FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION AND INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

Ballistics is the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles,
especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and
hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance. A ballistic body is a body
which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by
ambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by
rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles.

Firearm ballistics is used in forensic science separately from ballistics information.

Firearm and tool mark examinations involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool
mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the
commission of a crime.

Branches of Ballistics

1. Internal ballistics, the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile, for
example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle;

2. Transition ballistics, the study of the projectile's behavior when it leaves the barreland
the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.

3.External ballistics, the study of the passage of the projectile through space or the air;
and

4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target. "Ballista"
is a gigantic bow or catapult whichwas used to hurl large objects such as stones at a
particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.(see illustration page 2) Today, the
word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police Parlance
to Firearms Identification.
CHAPTER 1

BALLISTICS

Technically speaking, it refers to the "science of firearms identification which involves

the scientific examination of ballistics exhibits such as: fired bullets; fired shells;
firearms; and allied matters, used in crime.

Legally speaking, ballistics is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and
bullets together with the recording and presentation by means of photography of what is
revealed by the microscope. It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic
knowledge, research and development, training, experience and education of those who
pioneered in this field.

BALLISTICS THEORY

Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as
bullets, artillery shells, rockets and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the
destructive action of such projectiles. The drag of a projectile moving head on is now
usually divided into three parts:

1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;

2. skin friction caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body;
and

3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.

The following are pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:

1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the
methods of calculus, studies which helped the rapid development of external ballistics.

2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now
usually called aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.

3. In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm's muzzle velocity.

INTERIOR BALLISTICS

It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the
projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing
pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies
only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.

Interior ballistics involves:

1. Ignition of the primer.

2. Flames is produced

3. Combustion of the gunpowder

4. Energy that is generated 5. Force/Pressure developed

6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)

7. Rotation of the bullet

8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the
relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the
optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the
related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.

The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many experiments in interior ballistics.
His findings justly entitled him to be called the father of modern gunnery.

Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the
first attempt to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder. The account of his
experiments was the most important contribution to interior ballistics that had been
made up to that time.
Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action - term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into
gas. Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the
propellant grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place. burning.

3. Bulk Density The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the
same volume of water.

4. Chamber Pressure - the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called
breeched pressure.

5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder
charge to the weight of the projectile

6. Detonation Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause

the high explosives to exert full power of shock.

7. Energy is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot pound means that amount of
energy, which would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of
one foot

8. Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces
vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.

9. Expansion Ratio The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains
of water) to the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).

10. Foot Pound the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against
the force of gravity.

11. Foot second- velocity expressed in foot per second.

12. Gas- a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great
expansion and spontaneous tendency.

13. Hangfire Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.

14. Knocking Power the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow
that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
15. Loading Density The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the
powder chamber (case).

16. Misfire total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which
is merely a delayed combustion, while misfire is a complete failure even to start
combustion.

17. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements,
it is usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of
water that a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its
normal depth

18. Pressure Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case,
chamber and bore.

19. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.

20. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation
is now used to signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a plezo-electric
device.

21. Recoil the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of
the bullet during the explosions.

22. Residual Pressure - the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left
the barrel.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the
muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. CONDITIONS refers to the natural
laws.

a. velocity speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.

b. energy fatal equivalent of a bullet.

c. yaw the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.

d. gyroscopic action refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.
In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation,
air resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves
the gun until it reaches the target.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet
after it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:

1. Muzzle blast the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding
atmosphere at the muzzle point.

2. Muzzle energy energy generated at the muzzle point.

3. Trajectory the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-
like flight - vertical drop

4. Range the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.

a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,.

b. Maximum range the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.

5. Velocity rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time. clearly.

6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

7. Pull of gravity downward reaction of the bullet 8. Penetration depth of entry on target.

Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will
consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance.

2. Accurate Range - The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.

3. Back Curve This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical
zone beyond the point blank range.
4. Ballistic Coefficient - The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during
its flight in the air.

5. Bullet Energy - the power possessed by a moving bullet; its ability to keep going
when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle.

6. Bullet Trajectory This is the bullet's path as it travels down range.

7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's where it neither rises nor falls greater
than path the dimension specified.

8. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be

expected to travel accurately and kill a particular type of live target

9. Extreme Range The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.

10.Flat Trajectory A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in
the bullet from muzzle to point of impact.

11.Gallery Range The indoor target range.

12.Initial Point The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight.
This is normally occurs at a range of about 25 yards.

13.Instrument Velocity the velocity of a projectile called measured by the scientific

instrument chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory.

14.Key-hole Shot the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as
a result of not spinning on its axis.

15.Maximum Point Blank Range This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path
stays within the critical zone. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum
point blank range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.

16.Maximum Range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.

17.Maximum Ordinate This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line
of sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the
zero range.

18.Mid-range Trajectory This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at
half way to the zero range.
19.Point Blank Range - Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel
before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target
that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.

20.Ricochet - The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory
(normal path) after striking a resistant surface.

21.Shocking Power - the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of
the victim.

22.Stopping Power - the power of the bullet that puts a victim out of action instantly.
However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the shot.

23.Target an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.

24. True Drop - the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target.
Zero Range- This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path
intersect.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration
of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety
requirements for target backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as
striking energy.

3. Terminal penetration depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target. Terminal ballistics also
deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's
flight as an integral and un-deformed body.

The flight may end in one of two ways:

1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

2. Its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with
the attributes and bursting charge properties of shots and pellets.

CHOKE When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it
is called true cylinder. The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle
end. That is, the diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of
the bore of the rest of the barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.

Chilled Shot - shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a
slight amt. of antimony

.WOUND BALLISTICS - It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug
within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as
the flame from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces
injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

1. Contact - gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.

2. Close discharge - 6 inches to 2 ft.

3. Distance Discharge - over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

SIR SYDNEY SMITH - founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later
Regis Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh; was one of the leading exponents
in studying entrance and exit wounds, powder burns and powder "tattooing" on human
skin and other medical phenomena associated with gun fire.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of
ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police
use as their guide in field investigations. This includes the following:

1. Field Investigations conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of
the investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking,
preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms
and allied matters.

2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by

thefirearms examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms,
test firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative
purposes, photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of
comparative charts, and the making of reports on the findings and observations of the
firearms examiners.

3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner
and the ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to

Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.8 Problems in Firearms Identification

1. Evidence Bullet

Determine the:

1. Caliber

2. Type/make of firearm used

3. Type of propellant used

2. Fired cartridge case (empty shell)

Determine the:
1. Make

2. Caliber

3. Type of FA used

4. Type of propellant used

3. Two or more Fired bullets

Determine:

1.: Determine if bullets were

Fired from one or two different

1. Caliber

2. Type/make of firearm used

3. Type of propellant used

4. Two or more fired cartridge cases or shot shells

1. Determine whether two or all were fired in the same FA

2. Make

3. Caliber

4. Type of FA used

5. Type of propellant used5. Evidence bullet and suspected firearm Identify whether the
bullet was fired from the firearm. in addition with requirements in No. 1 (make, caliber.
type of FA, type of propellant)

6. Cartridge case (shell) and suspected firearm. Determine whether the spent shell was
fired from the said firearm, in addition with requirements in No. 2. (Make, Caliber, Type
of FA used, type of propellant used)
7. Firearms, Ammunition, Shot pattern, Victims was clothing. Approximate distance at
which shot discharged.

