open Sight – any sight in which there is to tube or aperture through which aim is taken.
46. Paradox Gun – a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will impart a
spin to the patented slug that is used with it when it is desired to fire a large single projectile
instead of a charge of shot.
47. Parker Size – a gray rust preventive finish for metal.
48. Post Sight – a front sight resembling a post or one of generally rectangular of quadrilateral design.
49. Pump Action – popular term for slide action.
50. Pyramidal Sight – a front sight of generally pyramidal design.
51. RA or REM – Remington Arms Company
52. Ramp Sight – a front sight mounted at the ramp, which inclines upward and forward, a rear
sight having a sliding member, which may be moved up and down a ramp to change the
elevation of the sight.
53. Rear Sight – the rear-most of a pair of metallic gun sights. It may be mounted on the barrel,
receiver, frame, slide, tang, cocking piece, bolt sleeve or stock; may be fixed or adjustable.
54. Receiver Sight – any type of sight fastened to the receiver bridge.
55. Recoil Operated – pertains to automatic and semi-automatic arms, a weapon in which the
barrel and breechblock are locked together at the instant firing. As the bullet leaves the barrel,
the rearward thrust of the powder gases starts the locked barrel and bolt to the rear.
56. Repeater – any firearm holding more than one round at a time.
57. Rolling Block Action – that type of action in which the breechblock rotates it’s about an axis pin
downward and backward from the chamber.
58. RPA – Republic of the Philippines Arsenal
59. Sear – the lever in the gunlock, which hold the hammer until the released by the trigger.
60. Semi-Automatic Revolver – are those in which the recoil from one shot plus spring action
revolvers, the cylinder aligns a chamber and cocks the hammer ready for firing the next shot.
61. Set Trigger – an adjustable trigger design to operate reliable with a very light trigger pull.
Colloquially a “hair trigger”.
62. Shoat Trigger – an absolute form of trigger in which no trigger guard was used. The trigger was
mounted in and projected only slightly from the frame just forward of the grip.
63. Shoulder – portion of a shell that support the neck.
64. Slide Action – that type of breech closure, which is moved forward and backward along guide
ways paralleling the lower side of the barrel.
65. Slide Plate – part of the revolver that provides access to the internal part.
66. Signal Radius – the distance between forward and rear sight.
67. Silencer – intended to be attached to muzzle of a firearm to prevent or reduce its noise.
68. Single Action Revolvers – are those in which the hammer must be manually cocked.
69. Solid Frame – in a revolver, a swing-out cylinder or rod ejector type. There is a break or hinge in
the frame.
70. Spur Hammer – a hammer having a cocking spur.
71. Stab Crimp – a series of small indents at intervals around the cartridge case, engaging a
cannelure in the bullet jacket. Both types of crimp are also used on high pressure cartridge to
hold the primer in the pocket.
72. Standing Breech – when a receiver is not cut away at its rear to a point below the line of the gun
bore, the solid rear wall of the receiver is the standing breech. In the case of hinged frame
weapons the solid rearward portion of the frame (receiver) against which the heads of the
chambered cartridge rest after the gun has been closed and locked is the standing breech. In a
revolver or single shot pistol that section of the frame that supports the head of the cartridge in
the cylinder or chamber is the standing breech.
73. Straight-Line Hammer – a metal forced straight back by bolt action during bolt reciprocation to
cocked position. When released it drives straight ahead to fire. Found on reis and similar guns.
74. Straight-Pull Action – that type in which the rotary motion required to turn the bolt locking lugs
into or out of engagement with their locking recesses is applied by the action of studs on the
bolt sliding in helical grooves cut inside a bolt cylinder.
75. Sub Caliber Barrel – a barrel of small caliber inserted down the bore or mounted over the barrel
of a large caliber gun, permitting it to be used for practice work with less powerful, cheaper
ammunition. Generally, it is called a “sub-caliber tube”.
76. Thumb Latch – mechanism in a revolver that actuates bolt to release the cylinder.
77. Thumb Trigger – a button design on or near the tang. It fires the rifle when depressed normally
by thumb pressure.
78. Trigger – the lever operated by the shooter which releases the firing pin and allows it to
discharge the cartridge.
79. Trigger Guard – the bent strip of metal that protects the trigger from accidental discharge.
80. Trigger Lever – mechanism in a revolver that contacts the rebound slide to return the trigger
forward.
81. Trigger Spring – spring that provides energy for return movement of rebound slide.
82. Trigger Stop – mechanism in a revolver that prevents excessive rearward movement after
hammer release.
83. Tube Sight – a tube in which front and rear sights are mounted.
84. Turn-Bolt Action – that type of firearm which locked by the turning one or more bolt locking
lugs into locking recesses cut into the receiver.
85. U or UT – Utah Ordinance Company.
86. Vernier Sight – metallic sights which may be adjusted for elevation or wind age by the action of
a vernier screw. Also called a micrometer sight. Screw having a bead calibrated to indicate the
amount of movement transmitted to the sight.
87. WCC – Western Cartridge Company
88. Wedge-Type Bolts – that type which employs a ramp or camp arrangement raise lower, or move
to either side, one end of the bolts so that the end of the bolt or lug thereon is wedged against a
supporting surface in the receiver to lock the action.
89. WRA – Winchester Repeating Company
90. Yoke – mechanism in a revolver that connects pivot between the frame and cylinder.
MODULE 3
AMMUNITION AND CARTRIDGE CASE OR SHELL
Introduction
Ammunition is any material that is fired, spread, dropped, or detonated by any weapon or
weapon system. Ammunition includes both expendable weapons (such as bombs, missiles, grenades,
and land mines) and the component pieces of other weapons that produce an impact on a target (e.g.,
bullets and warheads). Almost all mechanical weapons require some kind of ammo to function.
A cartridge or round is a type of pre-assembled firearm ammunition that contains a projectile

(bullet, shot, or slug), a propellant substance (usually either smokeless powder or black powder), and an
ignition device (primer) in a metallic, paper, or plastic case that is precisely made to fit within the barrel
chamber of a breechloading gun for practical transport. Although the term "bullet" is commonly used
colloquially to refer to a full cartridge, it is only used correctly to refer to the projectile.
Ammunition/Cartridge
Legal definition – it may be found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue Code as well
as in Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code. It refers to ammunition as a loaded shell for rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile
may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code.
Technical definition – technical speaking, the term ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or to a
single unit or single cartridge – meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case,
gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round.
Origin
The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it
came through the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the original
cartridges were not the brass gilding-metal tipped units which we are familiar with today.
The use of paper-wrapped powder charged greatly speeds the loading of military weapons,
avoided waste of powder from spillage, and provided a uniform charge from shot to shot. In time, the
bullet was either attached faster or more convenient.
Originally
1. Ammunition means any unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer and projectile which
may use in a firearm. Today, it refers to a file of assembled cartridges in bulks as in boxes or lots
& also used to refer to the supply a person may be carrying with him.
2. Round refers to a single cartridge.
3. Shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as “shell” or “shotshell”.
4. Rifle ammunition is referred to as “metallics” or “cartridges”.
5. When an investigator uses a term cartridge he invariably refers to revolver, revolver or rifle
cartridges.
6. The layman uses the abovementioned terms indiscriminately, although as general rule he speaks
of cartridges when referring to a pistol, revolver, rifle ammunitions and shells when referring to
shotguns.
7. Among the uniformed, the word bullet as often misused, as it is commonly used to apply to any
sort of any unfired cartridge. Actually, it is that solid portion of the cartridge which leaves the
muzzle of the gun and does the striking or killing. The word can properly be used in connection
with pistol, revolver or rifle ammunition but other common designations for the bullet are
projectile or ball is a relic of old muzzle-loading days when all rifle projectiles were round lead
balls.
Parts of a Cartridge (nomenclature)
a. Bullet – the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of expansive force of
gases coming from the burning gunpowder.
b. Cartridge Case – the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called shell or
casting.
c. Gunpowder – it is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas
under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to the
target.
d. Primer – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound,
which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called percussion.
Classification According to the Type of Firearms
a. Revolver cartridges
b. Pistol cartridges
c. Rifle cartridges
d. Shotgun cartridges
Classification According to Location of Primers
1. Pin Fire Cartridge – the first cartridge of a shell-exploding type which enjoyed any real general
use was the type called the pin fire commonly attributed to Monsier Le Facheux of Paris, around
1896. Pin-fire cartridges were made for all types was small arms in appearance to a modern
shotgun shell wherein it had a head of the cartridge and a percussion fixed by a wad or metal
cup.
2. Center Fire – priming powder is located at the center.
3. Ringfire Cartridge – a type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The chattel cartridges of
Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun. This is a special type of
cartridges wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base
of the cartridge.
4. Rim Fire Cartridge – the simplest form of modern cartridge is the rim-fire cartridge. The name
rim-fire is derived from the fact that this type can be fired only if the cartridge is struck by the
hammer of firing pin on the rim of the case. In this type, the priming mixture is contained or
located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is a very sensitive area.
Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge case,
which may or may not have a head stamps are merely letters or design found on the base of
the cases that identifies the manufacturer. These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
calibre .22s. They can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols, caliber .22 revolvers and
caliber .22 rifles. Rim-fire cartridges can be further classified into:
1. Rimmed type – used in revolvers .38 and .357

2. Semi-rimmed – used in super .380
3. Rimless - .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine guns
Types According to Caliber
1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

2. Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber .380 – used in pistols
6. Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
7. Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum)
8. Caliber .44 – used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber .45 – used in Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50 – used in caliber .50 machine guns
Classification of Ammunitions According to its Effects
1. Penetrators – pierce targets using a single bullet

2. High explosives – burst before hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of penetrating
pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten metal
3. Carrier projectiles – break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving materials or
sub-munitions (small ammunition).
How Shells Explode?
A shell explodes by means of a process called the explosive train. This process consists of a
series of explosions that detonate the shell after the projectile has been fired.
The explosive train begins with the explosion of the fuse (triggering device). The fuse may
explode the instant the shell hits the target or it may detonate a few seconds earlier or later. Some
armor-piercing shells have a delayed fuse, which enables the projectile to penetrate before exploding.
Most fuses operate mechanically and electronically. Mechanical fuses are activated by the movement of
the shell during lunch from the weapon, and the rotation of the shell as it travels through the air.
Electronic proximity fuses are activated by devices inside the shell that use radar waves to determine
when projectile is near the target.
Artillery Ammunition
Artillery includes rocket launcher and such mounted guns as howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft
guns, and naval guns. Most types of field and naval artillery ammunitions are called shells. A single shell,
like a single cartridge, is known as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size from 50 to 240
millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90 kilograms). Most artillery shells taper to the rear, a
shape that gives them greater range. Some have streamlined ogives (nose shields). Others, known as
base-burner shells, have a small amount of propellant burning in the tail during flight. This reduces drag
(air resistance).
Five Main Types of Artillery Ammunition
1. Fixed Ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a casing, a primer and a propellant.
Like small-arms cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are manufactured as complete
units.
2. Semifixed Ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However, the projectile fits loosely into the
casing so that the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount of propellant in the casing can
be increased or decreased, depending on how far the shell is from the target.
3. Separate Loading Ammunition also called bag ammunition, consists of separate sections for the
projectile, the primer, and the propellant; propellant is packed into bags that are placed behind
the projectile. The number of bags used depends on the distance the shell must travel. It is used
to fire the heaviest artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated Ammunition consist of two sections. One section is the projectile. The other includes
the primer, the casing and a fixed amount of propellant.
5. Guided Ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being fired. It often uses pop-out tail
fins to steer itself. Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking a laser spot on the
target. This spot is usually produced by a forward observer, a person or object forward of the
line of fire.
Artillery – Vehicle Ammunition

Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles fired by guns mounted on tanks and other
armored vehicles. They have diameters from 20 to 125 millimeters.
A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose cap of tungsten or another

heavy metal. The cap helps the projectile penetrate opposing vehicles. A high explosive projectile is a
hollow-charge warhead. This warhead is hollow in the front and has an explosive charge in the back. Its
explosion converts a copper cone in the warhead to a molten, high speed jet. The jet penetrates the
target. Another armored vehicle projectile is a long dart made of tungsten or depleted uranium
(uranium with most of its radioactivity removed). The dart travels on a device called a sabot, which
breaks away after the dart leaves the guns barrel.
Riot Control Ammunition
This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing serious injury. Most
of this ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings that look
like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the rubber bullets.
Shotgun Cartridge (Ammunition)
Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a cartridge that contains a powder charge and a load of metal
pellets called shot. The shot spreads over a wide area. This makes it easier to hit a moving target with a
shotgun than with the single bullet from a rifle or a pistol. The shotgun is chiefly a hunting gun.
Shotgun Cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass or steel case at one end. They
contain lead or steel shot instead of bullets. The caliber of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The
weight of the lead shot required to fit the muzzle of the gun is the standard of measurement for the
bore. If a bullet weighing 1/12 pound (38 grams) fits the bore, the shotgun is called a 12-bore or a 12
gauge gun. Popular gauges are 10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410. Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for
example the one that is called .410 gauge shotguns which actually mean .41 caliber. A 12-gauge shotgun
has a caliber of .729 inch.
Kinds of Shots
a. Bird Shot – small shotgun pellets

b. Buckshot – larger ones are used to shoot such animals as deer
c. Single Shot – consist of single unit of projectile
Gauge Bore Diameter
4 .935”
8 .835”
10 .775”
12 .729”
16 .662”
20 .615
28 .550”
.410 .410”
The first shotgun developed in 1537, loaded with small shot instead of one round ball. In 1831,
Augustus Demondion patented a cartridge that held small shot. Modern shotguns are single barrels,
double barrels, or single barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold several cartridges.
Repeating shotguns are popular in the United States with hunters as well as with many law enforcement
officers.
Shot Wads – at a distance of 5-8yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate direction of fire,
one can sometimes find wads.
Cartridge Case
The life of well-made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps 10 years on the average. Some
last 5-6 years, however, ammunitions may lose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years. Some may last 25
years or more depending on the conditions storage. Damp and warm climate are worst. In order to
prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common practice to varnish the mouth of the case before
the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of waterproofing around the joint between the primer and
primer pocket.
Cartridge Cases/Shell – it is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet,
gunpowder and primer.
The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles,
shotguns or machine guns. These include:
a. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
b. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
c. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced
against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a gas seal at the breech end of the
barrel.
Parts of the Cartridge Case
1. Rim – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of limiting the
forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any
between the head and the supporting.
2. Primer-Pocket – performs three functions:
a. Holding primers securely in certain position;
b. Providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge; and
c. Providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. Vents or Flash Holes – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the
primer flash provides ignition to the powder charge. It is the opening or canal that connects the
priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. The Head and Body – constitute the cork that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape
of the gas.
5. Neck – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to prevent the
bullet from being push back or loosened.
6. Cannelures – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the
neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being
pushed back or loosened.
7. Crimp – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two ways:
a. it aids in holding the bullet in place, b. it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out
of the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which holds: a. the primer which contains the priming
mixture, b. the shell-head which contains the head-stamp, caliber and year of manufacture.
9. Shoulder – that portion which supports the neck.
10. Extracting Groove – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for the
automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
Classification According to Case-Shape
a. Straight – all rimmed shell and most center fire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal .38 special
b. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called magnum jet Cal .22.
c. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
d. Belted – ex. .30 magnum
Classification According to Head Forms
a. Rimmed – diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body