8. Shot pellets and wads

1. Size of shots

2. Gauge

CHAPTER 2 FIREARMS

A firearm is a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at high
velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant. This
process of rapid burning is technically known as deflagration. In older firearms, this
propellant was typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or
other propellants.

Firearms are sometimes referred to as small arms. Small arms are weapons which can
be carried by a single individual, with a barrel bore of up to approximately 0.50 inch
(12.7 mm). Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using optical sights.

Firearm (Technical) is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile by

means of the expansive force of gases of burning

Sec. 290 of NIRC) includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all
other gunpowder. Firearms or Arm (legal - Sec. 877 of the RPC and weapons from
which a bullet, a ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosives.. The barrel of any firearm is considered a complete
firearm for purposes of Section 877 of the Revised Administrative Code.
Rifle long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance, with
spiral grooves to fire only a single shot. Musket - long smooth bored firearm that is
designed to prepare a single shot. Shotgun long smooth bored firearm having a barrel
of 25-30 inches long and designed to shotbirds in flight; long smooth bored firearm and
breech loading designed to fire a number of lead pellets or shot in one charge.

Carbines short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is designed
to fire a single shot through a rifled-bore, either semi automatic or full automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

22 - minimum caliber .19.18 if only used as toys, could not be considered as firearm.
barrel of any firearm Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of
illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec. 11, 1992). Single Action vs. Double Action

1. Single action a FA that requires manually cocking the hammer before pressure upon
the trigger when firing. 2. Double action a FA in which pressure upon the trigger
automatically releases the hammer. This cycle is done every time the trigger is pressed

General Types of FA According to Internal Barrel Construction

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

According to construction

a. smooth-bore firearms - have no riflings inside the gun barrel

b rifled-bore firearms firearms that have riflings inside their gun barrel1. Smooth-bore
FA no rifling (lands and groove) such as Shotguns, muskets and liberator.
SHOTGUNS

2. Rifled-bore FA contain rifling inside the barrel such as pistols, revolvers and rifles

Main Types of FA

1. Small Arms - include FA with one inch or less bore diameter. Examples: Shoulder
arms, Handguns & Machine Guns.

2. Artillery - more than one inch bore diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars, etc.

Characteristics of FAS

1. Class Characteristics - these were set even before the manufacture of FAs. These
are factory specifications.

2. Individual Characteristics - are determined after the manufacture of FA.

Significant Features of Class Characteristics

1. Caliber or Bore Diameter - determined with a bullet, shell, or bore of the gun.

2. No. of Lands and Grooves always the same in number.

3. Width of Lands and Grooves - how wide the lands and grooves. NOT always the
same.
4. Twist of Rifling either RIGHT or LEFT. 5. Pitch of Rifling one complete turn of bullet
inside the barrel.

6. Depth of Grooves how deep the groove or the height of every land.

FIREARM: IN ITS GENERAL CONTEXT

Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term
is used for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often called
small arms. Heavier firearms are generally referred to as artillery.

Mechanism

Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts: 1. Barrel - It is a long tube. It may
be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral grooves on the inner surface, as in a rifle.

2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel. It holds the
cartridge (explosive charge).

3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel,
holding the cartridge in the chamber.

4. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in some large artillery
pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed firing pin through the breech bolt against
a sensitive primer in the cartridge.
HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS

1. Pistol a handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols were invented in the
Italiantown "PISTOIA." Hence, the name pistol - arrived in Britain about 1515 as
German import.

2. Revolver A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel
which consist of different chambers. CARTRIDGE

REVOLVERS SINGLE ACTION LENT BODEL PRE-WAR ORIGINS OF FIREARMS

13th Century development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in Western
Europe. BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ - a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English
monk are both credited with gunpowder invention. • Most reference books credit Roger
Bacon, English monk and scientist, with the invention of gunpowder in 1248, and
Berthold Schwartz, with the application of gun powder to the propelling of a missile in
the early1300's. This powder was what we now call "black powder". 1118 Moors used
artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell of several Moorish campaign in which
artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and Scwartz. 1245 Gen. Batu, the Tartar
leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated the Poles, Hungarians and Russians.
o 1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DAVINCE as can be gleaned in his sketch of
steam powered cannon to his primitive wheel lock firearm.

Contributors in Firearms Development

 Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army Father of Modern Ballistics Horace
Smith Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of
breech loading riffles.

 Daniel B. Wesson An associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.

 John M. Browning - Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading
single shot riffle.

 John T. Thompson Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.

 David "Carbine" Williams - maker of first known carbine.

  Alexander John Forsyth Father of the percussion ignition. Elisha King Root
Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.

 Eliphalet Remington - one of the first riffle makers.

 John Mahlon Marlin - founder of Marlin Firearms Company.

 James Wolfe Ripley - Stimulated development of the Model 1855 riffled the
musket.

Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical revolver
bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army
1873 model, which became famous for its .45 caliber. . Other manufacturers followed
Colt's lead:

Remington and Smith and Wesson in the US., Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN,
Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the CONTINENT, until revolvers were in used in
every part of the world.Henry Derringer He gave his name to a whole class of firearms
(Riffles and pistols)

John C. Garand Designed and invented the semi-automatic US Riffle, Cal. .30 MI

Oliver F. Winchester one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers.

John Dreyse (1841) Invented a breech loading infantry rifle, the so called needle gun
because of its long sharp firing pin.

Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) He develop a serviceable breech loading artillery rifle.

Carl Walther (1866) Develop a reliable small caliber automatic Pistol. Paul Withelm
Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by the O German
government.
CALIBER OF THE FIREARM

The caliber of the firearm is the diameter of the bore of the barrel measured from land to
land in rifled firearm. It is expressed in inches or fraction of an inch by the American and
English manufacturers and millimeters or in centimeters there by manufacturers in
Continental Europe.

THE RIFLE

The rifle, invented about 1500, had spiral grooves in the barrel that made it more
accurate than any previous firearm. Smokeless powder was developed in the 1800's.
Breechloading systems replaced dangerous muzzle loading.

Rifle is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the bullet as it is shot. Rifles
are usually held against the shoulder when firing. Soldiers use rifles inbattle. People
also use rifles to hunt game and to compete in shooting matches. The parts of a rifle -
All rifles have four basic parts:

(1) the barrel,

(2) the stock,

(3) the action, and

(4) the sights.

The rifling in the barrel makes the bullet spin. Without spin, a bullet would not stay
pointed forward in flight, but would tumble over and over. The spinning motion increases
the accuracy of a bullet.

Kinds of Rifles

Rifles are classified by:

⚫ type of action: (manually automatic, or semiautomatic); operated, the name of the

designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington or Winchester); or caliber, Caliber
may refer to the inside diameter of the barrel or the diameter of the bullet. The caliber is
measured in millimeters or in decimal fractions of an inch.

There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated actions-bolt-action, lever-
action, and slide-action. These rifles have magazines (cartridge holders) that feed
cartridges into the firing chamber.

The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and semiautomatic-is operated by

forces caused by the burning of the propellant powder in the firing chamber.

1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock a door. When the
bolt on the rifle is pulled back, the used cartridge is thrown out and the hammer is
cocked. When the bolt is moved forward, it pushes a new cartridge into the firing
chamber.

2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech down and back up.
The down movement throws out the used cartridge and cocks the hammer. The up
movement inserts a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with a back-and-forth
movement of a rod and handle beneath the front part of the barrel. When the handle is
pulled back, the breech opens and the used cartridge is thrown out. A live cartridge is
inserted when the handle is pushed forward.

The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It weighs 8.9 pounds
(4 kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine. The M16A2 can ⚫ fire one
shot at a time, or three shots in a single burst. It uses a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.

Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of brass or steel.
Cartridges vary in size according to the caliber of the rifle. The names of some
cartridges include the year the cartridge was put into use. The classification of some
cartridges includes the caliber and velocity (speed of the bullet) per second.The jaeger
rifle of central and northern Europe was the first accurate rifle. It was developed about
1665. German immigrants brought jaegers to Pennsylvania in the early 1700's and gave
them new features, including longer barrels. The Pennsylvania-made Kentucky rifle
developed from the jaeger. Some Kentucky rifles were used in the Revolutionary War in
America (1775-1783).

THE HANDGUN:

Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other types of guns, such as
rifles and machine guns, require the use of both hands, a tripod (three-legged stand), or
a shooting rest. Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the
action) 1. The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other parts.

2. The grip is the handle of the gun, and the 3. barrel is the metal tube through which
the bullet is fired. The lands and rifling (grooves) are alternating raised surfaces and
channels inside the barrel. They cause the bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a
direct path. The shooter uses the

4.sights to line up the handgun with the target. Some sights can be adjusted to help aim
the gun more easily. All handguns made for target shooting have adjustable sights.
5. The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It consists of such parts
as the trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge chamber. The type of action determines
how the handgun is loaded andfired. The action of every handgun includes a safety. a
mechanism that prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally. The safety ensures
that the gun fires when the shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example, when the
gun is dropped to the ground.

Types of handguns There are five main types of handguns:

1. single-action revolvers,

2. double-action revolvers,

3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,

4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and

5. single-shot pistols..

Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder. Most pistols are loaded
with a magazine containing the ammunition. The magazine is a metal holder inserted in
the gun's butt (thicker end).

Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near the hammer rotates the
cylinder one-sixth of a turn when the hammer is cocked. This movement puts a
cartridge into line with the barrel and the firing pin. After cocking the hammer, the
shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer unlocks and falls, exploding the cartridge. The
Colt single-action Army revolver, first produced in the 1870's, is the most famous firearm
of this type.Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically hold six
cartridges. But, unlike single action revolvers, double-action revolvers do not require the
user to manually cock the hammer before firing. Instead, the gun is fired by only pulling
the trigger. When the trigger is pulled, a lock that holds the cylinder in place is released,
revolving the cylinder and cocking the hammer. When the next chamber is lined up with
the barrel, the cylinder locking bolt is raised into the locking notch, securing the cylinder.
The hammer then falls and fires the cartridge. The cycle is repeated for the next shot.
The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the single-action revolver is that
it can be fired rapidly. The Smith & Wesson military and police revolver is one of the
most popular double-action revolvers. This firearm was introduced in 1905.Single-action
semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device called a slide to cock the
hammer or the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the
slide is released, it moves forward and feeds a round from the clip into the cartridge
chamber. When the shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or the striker mechanism
is released, impacting the primer and exploding the gunpowder in the cartridge. The
explosion causes the slide to move backward. This recoil automatically ejects the empty
cartridge and recocks the gun. When the slide moves forward again, it reloads the
chamber. The most famous single-action semiautomatic is the Colt .45 automatic pistol.
It served as the standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces from 1911 until 1985.

IPSSC Firearms Training Courses Anatomy of a Semi Automatic Pistot The alustration
below is a representation of the parts of a typical sem autornatic pestol Frant Sight Slide

Slide Releas Rear Sight Posts

Hammer

Drucker/Safety

Muzzle

Tactical Rail System

Trigger Guard

Grip

Trigger Magazine Release

Backstrap

Magazine

Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action revolvers.

When the trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires the
cartridge. After the initial shot, the pistol begins to operate like a single-action
semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of the first shot forces out the empty cartridge case,
cocksthe hammer and inserts a new cartridge from the clip into the cartridge chamber.

Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting competitions. To load

a single-shot pistol, the user moves the operating lever (part that opens and closes the
action) forward and down to lower the breech block and to cock the firing pin. Famous
single-shot pistols include the Hammerli Free Pistol, the Walther, and the Martini.

The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun, which appeared in the
1400's. It was fired by attaching a burning cord or match to an S-shaped holder called a
serpentine.

In 1807, Alexander Forsyth, a Scottish inventor, introduced the percussion system.

Percussion-system pistols were loaded from the muzzle, with a sliding can of priming
powder on the breech.SNAPHAUNCE PISTOL
Rapid-fire handguns - One of the first practical revolvers was the Colt Paterson,
patented in England in 1835 by Samuel Colt, a U.S. inventor. In 1857, the U.S.
inventors Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson began producing revolvers that used
cartridgesThe Borchardt, the first self-loading semiautomatic pistol, appeared in 1893. It
had an eight-cartridge clip placed in the hollow of the grip. George Luger, an Austrian
born inventor, improved the Borchardt in the early 1900's. In 1897, John M. Browning, a
U.S. inventor, patented an automatic pistol that became the basis for later automatics,
including the Colt .45.

THE MACHINE GUN

1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of
ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20
millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge
holder called a magazine. Because machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled
by air. Machine guns are heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support. In
1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed the first entirely automatic
machine gun to gain wide acceptance. By the time of World War I, many different types
of machine guns had come into use.AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES LEGAL
DEFINITION it may be found in Chapter VII,

Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised
Administrative Code. It refers to ammunition as s "loaded shell" for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other
missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also
includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the Code.

TECHNICAL DEFINTION - Technically speaking, the term ammunition refers to a group

of cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridge- meaning a complete unfired unit
consisting of a bullet, cartridge, case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer
to a "single round". ORIGIN

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)

1. BULLET the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of
expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.

2. CARTRIDGE CASE the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes
called "shell" or "casing".

3. GUNPOWDER It is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted
to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and
on to the target.

4. PRIMER the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such action is called
"percussion."

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OFFIRE ARMS

1. Revolver cartridges

2. Pistol cartridges

3. Rifle cartridges

4. Shotgun cartridges
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMERS

1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE This type of cartridge is no longer used.

2. CENTER FIRE - priming powder is located at the center.

3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE - A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The

chattel cartridges of Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine
gun. This is a special type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular
hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge.

4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE - The simplest form of modern cartridge. The name "rim-fire"
is derived from the fact that this type can be fired only if the cartridge is struck by the
hammer of firing pin on the rim of the case. They can be fired in either caliber .22
pistols, caliber 22. revolvers and caliber .22 rifles. Rim fire cartridges can be further
classified into: a. rimmed type - used in revolvers .38 and .357 b. semi-rimmed - used in
super .380 c. rimless.45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine guns

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS

1. Penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet, 2. High explosives - burst before
hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of penetrating pieces or becoming a
high-speed jet of molten metal, and

3. Carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving
materials, submunitions (small ammunition).

Types of Shotgun
1. Single barreled shotgun- Loads, closes, fires and deloads single cartridge.