b. Semi-Rimmed – diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body
c. Rimless – diameter of base is the same as of the body
Classification of Cartridge According to the Configuration of its Base
a. Rimmed – it has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case; the diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge
case. Ex. Caliber .38 special and caliber .22.
b. Semi-Rimmed – it has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case
and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange; the diameter is slightly greater
than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. Ex. Caliber .25, .32 auto, super .38
c. Rimless – the flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction purposes, a
groove around the case-body in front of the flange; the diameter of the rim is equal with the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. Ex. Caliber 5.56 mm, .30, 9mm, .45
d. Rebated – has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case; the
diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case. Ex. Caliber 8 mm x 59
e. Belted Case – it has pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge, the belt is for
additional strength in high pressure cartridge; there is protruding metal around the body of the
cartridges cases near the rim. Ex. Caliber .38 magnum, 13.9 x 99
Cartridge Cases According to Shapes
a. Straight Case – where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.
b. Bottled-Necked – where a wide bodied case is just before the case mouth reduced in diameter
to that of the bullet.
c. Tapered Case – where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter along its
length.
Functions of Cartridge Case
a. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and the primer

b. Prevent the escape of gases
c. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.
Definition of Terms
1. Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very soft and
ductile and very weak. When it is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard, strong and
elastic.
2. Belted Cartridge – a cartridge which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The cartridge
seats on this belt most Magnum cartridge case. Also called a European type primer.
3. Blank Cartridge – is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder charge and a wad
to train the powder.
4. Blank Cartridge Pistol – a firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may escape through
the hole in the top of the frame.
5. Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder.
6. Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. The process of making case by
punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out into tubes closed to one
end.
7. Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.
8. Percussion – a means of ignition of a propellant charge by a mechanical blow against the primer
or percussion cup.
9. Rolled Crimp – one in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into a cannelure
on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper seating depth.
10. Round – one single complete cartridge.
11. Ruptured Case – any cartridge case which has been split in firing so that the gas has escape.
12. Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.
13. Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the “roman candle” variety.
Low Power – a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec.
High Power – a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec. High
Intensity – a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of over 3500 ft/sec.
MODULE 4
BULLET
Introduction
A bullet is a kinetic projectile that is launched from a gun barrel as part of firearm ammunition.
The phrase is derived from Middle French and is a diminutive of the word boulle (boullet), which
meaning "little ball." Bullets are made of various materials, including copper, lead, steel, polymer,
rubber, and even wax. Bullets come in a variety of shapes and constructions (depending on the intended
application), including those for hunting, target shooting, training, and combat. Bullets are frequently
tapered to make them more aerodynamic. Bullet sizes are expressed in both imperial and metric
measurement systems by their weights and diameters (referred to as "calibers").
Bullets (Projectiles)
Projectile – is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as bullet that is completely dependent
upon an outside force for its power. Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles
propelled from shotguns although strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called
shot, slug or pellets. In a layman’s viewpoint, a projectile fired from firearms is called slug, although
what we actually meant is a bullet. The term bullet originated from the French word “boulette”, a small
ball. In common police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug” which is colloquial term.
Classification of Bullets According to Mechanical
Construction Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:
1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal such as lead, tin and
antimony; are produced in automatic swedging machines from extruded wire containing the
proper percentages of tin and antimony for hardening.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such as
gilding metal and copper zinc; simple cupro-nickel or gilding metal envelope covering lead cores
fired from automatic weapon. These are made automatically by swedging a cup of metal around
a lead core
Purposes of the jacket:
1. Keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strikes the target.
2. Prevent damage while in the weapon.
3. Control expansion
› copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 – jacket of
metal patch made of cupro nickel or gilding metal.
› if jacket bullet are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or destroyed.
Types of Bullets According to Shape
1. Pointed Bullet
2. Round Nose Bullet
3. Wad Cutter Bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter Bullet
5. Hollow Point Bullet
6. Boat Tailed Bullet
Another improvement in bullets was the boat-tail in which the name became .30 M1. The “M”
stands for Mark but some contend stands for modification.
Common Bullet Types
1. Solid Lead Point

2. Solid Hollow
3. Solid Paper Patch
4. Metal Cased
5. Soft Point
6. Metal Cased Hollow Point
7. Metal Point
8. Rifled Slug
9. Glycer Type Bullet
10. Quadraximum
Purposes of Bullets
1. .38 – disability purposes

2. .45 – knocking power – subduing a maniac or amok
3. M16 – fatal effects
4. Garand or Carbine – penetration and long range shooting
Types of Bullets According to Use
1. Ball Bullets – have soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles, weapons and
armored targets in general; is a pointed, flat base bullet with a gilding metal jacket. The core is
of pointed, boat tailed shape and is made of hardened tungsten, chrome steel and has a
blackened tip. Used to penetrate armored cars and vehicles.
3. Tracer Bullet – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on fire when
the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet
to be seen; these bullet when fired emit a bright red flame from their base, thereby showing the
gunner
by the trace of flame, the path as well as the striking point of the bullet, the flame continuing to
burn and trace for about 600 yards.
4. Incendiary Bullet – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials that can be set
on fire by impact; used against target that will burn readily such are aircraft; are similar in
construction to tracer bullet, but the composition contained in the cavity burns fiercely on
impact with a very hot flame which will quite reliably ignite anything that the bullet strikes. For
identification purposes the incendiary bullet has a light blue color.
5. Explosive Bullet – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small size it is
difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use
of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
Bullet’s Measurement (diameter)
Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by caliber (the diameter of the
bullet). Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United States have traditionally specified caliber
in decimal fractions of an inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge has a diameter of 30/100 inch (7.6
millimeters). However, it is becoming customary to use millimeters instead. The U.S. armed forces
specify caliber in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges are less than 20 millimeters or .78 caliber.
Caliber term used to indicate the bore diameter measured from two opposite land.
Equivalent of Caliber to Millimeter
1. Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm

3. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6. Caliber .38 about 9mm
Other Terms
1. Ball Bullet – bullet have soft lead cores inside a jacket.