2. Double barreled shotgun - barrel or over and under. Side by side

3. Pump action type Shotgun/ Slide Action - The operated by means of sliding lever
under the barrel.4. Auto-loading shotguns - The same as auto loading rifles, the recoil
action reloads the gun from the magazine.

SHOTGUN-AUTOLOADING

Stock

Operating Handle

Extratar

Rear Sight

Front

Sight

Checkering

Heel
Receiver

Bolt

Magazine

Safety Switch

Trigger

Magazine Leading Port

Magazine Extension

Revoil Pad

Grip

Trigger Gard

Carrier Release

5. Paradox gun (can be a rifle or shotgun) - A muzzle-rifled at the last 2-3 inches of the
barrel, used to spin the paradox bullet Invented by Holland and Holland
Kinds of Shots:

1. bird shot - small shotgun pellets

2. buckshot - larger ones are used to

shoot such animals as Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass
or steel case at one end. They contain lead or steel shot instead of bullets. The caliber
of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The weight of the lead shot required to fit
the muzzle of the gun is the standard of measurement for the bore.

Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that is called .410 gauge
shotguns which actually means .41 caliber. The first shotgun, developed in 1537, was
loaded with small shot instead of one round ball. In 1831, Augustus Demondion
patented a cartridge that held small shot. Modern shotguns are single barrels, double
barrels, or single barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold several
cartridges.

CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which

holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.

It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm
during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence that
can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE

The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is fired in revolvers,
pistols, rifles, shotguns, or machine guns. These include:

1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.

2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder. 57deer

3. single shot - consist of si3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the
sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as a "gas seal" at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1. RIM the projecting rims of rimmed and semi rimmed cases serve the purpose of
limiting the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the
clearance, if any between the head and the supporting.

2. PRIMER POCKET - performs three functions:

a.) holding primers securely in certain position;

b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas

to the rear of the cartridge;

c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be
fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES -the "vent" or "flash holes" is the hole in the web or
bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer "flash" provides Ignition to the
powder charge. It is the "opening" or "canal" that connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.

4. THE HEAD AND BODY - the "head" and "body" constitute the "cork" that plugs the
breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas. 5. NECK - applied to that part of the
cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to prevent the bullet from being push back
or loosened.

6. CANNELURES - shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found
rolled into the neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to
prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.

7. CRIMP is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works
two ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers 58ngle unit of
projectileresistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the
burning of gunpowder.

8. BASE the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the
priming mixture; b) the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of
manufacture.

9. SHOULDER-that portion which supports the neck. 10.EXTRACTING GROOVE the

circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for the automatic withdrawal
of the case after each firing.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASE SHAPE

1. Straight all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered very rare but being used in so-called "magnum jet" Cal. .22.

3. Bottleneck - ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases 4. Belted - ex. .30 magnum

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS

1. Rimmed - diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body

2. Semi-rimmed - diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body

3. Rimless diameter of base is the same as of the body

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS

BASE

1. RIMMED - It has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of
thecartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon
in which it is used.

2. SEMI-RIMMED It has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the
cartridge case and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange.59

3.RIMLESS - The flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction
purposes, a groove around the case-body in front of the flange.

4.REBATED It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge
case.

5. BELTED CASE It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge,
the belt is for additional strength in high pressure cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES

1. Straight cased - where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.

2. Bottled-necked - where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in
diameter to that of the bullet.

3. Tapered case where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter
along its length.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE the primer

1. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and

2. Prevent the escape of gases

3. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.

Note:

Annealing - is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very
soft and ductile and very weak: when it is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard,
strong and elastic.

Belted Cartridge - A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The
cartridge seats on this belt, most "Magnum" cartridge case. Also called a European type
primer.

Blank Cartridge - Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder charge
and a wad to train the powder.Blank Cartridge Pistol - A firearm without opening in the
muzzle, the gas may escape through the hole in the top of the frame.

1. Center Pin - serve us a locking device for the cylinder.

2. Drawing a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process of
making case by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out
into tubes closed to one end.

3. Guard Cartridge - one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.

4. Rolled Crimp - One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into. a
cannelure on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper
seating depth.

5. Round One single complete cartridge.

6. Ruptured Case Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the gas has
escape.

7. Short Cartridge - a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.

Signal Cartridge - one containing vari-colored luminBULLETS (Projectiles)

Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred

to as a bullet that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power. Under
this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns although
strictly Speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called shot", "slug" or
pellets. In a layman's viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although
what is actually meant is a "bullet".

The term "bullet" originated from the French word. "boulette", a small ball. In common
Police parlance, a bullet may be called "slug" which is a colloquial term.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets: 1. Lead Bullets those which are made of lead
or alloy of this metal such as lead, tin and antimony.

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2. Jacketed Bullets those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such
as guiding metal and copper zinc.

64ous balls of the "roman candle" vaPurposes of the jacket

1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the target.

2. prevent damage while in the weapon. 3. control expansion

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Pointed bullet

2. Round Nose bullet

3. Wad Cutter bullet

4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet

5. Hollow Point bullet 6. Boat Tailed bullet

Flat Have Spiezer Safe paint

Boat Tall Spitzer Safe poin

Rowed Nove Soft Point

Round No Full Metal Jacket er solid

Hoot Tall Hallow Paint 65riety.

COMMON BULLET TYPES

1. solid lead point

2. solid hollow

3. solid paper patch

4.metal cased

5. soft point
6. metal cased hollow point

7. metalI point

8. rifled slug

9. glycer type bullet

10.quadraximum

PURPOSES OF BULLETS

1. .38-disability purposes

2. .45 knocking power subduing a maniac or amok

3. M16-fatal effects 4. Garand and Carbine - penetration and long range shooting

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Ball Bullets have a soft cores and are used against personnel.

2. Armor Piercing Bullet - have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles,
weapons and armored targets in general.
 3. Tracer Bullets contains compound usually similar to barlum nitrates which is set on
fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the
flight of the bullet to be seen.

4. Incendiary Bullets contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that

can be set on fire by impact. They are used against Explosives Bullets - contains a high
charge of high explosive and because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse that
will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of high explosive
bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.target that will burn readily such
aGUNPOWDER

It is a substance or a mixture of substances which, upon suitable ignition, releases a

large amount of chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is
to convert the propellant into a high of gas.

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:

1. Black Powder

2. (Europeans) the standard Ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and
Charcoal 15%. It's characteristics are: a. oldest propellant powder b. consist of irregular
grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface c. produces grayish smoke and
considerable residue is left in the barrel d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when
ignited

Qualities (typical to all explosives)

a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air b. in burning, it gives
off large amount of gas a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine-as-the major ingredients, mixed

with one or more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts
and etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) - pure nitroglycerin

2. gelatinized with nitrocellulose Double based Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the
following minor ingredients:

a. centralite

b. Vaseline phthalate esters

C. Inorganic salt 270s

3. Triple based Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine It was devised in an

attempt to compromise between the low power single based powders and high power
but excessive heat of double based powders.