2. Cannelure (bullet) – a knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet which
contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet.
3. Dumdum Bullet – an out-moded and generally misused term – hollow point bullets
manufactured in Dumdum, India.
4. Explosive (fragmentary) Bullets – contain a high charge explosive, because of their small size, it
is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions. For this reason the
use of high explosive bullets is usually to 20 mm and above.
5. Hollow Point – designed to increase expansion (sometimes called express bullet).
6. Iced Bullets or Solidified Bullets – super cooled water made as a projectile.
7. Lead Bullets – actually a mixture of lead and one or more hardening ingredient.
8. Metal Case Bullet – colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched of full patched bullet.
9. Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet. Technically, it is a bullet having a metal cup
over the base and extending forward over that portion of the bullet which bears against the
rifling, the lead core being exposed at the nose of the bullet.
10. Mushroom Bullet – any bullet designed to expand on impact. Technically, a metal patched
bullet with exposed round nose.
11. Ogive – the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and forms the head of the projectile
of ogival shape.
12. Plated Bullet – a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent leading on the
inside of the barrel.
13. Pointed Bullet – more effective ballistically because there is less surface resistance to air, thus
the speed is less retarded and greater velocity.
14. Soft or Drop Shot – shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead made into round pellets.
15. Soft Point Bullet – expands on striking hence it produces more serious damage and have greater
stopping power; from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a flesh until it looks like a
mushroom, hence, they are often called mushroom bullet. Such bullets are of little effect than a
full-jacketed bullet in revolvers or automatic pistols, because the velocity is too low to cause the
bullet to expand.
16. Steel Jacketed Bullet – bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad or plated with gilding metal to
prevent resting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
17. Tracer Bullet – a bullet containing a substance inside the jacket at the base of the bullet which is
ignited when fired showing a brilliant tail light during its flight.
18. Wad Cutter Bullet – a cylindrical bullet design having a sharp shouldered nose intended to cut
target paper clearly to facilitate easy and accurate scoring.
19. Wax Bullet – a bullet made from paraffin and other wax preparation usually used for short
range indoor target shooting.
MODULE 5
GUNPOWDER AND PRIMER
Introduction
The earliest known chemical explosive is gunpowder, sometimes called as black powder to
distinguish it from current smokeless powder. It is made up of sulfur (S), carbon (C), and potassium
nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3). Sulfur and carbon (in the form of charcoal) serve as fuels, while saltpeter
serves as an oxidizer. Gunpowder has long been used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rocketry, and
pyrotechnics, as well as a blasting agent for explosives used in quarrying, mining, and road construction.
Because of its comparatively moderate disintegration rate and thus low brisance, gunpowder is
regarded as a low explosive. Low explosives deflagrate (burn) at subsonic rates, but high explosives
produce a supersonic shockwave when they detonate. Ignition of gunpowder packed behind a bullet
produces enough pressure to drive the shot from the muzzle at high speed, but not usually enough
power to break the gun barrel. Gunpowder is thus a good propellant, but its modest explosive power
makes it less appropriate for smashing rock or fortifications. Nonetheless, it was frequently employed to
fill fused artillery rounds (as well as in mining and civil engineering projects) until the second part of the
twentieth century.
Gunpowder
It is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount
of chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert the propellant into
a high of gas.
Classification and Composition
Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1. Black Powder (Europeans) – consists of jet black and rather shiny grains. Although black powder
has been in use for a long time, and although improved methods of manufacture have naturally
led to greater efficiency in action, its composition has remained practically the same. The
standard ingredients are: potassium nitrate 75%, sulphur 10%, and charcoal 15%. Its
characteristics are:
a. Oldest propellant powder
b. Consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. Burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited
Qualities
a. When ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. In burning it gives off large amount of gas
c. A considerable amount of heat is evolved
2. Smokeless Powder – nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as the major ingredients mixed with one
or more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salt, etc. These
substances are almost entirely smokeless in action. They are all given the generic term of nitro
powders and are legion in number. All nitro powders used in rifles, pistols and revolvers are a
gelatinized powder that is they are made by forming dough into sticks or grains. The
identification of partially burnt powder grains may become a matter of vital importance, since
such grains maybe found round the entrance hole of a wound, and it will obviously help if the
type of powder can be identified from these un-burnt grains. A mixture is nitrocellulose 60
parts, nitroglycerine 35 parts and Vaseline 5 parts.
Classification of Smokeless Powder
1. Single Base (nitrocellulose) – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose.

2. Double Base – nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine with the following minor ingredients:
a. Centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
c. Inorganic salt
Purposes of the minor ingredients:
a. Insure stability
b. Reduce flash or flame temperature
c. Improve ignitability
Characteristics
a. Gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and shape to the single base
propellants
b. Almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small squares, discs, flakes, stripes,
pellets, and perforated cylindrical grains.
3. Triple Base – nitrocellulose, nitro-glycerine and nitro-guanidine. It was device in an attempt to
compromise between the low power single based powders and high power but excessive heat
of double based powder. The nitro-guanidine lowers the flame temperature while still adding
active explosive constituent. One of its virtues is that it is entirely flash less though it does not
generate rather more smoke than the other types.
4. High Ignition Temperature Propellant – its main constituents is from RDX group of high
explosives. It was moderated to the process of gelatinozation and was then developed by
Dynamit Noble of Germany in conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the latter’s G11K2 rifle.
This is a caseless cartridge.
Other Term
1. Cordite – a British propellant made by dissolving gun cotton and nitroglycerin and adding 5% of
Vaseline.
2. Gun Cotton – a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin which is a chemical compound and
not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or any other kind
of cellulose.
Primer
An assembly which ignite the propellant, the primer assembly of center fire cartridges consists
of a brass or gilding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper
disc (foil), and a brass anvil.
A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the primer cup compresses the
primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil, thus causing the composition to explode.
The hole or vent in the anvil allows the flame to pass through the primer vent in the cartridge case,
thereby igniting the propellant.
Rimfire ammunition such as the caliber .22 cartridge does not contain primer assembly, the
primer composition is spun into the rim of the cartridge case and the propellant is in intimate contact
with the composition. In firing, the firing pin strikes the rim of the case and thus compresses the primer
composition and initiates its explosion.
Origin
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system. He was a Scotch Presbyterian
Minister, chemist and hunter.
First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.
Types of Primer According to Anvil
1. Boxer Primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in 1869.
2. Berdan Primer(European type) – two flash hole or vents invented by Hiram Berdan of New York
in 1950’s.
Parts of Primer and its Function
1. Primer Cap – it is the soft gilding metal which serves as the container of priming mixture, paper
disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently sensitive to
result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming mixture that
will cause its disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. Help hold the priming mixture in place, and
b. Exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side or point
which the priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for the whole
primer components.
Priming Compounds
1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate, if ignited produces potassium chloride which draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
Corrosion – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or chemical
reaction by products of combustion during firing.
Erosion – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction.
2. Non-Corrosive
Mixture 25 years ago:
a. Potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b. Antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. Fulminate of Mercury (initiator) – 32%
WWII – Frankford Arsenal (FH42)
a. Sulfur – 21.97 %
b. Potassium chlorate – 47.20%
c. Antimony sulphide – 30.83%
Typical Rimfire (Cal .22) – Frankford Arsenal
a. Potassium Chlorate – 41.43%

b. Antimony sulphide – 9.53%
c. Copper sulpho-cyanide – 4.70%
d. Ground glass – 44.23%
Germans
a. Fulminate of mercury – 39%

b. Barium nitrate – 41%
c. Antimony sulfide – 9%
d. Picric acid – 5%
e. Ground glass – 6%
Swiss by Ziegler – 1911
a. Fulminate of mercury – 40%