4. High ignition temperature propellant - Its main constituent is from RDX group of high
explosives. It was moderated to the process of gelatinozation and was then developed
by Dynamite Noble of Germany in conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the latter's
G11K2 rifle. This is a caseless cartridge.

PRIMER

It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer assembly of center fire
cartridges consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition
pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foll), and a brass anvil.

TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer
in 1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) - two flash holes or vents invented by Hiram Berdan of New
York in 1850's..

PA PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION

1. Primer Cap - it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming
mixture, paper disc and anvil.

2. Priming Mixture contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently

sensitive to result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.

3. Paper Discs - this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming
mixture that will cause its disintegration. Its two-fold purposes: a. help hold the priming
mixture in place and b. exclude moisture

4. Anvil it is made of spring tempered brass place Inside the primer and it is on this side
or point which the priming mixture is crushed. 5. Battery Cap battery cap as applied to
shotguni primer serves as the main support for the whole primer components.

PRIMING COMPOUNDS

1. Corrosive - it has potassium chlorate - IF ignited produces potassium chloride which

draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun
barrels. CORROSION - chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust
formation or chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing. EROSION-
mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction.

2. Non-corrosive Mixture 25 yrs. ago:

a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) - 45%

b. antimony (element & fuel) -23% c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) - 32% fulminate of
mercury- 40%; barium nitrate-25%; antimony sulfide - 25%; barium carbonate - 6%;
ground glass - 4%

Types of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction

1. Single shot firearms- shoot only one shot

2. Repeating arms loaded with more than one cartridge in the chamber.

3. Bolt action type- breech closure is in line with the bore at all times.

4. Lever action type- the breech mechanism cycled by an external lever below the
receiver

5. Slide/Pump Action a movable forearms is actuated whichnparallel to the barrel.Semi-

automatic type- requires a separate pull of trigger for each shot fired

7. Automatic action type feeds cartridges, fires and ejects as long as trigger is
depressed.

8. Machine gun type (Heavy Machine Gun) used by military on combat. This is seldom
encountered by firearms examiner. The largest gun ever used in combat was

9. Sub-machine gun type (Light Machine Gun), A light and portable machine gun
10. Shotguns Gustav

CHAPTER 3 FORENSIC BALLISTICS

(FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)

It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It would
be better termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally
accepted in criminal Courts trials to establish use or possession of a certain weapon.

TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS REGARDING

FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS - are those characteristics which are determinable even

before the manufacture of the firearm.

It is categorized into the following:

a. Caliber

b. Number of Lands and Grooves c. Width of Lands and Grooves

d. Twist of riflings

e. Pitch of the rifling f. Depth of grooves

CHARACTERISTICS

DIFFERENT CLASS FIREARMS

Colt Type -.45 6L G2X

Grease Gun --- .45 6R G+

Smith and Wesson Rev. .45 6R GL

Smith and Wesson Rev. .38 5R G=L

Colt Revolver .38 6L G+ OF

78Colt Pistol Super .38 6L G+

Colt Revolver

.32 6L G+ Colt Pistol

.32 6L G+ Colt Pistol

.25 61 G2X

Colt Revolver

.22 6L G2X Colt Revolver

.357 6L G2X

Smith and Wesson Rev.

32 5R G=L

Smith and Wesson MRF Rev.

.22 6R G-L

Enfield Revolver

.38 7R G2X US Carbine

-.30 4R G3x Browning Pistol

9mm 6R G=L

Star Pistol --.380 6R G+

Llama Pistol

.380 6L G+

Beretta Pistol -.32 6R G2X

Astra Pistol -.32 6R G2X

Arminius Revolver

.22 6R G2X

Burgo Revolver

.22 8R G+

Marlin M57 Rifle

.22 20R G+2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - are those characteristics which are
determinable only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose
existence is beyond the control of man and which have a random distribution

PRINCIPLES EXAMINATION GOVERNING FIREARMS

1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION

a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all posses
individual characteristics markings.

b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and this
engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet
fire from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel
will be the same.

C. Every barrel leaves its "thumbmark" on every bullet which is fired through it, just as
every breech face leaves its "thumbmark" on the base of the fired cartridge case.
IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE CASES

a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual examination of

the bullets In order to familiarize with all markings appearing on it.

b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.

c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any markings

appearing therein.

d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not appear on the succeeding
test bulletsuch markings Consequently, such markings are called should be
disregarded. accidental markings which came from foreign substances.

e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly worn out there will be a
cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in the picture.

WHAT TO COMPARE?

1. Evidence Bullet

2. Test/Standard Bullet

3. SHELL Identification

IMPORTANCE OF FIRED BULLET IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

a. By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm used
b. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was
fired.

c. Can determine also the condition of the firearm

ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Breechface marks

2. Firing pin impression

3. Ejector mark

4. Extractor mark

5. Chamber-mark

TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (individual)

1. Impression type those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breechface
mark)

2. Striated mark those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet)

Take Note:Abrasion (in the bore) - Scratches caused by using improper cleaning
materials, or by firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering.
Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive action
of the bullets.
Accidental Characteristics - Those ate characteristics or marks left by some individual
gun that occurred on that particular shot and may or may not reproduced on any other
shots.

Ballistician - Person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the

courts and other investigation agencies. Definitive Proof after the gun is final ly
completed, it is again fired with a heavy charge to ensure against accident. This is the
definitive proof and guns passing this test are stamped with still another marked.

Expert As used in courts includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience. Fouling The accumulated of
a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid by-products remaining after a
cartridge of is fired. Heavy Rusting Usually called corrosion rather than fouling. Proof
Marks - It is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized authority according
to certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used
by the public. Provisional Proof the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a
heavy charge of powder to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled
into gun. This provisional proof and a certain stamp are placSecondary Firing Pin
Impression - Is a mark on the side of the regular impression usually found in pistols.

Shaving Marks - a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment
of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver.

Skid Marks - When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet
can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the
groove in the bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in
revolvers.

Slippage Marks - Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when the bullet
is small or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go straight forward
without turning and it jumps the rifling or slips.
Stripping Marks - scratches on the fired bullet due to Evidence Tag

Marking a Revolver Barrel, JBV 5-10-12 Frame 38V 06-10-12 JBV 06-10-12worn out
barrel.ed on barrels so tested.Marking a Pistol Barrel Frame or Receiver Slide
Magazine Upper Receiver Marking a Rifle JBV 06-10-12 Barrel JBV 06-10-12 Bolt JBV
06-10-12 Lower receiver JBV 06-10-12Ideal Packaging of Short Arms ELABO

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

1. Physical Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once submitted by
the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials
made by the investigator for identification purposes. If no identifying marks were found,
the firearms examiner will, before anything, affix his own identifying markings or initials
derived form the names of the requesting party, victim or suspect in that order of
priority. The firearm will also be physically examine to determine its safety devices
seeing to it that there is no cartridge inserted in the chamber that will cause accidental
firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital parts whether or not it is in operating
condition and a tag will be attached for distinction.

2. Test Firing The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test
bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison withthe evidence bullets and cartridge
cases, respectively. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case
and on the nose portion of the bullet with letter "T" (to represent test) followed by the
last two digits of the serial number of the firearm of the test to be made. 3. Microscope
Examination After the recovery of the test bullets and cartridge case, they will be
compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the Bullet Comparison Microscope to
determine whether or not they have the congruency of striations or the same individual
characteristics.

BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE Today, the most widely used and reliable
instrument in Firearms Identification is the Bullet Comparison. Microscope. With this
instrument, the firearms examiner can make a complete examination and comparison of
the so called Class and Individual characteristics that appears on the fired bullets and
fired cartridge cases Col. Calvin H. Goddard, MD 1st to own Bullet Comparison
Microscope in 1925. He is also the Father of Modern B cs34
FINDINGS/CONCLUSION

Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the
findings. A good conclusion is always based on good findings. In comparative
examination of the evidence bullet that are found on the periphery running from the
forward shoulder to the base portion (these are surface of the barrel), are discernible
with the test bullet or if they have the congruency, correspondence or intermarriage,
then the evidence bullet and the test bullet were fired from one and the same firearm.
For conclusive of findings, there should be at least three (3) tests that should be
compared. The first is for preliminary, the second is for confirmation and the third is for
conclusion. the sides that are in contact with the inner surface of the chamber. Clip or
magazine markings may also give discernible markings. Like the ejector or extractor
markings if considered singly may not be a basis for conclusion. As a rule, the point of
the examination and comparison is at the area of the primer proper where breechface
markings together with the firing pin impression are located. Primers are softer metals
and receive more prominent striation than any other portion of the base.

REQUIREMENTS IDENTIFICATION FOR A POSITIVE

1. PROMINENT Standing out or projecting beyond a Possessing firmness. surface or

line, readily noticeable.

2. CONSISTENT The impression or striation found on the evidence bullet or cartridge

case appearing in every test bullets and cartridge cases.

3. SIGNIFICANT - The markings have meaning or capable of being interpreted by the

Firearms Examiner or Ballistician.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN FORENSIC BALISTICS

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance Used for determining weights of bullets and shotgun
pellets for possible determination of type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
Determines the weight of fired bullet, shots/pellets to know its caliber, type and make of
FA used. Measurements are expressed in Grains or Grams.

2. Bullet Comparison Microscope This valuable Instrument is specially designed to

permit the firearms examiner to determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two
fired bullets or two fired shells, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a
single microscopic field.

3. 4. Bullet Recovery Box Consist of a wooden box, 12 "x"12"x 96, with a hinged to
cover and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated
into sections by cardboard petitions. Used in test firing to acquire test shells and bullets
for comparison. The same caliber or brand of ammunition should be used and
manufactured in the same year.

Original Design (Square) 1. Length 8ft or 96 in

2. 1ft or 12 x12 in on each side 3. inc thick = side 4. 1/8 in thick tip

Modern Design (Tube) A Length = 92 Inches

B. Diameter of body= 18 inches

C. Thickness of iron used 1/8 inch D. Frontal ring = 20 Inches5. CP-6 Comparison
Projector - An instrument very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope,
where 2 fired bullets or shells can be compared in one setting of the firearms examiner.

6. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece a measuring microscope to read the width of the land
and groove marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
7. Helixometer

Type of instrument is used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms. It is generally used in

high advanced ballistic laboratory.With the use of this instrument it is possible to
measure the angle of twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver barrel. It is used by the insertion
of a telescope aligned with the axis of the bore. 8. Machine Rest A machine used for
testing the accuracy of a firearm.

909. Caliper an instrument used for making measurements such as bullet diameter and
bore diameter. is used to determine the:

Caliper

1. Bullet diameter 2 Rim diameter

3. Shell mouth diameter

4. Bore diameter 5. Shell length

6.Barrel length 10.Micrometer similar in use with Caliper. The word Micrometer was
derived from Greek words Micros (small) and Metron (to measure). This instrument then
is used to measure small things and small distances. This is an enhancement of the
Vernier inventor.

Caliper. William Gascoine (17) first ever 9 Jean Laurent Palmer (1848-France) -
inventor of Palmer, which is used in measuring handheld objects. It was introduced in
Spain and was called Tornillo de Palmer,
11.Onoscope a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of
the gun barreldetermining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny
lamp at the terminal portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal examination.

12.Optical Sight sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being
contained in one unit. Optical sights do not necessarily have telescopic properties. The
optical system may merely include range indicating, or range estimating devices, plus
the necessary means of adjusting for elevation and wind age.

13.Shadow Graph Equipment used in firearms identification. It contains a series of

microscopic lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining fired bullet
or fired shells to determine their class characteristics and also for orientation purposes.

14.Stereoscopic Microscope unlike the bullet comparison microscope, does not have
any camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court presentation. It
is generally used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells to
determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for so-called orientation
purposes. It can be used also in the close-up examination of te ed serial@umbers of
firearms

BEOPTER

STERED

POP/ROTION

MY PLATE

LIGHTING CONTROLE
STAGE CLIPS1. Cherubin d'Oreans (1671) invented the first Stereoscopic-Style
Microscope with two eyepieces in 1671.

2. Honorato S. Greenough (1890) introduced a "novel design that led him to become the
Forefather of of Modern Stereoscope. 3. Francis Herbert Wenham (19) of London -
designed the first successful stereomicroscope. Thisnwas introduced in US and was
named Cycloptic in 1957.

15.Taper Gauge - It is used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms. This
instrument is very useful for giving quick idea as to the caliber of a gun.Comparison:
Ring measurer, used in determining the right measurement for wedding, graduation and
personalized rings.

16.Telescope Sight - an optical employing the principle of the telescope to enlarge the
image of the target.

16. Integrated Ballistics Identification System

17. FUMING CABINET is used in a fumigation process to develop latent prints from FAs
allegedly used in a crime.

CHAPTER 4

FIREARM LAWS

Sec 1. PD 1866 as amended PD 1866 Firearm law of the Philippines

Low Powered FA - includes rim-fire handguns, cal .380 or cal .32 and other FA of
similar firepower. Illegal possession/manufacture of such is penalized by correctional in
its maximum period and a fine of 15,000.
High Powered FA - includes those with bores of bigger in diameter than cal .38 and
9mm such as .40, 41, 44, .45.

BUT take note: Cal .357 > Cal .45 (has bigger bore) M16 > Cal .38 (has bigger bore)

RA 8294-amended PD 1886 (Approved June 6, 1997) Complete Title: "Codifying the

laws on illegal/unlawful possession, manufacture, dealing in, acquisition or disposition of
firearms, ammunition or explosives or instruments used in the manufacture of firearms,
ammunition and explosives, and imposing stiffer penalties for certain violation thereof" 4
years and 1 day to 6 years imprisonment Unlawful manufacture, deal in, acquire,
dispose or possess any Low Powered firearm such as Rimfire Handgun, Cal .38,
Cal .32 and other firearm of similar firepower provided no other crime was committed, 6
years and 1 day to 8 years imprisonment and a fine of

Php30.000 Unlawful manufacture... of High Powered firearm which includes those

bigger in diameter by .38 and 9mm such as Cal .40, Cal .41, Cal .44, Cal .45 and also
lesser caliber firearms but considered powerful, such as cal .357, and cal .22 centerfire
magnum and other firing capability of full automatic provided that no other crime was
committed.