b. Barium nitrate – 25%
c. Antimony sulfide – 25%
d. Barium carbonate – 6%
e. Ground glass – 4%
Related Matters
1. Match Slow – a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton soaked in a solution of saltpeter or
hemp or on matchlock weapons.
2. Maynard Primer – another form of percussion cap. Explosive pellets were sealed at proper
intervals between two strips of paper. This primer tape was then rolled and inserted in guns
of suitable design. The action of cocking the hammer pulled the primer tape until a primer pellet
lay under the hammer and over the ignition vent into the chamber ready for firing. Similar
forms are used in cap pistols.
MODULE 6
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Introduction
Forensic ballistics is the study of evidence derived from weapons that may have been used in a
crime. When a bullet is discharged from a gun, microscopic markings are left on the bullet and cartridge
casing. These markings are similar to ballistic fingerprints. When investigators retrieve bullets from a
crime scene, forensic examiners can test-fire a suspect's gun and compare the marks on the crime scene
bullet to the marks on the test-fired bullet. The examiner will then analyze how similar the two sets of
markings are and if the bullets were fired from the same or separate weapons. Cartridge cases are
compared similarly.
Forensic Ballistics (Firearm Identification)
It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It would be
better termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally accepted in criminal
courts trials to establish use or possession of a certain weapon. Formerly, all that an expert could testify
in court concerning a bullet recovered from the scene of a crime was that it was a certain type and
caliber. Thus a caliber .38 bullets could not have fired in a caliber .45. Linking a bullet to a specific
revolver was not then possible. About 1920, great advances began to be made in identifying firearms by
their fired bullets and/or cartridge cases. Colonel Calvin H. Goddard was the leader in this effort. The
most important tools used were the Comparison Microscope, a binocular instrument so arranged that
two similar objects can be compared in detail simultaneously with corresponding surfaces adjacent.
When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore surfaces. These marks, from
irregularities left by the tools cuts or caused by wear and rust, by reproducible by firing another bullet
through the same barrel. The bullet is evidence and the second bullet can then be compared for match.
The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus making coincidence of identical patterns from
two different guns most unlikely if not possible. A composition is that, was yet, there has been no
system devised to classify such patterns, as there is with fingerprints.
When cartridge is fired it is pressed forcibly against the breechface of the firearm, there
receiving an impression of any tool marks. The firing pin also leaves its marks can be compared by the
microscope, and a fired cartridge case thus be linked to a specific weapon.
Scope of Arms Manufacturing Process and its Relation to Firearms
Identification How a Firearm is manufactured?
The first thing which is of importance for the Firearms Examiners is the understanding of the
construction of a gun barrel and to be sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of
firearms which may influence the investigation of the crime. There should be always be sound reason
for all markings, scratches or dents visible or firearms evidence and it is the function of the firearms
examiner
to determine how and why they were made and also to interpret their significance both to himself as well as
to the court of justice.
The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which, when drilled from end to end
makes it steel pipe. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scratches resulting from irregular
cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. For smooth bore barrels, after the drilling
process the inside of the barrel is made very smooth by a process known as “lapping”. In barrels
intended for rifles the next steps after drilling consists of “reaming” and drilled hole for its entire length,
this removes some of the sears and scratches. The reamer removes metal from the entire surface
because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill.
If the barrel is to be rifled it is done with the use of modern tools which automatically cut the
spiral grooves on the inside the barrel and impart to every firearms characteristics which are peculiar to
the barrel. Each manufacturer has its own characteristics designed for the lands and grooves. It has its
individual patterns which determine whether the grooves are inclined to the left or to the right. In
addition to these peculiarities there are other markings left by the rifling tools which cuts the grooves
that is as the rifling cutter wears small imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface of the
barrel and in similar manner the accumulation of metal chips remove by the cutter will scratch the
barrel as it passes along. Even in the button system imperfection will remain after the lapping and
finishing operations are completed. These microscopic scars will make a series of striations on every
bullet which passes through the barrel. It is the comparison of these bullet striations which is the basis
of examination.
Another phase of firearm manufacture which is of great importance to the identification of

firearms is finishing operations of the breechface of the breechblock of the firearm. It is that portion of
the firearm against which the cartridge is fired.
Two General Characteristics Regarding Firearms Identification
1. Class Characteristics – are those characteristics which are determinable even before the
manufacture of the firearm. These serve as basis to identify a certain class or groups of firearm.
It is categorized into the following: caliber, number of lands and grooves, width of lands and
grooves, twist of riflings, pitch of the rifling, and depth of grooves.
Class Characteristics of Different Firearms
a. Colt Type .45 6L G2X

b. Grease Gun .45 6R G+
c. Smith and Wesson Rev.--------------------------- .45 6R GL
d. Smith and Wesson Rev.--------------------------- .38 5R G=L
e. Colt Revolver..................................................38 6L G+
f. Colt Pistol Super------------------------------------ .38 6L G+
g. Colt Revolver..................................................32 6L G+
h. Colt Pistol.......................................................32 6L G+
i. Colt Pistol .25 6L G2X
j. Colt Revolver .22 6L G2X
k. Colt Revolver--------------------------------------- .357 6L G2X
l. Smith and Wesson Rev.-------------------------- .32 5R G=L
m. Smith and Wesson MRF Rev.------------------- .22 6R G=L
n. Enfield Revolver----------------------------------- .38 7R G2X
o. US Carbine............................................................R G3X
p. Browning Pistol-------------------------------------9mm 6R G=L
q. Star Pistol.......................................................380 6R G+
r. Llama Pistol....................................................380 6L G+
s. Beretta Pistol--------------------------------------- .32 6R G2X
t. Astra Pistol............................................................R G2X
u. Arminius Revolver--------------------------------- .22 6R G2X
v. Burgo Revolver------------------------------------- .22 8R G+
w. Marlin M57 Rifle----------------------------------- .22 2OR G+
2. Individual Characteristics – are those characteristics which are determinable only after the
manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of
man and which have a random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the
tools in their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion,
erosions and other fortuitous causes.
Principles Governing Firearms Examination
1. Principles of Bullet Identification

a. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possess
individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this
engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet fire
from another barrel. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel will be the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its thumbmark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every
breech face leaves its thumbmark on the base of the fired cartridge case.
2. Principles of Shell Identification
a. The breechface and striker of every single firearm leave microscopical individualities of their
own.
b. The firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumbmark on every cartridge case which it fires.
c. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases which it fires are imprinted with
this individuality. The imprint on all cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are always
the same, those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be different.
3. Identification of Fired Bullets and Cartridge Cases

a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual examination of the
bullets in order to familiarize with all markings appearing on it.
b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any markings
appearing therein.
d. Markings appearing on the test bullet number 1 and does not appear on the succeeding test
bullet such markings which came from foreign substances.
e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly worn out there will be a
cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in the picture.
What to Compare?
1. Evidence Bullet
2. Test/Standard Bullet
Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by means of the fired bullets,
first identify the particular firearm through the class characteristics appearing on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet.
3. Shell Identification
a. The breechface and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities of
their own. The firearm leaves its fingerprint or thumbprint on every cartridge which is fired.
b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted with this
individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those
cartridges fired from different weapon must always be different.
Importance of Fired Bullet in Firearms Identification
a. By means of the fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm used.
b. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired.
c. Can determine also the conditions of the firearm
Firearm Cartridge Case
Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary examination on the cartridge case
having a visual examination on the condition of such cartridge case. Determine whether or not it came
from a revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-machine guns. Examine those markings that are
present on the base portion, the breechface marks, firing pin impression, and the location of the
extractor and ejector markings. Check also the markings caused by the chamber of the firearm. The
magazine and the ejector port markings must also be taken into consideration particularly those
cartridge cases from gums having full automatic mechanism.
Markings Appearing on a Fired Cartridge Case

1. Breechface marks – negative impression of the breechface of the firearm found on the head of
the cartridge case after firing.
2. Firing pin impression – the indentation in the primer of a centative cartridge case or in the rim
of a rimfire cartridge case cause when it is struck by the firing pin.
3. Ejector mark – tool marks produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case on the head, generally at
or near the rim, from contact with the ejector.
4. Extractor mark – tool marks produced upon a cartridge case from contact with the extractor.
These are usually found on or just ahead of the rim.
5. Chamber mark – individual microscope marks place upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall
as a result of any or all of the following:
a. Chambering
b. Expanding during firing
c. Extraction
Marks Found on Fired Bullets
1. Landmarks – depressed portion caused by the lands.

2. Groove Marks – raised or elevated portions caused by the grooves.
3. Skid Marks – when the bullet enters the rifled bore from a stationary position and is forced
abruptly into the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight toward before encountering the
regular rifling twist.
4. Slippage Marks – bullets fired from a worn-out barrel, oily barrels and slightly over-sized bullets.
5. Shaving (stripping) Marks – most commonly these marks are found on bullets fired from a
revolver due to a poor alignment of the cylinder with the bore.
Two Types of Markings (individual)
1. Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure contact. Ex. Breechface mark
2. Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. Ex. Minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet
Definition of Terms
1. Abrasion (in the bore) – scratches caused by using improper cleaning materials, or by firing
ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering. Normal enlargement of the
bore and wearing a way of lands due to the abrasive action of the bullets.
2. Accidental Characteristics – those characteristics or marks left by some individual gun that
occurred on that particular shot and may or may not reproduced on any other shots. For
example, a grain of sand of shaving of steel happened to be in the barrel when a shot was fired.
3. Ballistician – person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the courts and
other investigation agencies.
4. Definitive Proof – after the gun is finally completed, it is again fired with a heavy charged to
ensure against accident. This is the definitive proof and guns passing this test are stamped with
still another marked. Belgium is the great center for the manufacture.
5. Expert – as used in court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on grounds of
specialized knowledge, training and experience.
6. Fouling – the accumulated of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid by-products
remaining after a cartridge of is fired.
7. Heavy Rusting – usually called corrosion rather than fouling.
8. Proof Marks – it is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized authority according
to certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used by the
public.
9. Provisional Proof – the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a heavy charge of powder
to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled into gun. This provisional proof
and a certain stamp are placed on barrels so tested.
10. Secondary Firing Pin Impression – is a mark on the side of the regular impression usually found
in pistols.
11. Shaving Marks – a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment of the
cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver.
12. Skid Marks – when the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet can
begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the groove in the
bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in revolvers.
13. Slippage Marks – scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when the bullet is
small or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go straight forward without
turning and it jumps the rifling or slips.
14. Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.
MODULE 7
FIREARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Introduction
The procedures used to make firearms have an effect on the nature and frequency of some of these marks.
Knowing how the questioned firearm was manufactured is essential for identifying the appropriate
marks for comparison purposes. Finding this information can be difficult because it is not always
publically available. Following a presentation of the manufacturing methods used to generate the
primary portions of firearms in touch with ammunition elements, this review contains an updated list of
processes utilized by specific manufacturers, relying not simply on literature.
The Barrel of Firearm
All barrel regardless of the type of weapon for which they are being manufactured from the
solid piece of metal. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and
metallurgical structure, thus, assuring a high quality product after the various machine operations and
heat treatment are completed.
The first step is the drilling operation. These operations result in a longitudinally rough hole of
uniform diameter from one end of the barrel to the other. The next step consists or reaming the drilled
hole. This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling operation.
If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling methods. Some of the rifling
methods used to make the riflings inside the gun barrel is the following:
1. Broach Gang or Broaching System – a tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing
height used to cut the spiral grooves in a barrel. All grooves are cut with a single pass of the
broach.
2. Broach Single – a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the grooves simultaneously and is
in the series of increasing dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved.
3. Button System – a hardened metal plug, called a button with a rifled cross section configuration.
It is pushed or pulled through a drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold from the spiral grooves
to the desired depth and twist. It was also known before as “Swaging Process” or “Swaged
Rifling”.
4. Hook or Cutter System – a cutting tool which has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a
time.
5. Scrape or Cutter System – a cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a time.
6. Swage – an internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms rifling in the barrel by means
of external hammering. Also known as “Hammer Forcing”.
Breechface Manufacture
The breechface of all firearms are machine cut in the first place and in the higher grade weapons
are finished off by hand filing and grinding. Similarly, the strikers (firing pin) of all weapons are cut and
shaped, receiving different degree of fire finishing according to the grade of weapon in which they are to be
used.
Another face to face of firearm manufacture which is of great importance to the firearms
identification field is the finishing operations on the breechface of the weapon. This is that portion of
the firearm against which the cartridge case and the primer are forced backwards when a shell will be
imprinted by the tool markings on the breechface of the gun. This happens because the base of the
cartridge case is softer than the breechface of the firearm and it naturally follows that when a soft
surface comes in contact with a harder surface under tremendous pressure, it is the softer surface that is
engraved or imprinted with the toolmark from the harder surface.
Data on Ballistics (pistols and revolvers)
.22 Short, Rim Fire (hi-speed, high velocity, super x, etc.)
Bullet diameter...........................................................223 inch or .224 inch

Bullet weight..............................................................29 or 30 grains
Length of bullet...........................................................36 inch
Diameter of case of hand............................................279 inch
Diameter of case at mouth.........................................228 inch
Length of case.............................................................42 inch
Length of cartridge (overall)........................................69 inch
Velocity, 6 inch revolvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 feet second
Velocity, (6 inch barrel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 feet second
.22 long, Rim Fire (regular)
Bullet weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 or 30 grains

Bullet diameter...........................................................224 inch
Velocity of rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 feet per second
Muzzle energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 foot pounds
Muzzle velocity (inch revolver) . . . . . . . . . . 870 foot
second Muzzle energy (6 inch revolver) . . . . . . . . . 50 feet
pounds
.22 Caliber Long Rifle (Remington Klean Bore, Winchester Stainless, Peter’s Rustless and Western Super
Match)
Name...........................................................................22 long rifle rim fire

Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 inch
Length.........................................................................613 inch
Bullet grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 grains
Bullet weight (hollow point) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 grains
Muzzle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 foot/seconds
.25 Cal (6.35 mm) Automatic Colt Pistol

Overall length of cartridge..........................................905 inch
Bullet weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 grains
Type of bullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . metal jacketed
Bullet length................................................................46 inch
Diameter of cartridge head.........................................298 inch
Diameter of cartridge mouth......................................276 inch
Length of cartridge case..............................................62 inch
Length of loaded cartridge..........................................91 inc
.32 Short Colt
Bullet diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 inch