If homicide or murder is committed with the use of unlicensed firearm, such use of an
unlicensed firearm shall be considered as an aggravating circumstIf the violation is in
furtherance of, or incidental to, or in connection with the crime of rebellion, insurrection,
sedition or subversion or attempted coup d'etat, such violation shall be absorbed by the
crimes mentioned.

Tampering of Firearm's Serial Number. The penalty of Prision Correctional for 4 years
shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully tamper, change, deface or
erase the serial number of any firearm.

Coverage of "Unlicensed firearm"

1. firearm which is unlicensed;

2. firearm with expired license; and

3. use of licensed commission of crime. firearm in the Legal sources of firearms

1. Firearms may be procured/purchased from any of the following sources:

A. License Firearm from dealer, through purchase; or B. Licensed Firearm from holder
through transfer or sale,

2. The firearms should be delivered by the transferor/vendor to the transferee/buyer

only after the previous has secured the corresponding firearm license and transport
permit.

3. The importation or purchase of firearms and ammunition abroad by individuals has

been suspended by order of the president (SOP No. 13 dated 19 September 1991).
General Policies on Possession of Firearms by Diplomats.

Sections 887 and 888, Revised Administrative Code and G. O. 7-B, SOP dated Jan 17,
1973. Diplomats shall include ambassadors, consuls, ministers, attaches and
secretaries of foreignance.mission in the Philippines including representatives of the
United Nations.

Under our present laws, the possession of firearms by foreigners shall be in accordance
with pertinent rules and regulations promulgated by competent authority.
Kinds of Firearms License(PNP Module on Police Tactical Responses)

1. Regular license (RL) is issued to private. individuals for their personal firearm and to
security agencies/company guard forces for firearms to be used by their security
guards;

2. Special permit (SP) Issued to government officials and employees for privately owned
firearms;

3. Long regular license (LRL) issued to private firms, establishment, or corporations for
firearms to be used and being used by their employees, excluding security guards;

4. Short regular License (SRL) issued to private employee who was issued by his
employer a firearm covered by LRL.

5. Long certificate of registration (LCR) issued to government agencies or offices

government owned and controlled corporations and for firearms to be used by their
officials and employees, excluding security guards; and 6. Short certificate of
registration (SCR) – issued to government official or employee who was issued by his
employer a firearm covered by LCR.

Carry and transport of firearms

1. Transport permit (TP) - a written authority granted to licensees or their authorized

representatives to move firearms from sources to residence, firing ranges and other
authorized destinations.

2. Transport permits for gun club members -a written authority issued by PNPFED to
accredited gun club members for the purpose of transporting unloaded firearms and
ammunition from residence to firing ranges and vice-versa. A maximum duration of 90
days Is granted to gun club members.
3. License to possess firearm and ammunition - a written authority for a person to
possess in his residence a licensed firearm and an authorized quantity of ammunition.

4. Permit to carry firearm outside residence (PTCFOR) a written authority issued to any
person by the PNP Chief for the duration and purpose specified therein.

Residence - where the firearm and ammunition are being permanently kept. It includes -
office or house and premises of the house enclosed by walls and gate separating said
premises from adjacent properties. Any vehicle is not an extension of a residence.

5. Hunting permit (HP) - issued for lawful hunting

6. Duty detail order (DDO) - serves as FA license forSecurity Guards.

7. Acknowledgement Receipt (Are) is a document that proves receipt of issued FA to

PNP Personnel. This shall serve as FA License to members of PNP.

8. Mission order (MO) - issued to PNP personnel when intending to carry FA outside
residence. This shall serve as "PTC." Manner of carrying firearms

1. The sidearm carried by a person in uniform shall be placed in a holster securely

attached to the belt, EXCEPT Military Pilots in flying uniform and the Crew of an
armored vehicle who may carry their firearm in shoulder holster.

2. The personnel in uniform but without holster and those in civilian clothes who are
authorized to carry firearm outside residence shall ensure that their firearm is concealed
unless in actual use for a legitimate purpose.

3. The practice of flagrantly displaying a firearm of tucking it at the waist while in uniform
or civilian clothes is prohibited.

4. Only the firearm specifically described in the permit shall be carried by the person
named therein.

OTHER TERMS TO PONDER IN BALLISTICS

1. Accelerator - A device used in some automatic and semi-automatic weapons to

accelerate the rearward travel of the bolt of breechblock by applying leverage at the
critical point in the bolt's travel. Any device of linkage designed to speed the movement
of some portion of the mechanical train.

2. ACP Arms Corporation of the Philippines.

3. Barrel Length - In interior ballistic work,this differs from the "barrel length" used in
general measurements. It is measured from the face of the muzzle to the base of the
seated bullet or base of the case neck.

4. Barrel Telescope - Instrument used to make a visual inspection of the inset of a gun
barrel to see a sign of having been fired recently, to look for leading or metal fouling and
to see how distinct the lands and grooves appear.

5. Blow back As pertains to automatic and semi automatic arms, a weapon in which no
mechanical locking system is employed. The breech is held closed at the moment of
firing by the action of recoil springs and the weight of the slide, hammer and other
moving parts.. A term commonly used to describe the backward escape of powder or
primer gases from the chamber around the breechblock or bolt due to split or fractured
cartridge case or punctured primer.

6. Blow Forward - An automatic of semi-automatic firearm having a standing breech, in

which the barrel is blown to open the action and eject the fired cartridge case.

7. Bore Centerline - This is the visual line of the center of the bore.

8. Breech Block - The steel block which closes the tear bore against the force of the
charge; or the face of the block.

9. Burr Hammer - An expose hammer having a serrated knob at the top to provide a
griping surface for cocking.
10.Camming lug bolts that type which employs one or more bolt locking logs which are
cammed outward from the interior of the bolt cylinder to unlocked the action.

11.Chamber the rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is inserted.

12.Cylinder revolver. serves as chamber and magazine and a

13.Cylinder Stop stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for firing.

14.Delayed Blowback Sometimes called hesitation locking the breech, although not
positively locked, must overcome a mechanical disadvantage, such as knuckle joint, to
open.

15. Disconnector - The lever in the gunlock which prevents the release of the hammer
unless the slide and barrel are in forward position safely interlocked.

16.Double Set Triggers - A pair of triggers so arranged that pressure on one trigger
engages the sear in such fashion that the slightest tough on the second trigger will then
discharge the gun.

17.Double Action Sear Built into weapon to allow double action fire.

18.EC-Evansille Chrisler

19.Ejector - The mechanism in the firearm which causes the cartridge case or shell to
be thrown out from the gun.

20.Extractor - That mechanism in a firearm by which the cartridge case or shell is

withdrawn from the chamber mechanism in a revolver that pulls the empty shells
simultaneously.
21.Extractor Rod - That mechanism in revolver that activates the extractor and is a
locking device. 22.FA Frankford Arsenal.

23. Falling Block Action -That type of action, which the breechblock is pivoted at the
rear of the receiver so that the face of the breechblock swings down below the chamber
to open the action.

24.FCC- Federal Cartridge Company

25.Flying Firing Pin - A firing pin shorter that the length of its travel in the
breechblockAlso known as rebound type firing pin Ex: Colt Government Model Caliber.
45 and Tokarev 7.62 mm.

26.Folding Trigger - A trigger hinged so that it can be folded forward close to under side
of the frame. Ex: Italian 10:35 mm Bodego.