Diameter cartridge head.............................................315 inch
Diameter cartridge mouth..........................................375 inch
Length of loaded cartridge.........................................1.05 inch
.32 Long Colt

.32 Caliber (7.65 mm) Automatic Colt Pistol

Diameter cartridge head.......................................354 inch
Length loaded cartridge.............................................1.03 inch
.38 Caliber S & W Special

Diameter of cartridge body.........................................377 inch
Length of case............................................................1.16 inch
Length of cartridge.....................................................1.56 inch
.380 Automatic (9mm Short)

Diameter of cartridge body.........................................372 inch
Length of cartridge......................................................93 inc
.45 Automatic Colt

Case length..................................................................90 inch
Techniques of Examination
1. Physical – evidence bullet, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the
investigator for identification purposes. If no identifying marks were found the firearms
examiner will, before anything, affix his own identifying markings or initials derived from the
names of the requesting party, victim or suspect in that order of priority. The firearm will also be
physically examining to determine its safety devices seeing to it that there is no cartridge
inserted in the chamber that will cause accidental firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital
parts whether or not it is in operating condition and a tag will be attached for distinction. Bullets
of different class characteristics will be segregated from one another especially the
determination of caliber, number of lands and grooves, twist of rifling, etc. to facilitate its easy
final microscope examination. Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber,
type and make of firearm from which they were fired. Misfired or dud cartridges will also be
taken into consideration. Although they may not have any ballistics probative value, yet they
may give a clue to the solution of a crime.
2. Test firing – the firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets
and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge cases
respectively. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case and on the
nose portion of the bullet with letter “T” (to represent test) followed by the last two digits of the
serial number of the firearm of the test to be made ex. T-77-1 to T-77-3 in their order of firing to
distinguish the number 1 test from the number 2 and 3 as the case may be.
3. Microscopic Examination – after the recovery of the test bullets and cartridge case, they will be
compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the “Bullet Comparison Microscope” to
determine whether or not they have the congruency of striations or the same individual
characteristics.
Bullet Comparison Microscope
The most widely and reliable instrument in Firearms Identification is the Bullet Comparison
Microscope. With this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete examination and
comparison of the so called Class and Individual characteristics that appears on the fired bullets and
fired cartridge cases. Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases can be
examined in “juxtaposition” and whatever the observation and findings obtained during the
examination can be photographed for court presentation and also to give the court a better
understanding and good appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.
How to Operate the Microscope?
Place the two objects on the two adjustable stages under the two microscopic tubes and peep
through the comparison eyepiece. If the objects cannot be seen, adjust the stages through the rock and
pinion mechanism. Once the two objects focused, the next step is to find the similarities existing
between the objects either shifting them vertically or horizontally. Every examiner, no matter how
experienced or expert he may be, has had experience of spending many hours in the attempt to get the
satisfactory and convincing matching in cases where there was every reason to believe that the gun that
fired the evidence bullet or shell.
Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing one self and convincing the court
beyond all reasonable doubt are two quite different matters. To expert must always keep in mind the
fact, judges are always unpredictable, if some pairs of grooves (or lands) match and the others do not,
the expert must be prepared to explain why they do not.
Requirements for a Positive Identification
1. Prominent – standing out or projecting beyond a surface or line, readily noticeable.

2. Consistent – possessing firmness. The impression or striation found on the evidence bullet or
cartridge case appearing in every test bullets and cartridge cases.
3. Significant – the markings have meaning or capable of being interpreted by the firearms
examiner or ballistician.
Instruments Used in Forensic Ballistics
1. Analytical or Torsion Balance – used for determining weights and bullets and shotgun pellets
for possible determination of type and make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – this valuable instrument is specially designed to permit the
firearms examiner to determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two
fired shells, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – consist of a wooden box, 12”x12”x96”, with a hinged to cover and with
one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into sections by
cardboard petitions.
4. CP-6 Comparison Projector – an instrument very much similar with the bullet comparison
microscope, where 2 fired bullets or shells can be compared in one setting of the firearms
examiner. Also in one setting, the evidence fired shell can be immediately compared with the
test fired shell with the use of this equipment is absolutely no strain of any kind.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece – a measuring microscope to read the width of the land and groove
marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
6. Helixometer – type of instrument used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms. This instrument is
generally used in high advanced ballistic laboratory. It is not very much needed in a typical
police ballistics laboratory. With the use of this instrument it is possible to measure the angel of
twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver barrel.
7. Machine Rest – a machine use for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
8. Caliper – an instrument used for making measurements such as bullet diameter and bore
diameter.
9. Micrometer – similar in use as caliper.
10. Onoscope – a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore for internal examination.
11. Optical Sight – sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being contained in one
unit. Optical sight does not necessarily have telescopic properties. The optical system may
merely include range indicating or range estimating devices, plus the necessary means of
adjusting for elevation and wind age.
12. Shadow Graph – equipment used in firearms identification. It contains a series of microscopic
lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining fired bullet or fired shells to
determine their class characteristics and also for orientation purposes. It greatly differs from the
bullet comparison microscope and stereoscopic microscope that is the instrument contains a
large ground glass, 14 inches more or less in diameter, wherein the observation and comparison
of the class characteristics is done by the firearm examiner.
13. Stereoscopic Microscope – unlike the bullet comparison microscope does not have any camera
attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court presentation. It is generally used in
the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells to determine the relative
distribution of the class characteristics or for so-called orientation purposes.
14. Taper Gauge – it is used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms. This instrument is
very useful for giving quick idea as to the caliber of a gun.
15. Telescope Sight – an optical employing the principle of the telescope to enlarge the image of
the target.
Evidence in Firearms Cases

Possible Laboratory Determinations Admissible as Expert Testimony from Exhibits
Exhibit Possible Laboratory Determination Required by Laboratory
Fired Bullet Marks, Caliber, Type of Firearm from which each Fired Bullet
could have been discharged; type of propellant
used in firing; name of maker and
maker’s designation as to type, caliber etc.
Fired Cartridge Make, Caliber, Type of Firearm in which each Fired cartridge case
Case could have been fired; type of propellant used in
firing; name of maker and makers
designation as to type, caliber, etc.
Two or More Fired In addition to determination possible with a Two or all fired bullet
Bullets single fired bullet, whether two or all were
fired from the same firearm.
Two or More Fired In addition to determination possible with a Two or all fired cartridge cases
Cartridge Cases or single cartridge case, whether two or all were
Shot shells fired in the same firearm.
Fired Bullet and In addition to determination possible with a Suspected firearm and fired
Suspected Firearm single fired bullet, whether bullet was fired bullet
from suspected firearm.
Fired Cartridge In addition to determination possible with a Suspected firearm and fired
Case and single cartridge case, whether cartridge was cartridge cases
Suspected Firearm fired in suspected firearm.
Suspected Firearm, Approximate distance at which shot was Suspected firearm,
Ammunition, discharged ammunition, scaled photograph
Scaled Photograph of powder, or shot pattern and
of Powder or Shot victim’s clothing
Pattern and
Victims Clothing
Shot Pellets and Size of shot and gauge designation of arm Shot pellets and/or shot wads
Wads firing wads.
1. Fired bullets, fired cartridge cases or fired shot shells and suspected firearms and any
ammunition together with manufacturer’s boxes. If recovered in investigation should be
inventoried. These should be submitted to the laboratory after clearance with your superior
officer.
2. Consult the laboratory concerning the making of proper scaled photographs of powder patterns
on victim’s skin, doors, walls, etc. If clothing is suspected of containing powder residue it can be
wrapped in clean paper or placed in a clean paper bag and preserved. It should be handled as
little as possible. If stained with blood, first dry airs then carefully transfer to clean paper bag.
Do not use plastic bags if exhibits have not been processed for fingerprints or if they are to be
examined for body fluids, blood typing, or seminal stains. Consult the laboratory regarding the
proper methods to be used in order to minimize scattering of the X-rays when making
radiographs of bullet, bullet tracts and/or pellets in the victim’s body.
3. Radiographs if proper X-rays of bullet or pellets imbedded in victim’s body are submitted to the
laboratory, information may be developed identifying caliber, type and probable manufacturer
of fired bullets and/or size of shot pellets.
4. Information regarding type of weapon and type of projectiles inflicting through entrance and
exit gunshot injuries is also possible from examination of proper X-rays of the bullet tract.
Instruction for Handling, Marking and Shipping Firearms Exhibits

Exhibit General Descriptive Recommended Instructions for
Instruction Record to be Kept Method of Packing for
by Person Marking for Shipment to
Recovering Identification Laboratory
Firearm Check for A record of make, Scratch initials or Place in heavy
fingerprints. model, type, marks of paper envelope.
Remove magazine caliber or gauge identification on Forward to
from auto loading designation, serial side of frame, laboratory.
weapons. Do not and lot numbers receiver, back
clean or fire. Do should be strap, barrel, etc.
not operate retained by Do not uses X.?
mechanism except person and Do not mark
to unload. If agency stocks, side plates
loaded or fired recovering. or part that can
shells in revolver, be readily
mark positions. removed or
replaced.
Fired Bullets Every precaution Assumed caliber. Scratch initials on Wrap in clean
should be taken to Note as to marks ogive near the cotton or tissue
prevent abrading of identification. nose of bullet. Do paper. Place in
or mutilating Description of any not use X. If more cardboard pill box
rifling surface in distinctive than one bullet or rigid container.
any way. Do not features. recovered, use Do not put in
wash or clean. initial of person envelope. Mark
recovering and on container
designate the source of each
several bullets by bullet. Forward to
A, B, etc. keeping laboratory.
notes as to source
of each.
Fired Metallic Do not mar, Notes as to mark Scratch initials or Roll individually in
Cartridge Cases mutilate, scratch of identification mark of paper. Place
nick head of shell. used. Head identification near rubber band
If recovered in designation of mouth of shell, around paper.
revolver cylinder, maker. Sketch preferably inside Place wrapped
mark chambers to showing relative of mouth. Do not cartridges in
correspond with position of shells scratch, nick, mar heavy paper
shell designation. if recovered on or mutilate head envelope.
floor, street, etc. or rear portion of Forward to
Transmit this cartridge case. laboratory.
information to
laboratory.
Fired Paper Shot Do not mar, Notes as to mark With ink or Roll individually in
Shells mutilate, scratch of identification indelible pencil paper. Place
nick head of shell. used. Sketch mark inside of rubber band
showing relative mouth of shells around paper.
position of shells using initials of Place wrapped
when recovered, person cartridges in
if shells recovered recovering. Do not heavy paper
on floor, street, scratch, nick, mar envelope.
etc. Transmit this or mutilate brass Forward to
information to head of shell. laboratory.
laboratory.
Shot Pellets Recover as many Source and Seal container, Use pill box. Place
as possible. Do position of marking seal with box in envelope,
not mutilate in recovered pellets. mark of sealing envelope.
removal. Record of identification on Indicate source of
number sent to seal or on pellets on
laboratory. Notes envelope. envelope.
on marks of Forward to
identification laboratory.
used in seal.
Shot Wads Recover as many Source of wads Using ink or Place in paper
as possible. recovered. indelible pencil envelope
Transmit this inscribes initials of indicating source
information to person recovering on envelope.
laboratory. Notes as mark of Forward to
on marks of identification. Do laboratory.
identification not use X. Place in
used. envelope, sealing
for transmission
to laboratory.
Loaded Shells or If loaded Source or where Brass cartridges- Roll individually in
Cartridges ammunition or found. Head Scratch mark on paper. Place
fired cartridge designation of side of case near rubber band
case are maker. Notes on mouth. Paper shot around paper.
recovered in marks of shells – Use ink or Place wrapped
investigation, identification indelible pencil. cartridge in heavy
forward to the used. Mark side of shell. paper envelope.
laboratory. If Do not mar, Forward to
ammunition mutilate or nick laboratory.
maker’s boxes head of shell.
recovered,
forward to
laboratory,
marking box for
identification.
Shot or Powder If on clothing, send Description of Clothing – attach Wrap clothing in
Patterns only clothing to garment tag to each article clean paper.
laboratory that containing shot or of clothing, Forward to
contains powder, powder patterns indicating source. laboratory.
powder residue or location of shot or mark lining with
bullet or shot powder patterns ink or indelible
penetrations. If on if on walls, doors pencil. Use initials
skin, doors, walls, or other of person
etc. consult immovable recovering.
laboratory objects.
concerning scaled
photographs.

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MODULE 1

HISTORY OF BALLISTIC AND ITS BRANCHES

1. Ballistics – Greek word “Ballo” or “Ballien” mean “to throw”

Ballistics is defined as the science of motion of projectiles.

a. Science – refers to the systematized body of knowledge.

Things involved in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

a. Velocity – speed per unit of time ex. M16 – 3,300 ft/sec.

The Italian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia, in a published work on gunnery, claimed

Further, exterior (external) ballistics includes:

e. Velocity – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

f. Air Resistance – resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

The development of high-speed photography and of the Stroboscope by the American

Other Contributors in the Development of Ballistics

1707 – Cassini suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity

1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England. He provided testimony as to some

a. Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target.

• the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

• its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge.

A. Wound Ballistics – it is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Differentiation between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential Points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

Determination whether the Gunshot Injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental

1. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

2. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

3. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance

a. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

a. Character of the wound

Studies Concerning Terminal and Wound Ballistics

J. Howard Mathews – chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In

Studies in Relation to Forensic Ballistics

R.E. Herrick (1920) – he published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.

Differentiation between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential Points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

Determination whether the Gunshot Injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental

4. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

5. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

6. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance

i. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

i. Character of the wound

Studies Concerning Terminal and Wound Ballistics

J. Howard Mathews – chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In

Studies in Relation to Forensic Ballistics

R.E. Herrick (1920) – he published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.

B. Types of Firearms According to Use

C. Unusual/ Miscellaneous Types – those that are unique in mechanism and

Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms or

D. Three Main Parts of Firearms

3.Frame or Receiver 3. Frame or Receiver

Precaution for Revolver

a. Obstruction in the barrel

AMMUNITION AND CARTRIDGE CASE OR SHELL

A cartridge or round is a type of pre-assembled firearm ammunition that contains a projectile

1. Rimmed type – used in revolvers .38 and .357

1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

1. Penetrators – pierce targets using a single bullet

Five Main Types of Artillery Ammunition

Artillery – Vehicle Ammunition

A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose cap of tungsten or another

Riot Control Ammunition

Shotgun Cartridge (Ammunition)

a. Bird Shot – small shotgun pellets