27.Frame Part of the firearm that houses the internal parts.

28. Front sight - A protrusion or attachment above the barrel near the muzzle. It may be
fixed or adjustable.

29.Grip or Automatic Safeties - Flat lavers of plungers normally protruding from some
portion of the grip such position that when the hand firing the piece is squeezed around
the grip, by the firer, automatically releasing the firing mechanism. In most cases, when
pressure on the grip is relaxed the safety automatically resets itself, In a few instances,
it must bee usually reset.

30.Hair Trigger - A term loosely applied to any trigger which can be released by very
light pressure.

31.Hammer - mechanism in a firearm that strikes the primer.

32.Hammer Block Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer.

33.Hand (Pawl) Mechanism of a revolver which rotate the cylinder.

34.Hanged Frame - A weapon in which the barrel including the cylinder in the case of
revolver is pivoted to the forward end of the frame.

35.Headspace - The distance between the breech of the gun and the support for the
cartridge rim;

36. Head stamps Merely the letters or design. placed on the base of the cases by the
manufacturer to identify his product.

37.Inertia Firing Pin A firing pin assembled into the breech block and free to move
forward and backward. It is impelled forward by the blow of the hammer or striker and
backward by the explosions of the primer.

38.Leaf Sight Any metallic sight which is hinged at the base to permit raising it to a
vertical position sighting and lowering it to a horizontal position to avoid damage and
carrying leaf sight. Principle is usually applied to rear sight only.

39.Line of Sight - This is the visual line of the aligned sight path. Since sights are
mounted above the bore's centerline and since the bullet begins to drop when it leaves
the muzzle the bore must be angled upwards in relation to the line of sight so that the
bullet will strike where the sights point.

40.Mainspring mechanism in a firearm that provides energy to the hammer to activate

firing mechanism.

41.Metallic Sights - normally consist of a pair of front sight and rear sights.

42.Muzzle Brake - a device attached to the muzzle of a gun designed to deflect the
propelling gases emerging from the muzzle behind the bullet and to utilize the energy of
these gases to pull the gun forward to counter the recoil of the weapon.

43.Open Sight - any sight in which there is to tube or aperture through which aim is
taken.
44.Paradox Gun a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will
impart a spin to the patented slug that is used with it when it is desired to fire a large
single projectile instead of a charge of shot.

45.Parker size - a Gray rust preventive finish for metal.

46.Post Sight - A front sight resembling a post or one of generally rectangular of

quadrilateral design.

47.Pump Action Popular term for slide action.

48.Pyramidal Sight pyramidal design. a front sight of generally

49.RA or REM - Remington arms company.

50.Ramp Sight - A front sight mounted at the ramp, which inclines upward and forward,
a rear sight having a sliding member, which may be moved up and down a ramp to
change the elevation of the sight.

51.Rear Sight - The rear-most of a pair of metallic gun sights. It may be mounted on the
barrel, receiver, frame, slide, tang, cocking piece, bolt sleeve or stock; may be fixed or
adjustable. receiver bridge.

52.Receiver Sight - Any type of sight fastened to the

53.Recoil Operated - Pertains to automatic and semiautomatic arms, a weapon in which

the barrel and breechblock are locked together at the instant firing. As the bullet leaves
the barrel, the rearward thrust of the powder gases starts the locked barrel and bolt to
the rear.

54.Repeater Any firearm holding more than one round at a time.

55.Rolling Block Action - that type of action in which the breechblock rotates its about
an axis pin downward and backward from the chamber.

56.RPA - Republic of the Philippines Arsenal

57.Sear The lever in the gunlock, which hold the hammer until the released by the
trigger.

58.Semi-Automatic Revolver - are those in which the recoil from one shot plus spring
action revolvers, the cylinder aligns a cha2mber and cocks the hammer ready for firing
the next shot.

59.Set Trigger - An adjustable trigger design to operate reliable with a very light trigger
pull. Colloquially a "hair trigger".

60.Shoat Trigger - An absolute form of trigger in which no trigger guard was used. The
trigger was mounted in and projected only slightly from the frame just forward of the
grip.

61.Shoulder - Portion of a shell that support the neck.

62.Slide Action That type of breech closure, which is moved forward and backward
along guide ways paralleling the lower side of the barrel. The operating rod is properly
linked to the breechblock to provide the desired and closing action.

63.Slide Plate - Part of the revolver that provides access to the internal part..

64.Signal Radius - the distance between forward and rear sight. 65.Silencer - A device
intended to be attached to muzzle of a firearm to prevent or reduce its noise. 66.Single
Action Revolvers - Are those in which the hammer must be manually cocked.

67.Solid Frame - in a revolver, a swing-out cylinder or rod ejector type. There is a break
or hinge in the frame.

68.Spur Hammer - a hammer having a cocking spur.

 69.Stab Crimp - a series of small indents at intervals around the cartridge case,
engaging a cannelure in the bullet jacket. Both types of crimp are also used on high-
pressure cartridge to hold the primer

70.Standing Breech - when a receiver is not cut away at its rear to a point below the line
of the gun bore, the solid rear wall of the receiver is the "standing breech". In the case
of hinged frame weapons the solid rearward portion of the frame (receiver) against
which the heads of the chambered cartridge rest after the gun has been closed and
locked is the "standing breech". In a revolver or single shot pistol, that section of the
frame that supports the head of the cartridge in the cylinder or chamber is the "standing
breech".

71.Straight-line Hammer - a metal forced straight back by bolt action during bolt
reciprocation to cocked position. When released it drives straight ahead to fire. Found
on reising and similar guns.

72.Straight-pull Action - that type in which the rotary motion required to turn the bolt
locking lugs into or out of engagement with their locking recesses is applied by the
action of studs on the bolt sliding in helical grooves cut inside a bolt cylinder.

73.Sub caliber Barrel a barrel of small caliber inserted down the bore or mounted over
the barrel of a large caliber gun, permitting it to be used for practice work ammunition.
with less powerful, cheaper

74.Thumb latch - mechanism in a revolver that actuates bolt to release the cylinder.

75.Thumb trigger - a button design on or near the tang. It fines the rifle when depressed
normally bythumb pressure.

76. Trigger- the lever operated by the shooter which releases the firing pin and allows it
to discharge the cartridge.

77.Trigger Guard - the bent strip of metal that protects the trigger from accidental
discharge.e pocket.

78.Trigger Lever mechanism in a revolver that contacts the rebound slide to return the
trigger forward.
79.Trigger Spring spring that provides energy for return movement of rebound slide.
80.Trigger Stop - mechanism in a revolver that prevents excessive rearward movement
after hammer release.

81.Tube Sight a tube in which front and rear sights are mounted.

82.Turn-bolt Action that type of firearm which locked by the turning one or more bolt
locking lugs into locking recesses cut into the receiver.

83.U or UT - Utah Ordinance Company

84.Vernier Sight-metallic sights which may be adjusted for elevation or wind age by the
action of a vernier screw. Also called a micrometer sight. of movement transmitted to
the sight.

85.WCC-Western Cartridge Company

86.Wedge-type Bolts that type which employs a ramp or camp arrangement raised
lower, or moved to either side, one end of the bolts so that the end of the bolt or lug
thereon is wedged against a supporting surface in the receiver to lock the action.

87.WRA-Winchester Repacking Company