APPLIED SCIENCES

Physical Fitness and Performance

Influence of the Psoas Major and Thigh

Muscularity on 100-m Times in
Junior Sprinters
YOSHIHIRO HOSHIKAWA1, MASATAKA MURAMATSU1, TOMOMI IIDA1, AKIKO UCHIYAMA1,
YOSHIHARU NAKAJIMA1, HIROAKI KANEHISA2, and TETSUO FUKUNAGA3
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1
Sports Photonics Laboratory, Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Iwata-City, JAPAN; 2Department of Life Sciences
(Sports Sciences), University of Tokyo, Tokyo, JAPAN; and 3Department of Sports Sciences,
School of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, JAPAN

ABSTRACT
HOSHIKAWA, Y., M. MURAMATSU, T. IIDA, A. UCHIYAMA, Y. NAKAJIMA, H. KANEHISA, and T. FUKUNAGA. Influence
of the Psoas Major and Thigh Muscularity on 100-m Times in Junior Sprinters. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 38, No. 12, pp. 2138–2143,
2006. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate how the cross-sectional areas (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris (QF)3, hamstrings
(Ham), and psoas major (PM) in junior sprinters are related to mean running velocity (MV100m) calculated from official records
of 100-m races. Methods: In 44 sprinters (22 boys and 22 girls) aged 14–17 yr, cross-sectional images were taken at the upper thigh
and midthigh and midway between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae using magnetic resonance imaging. CSA of the three muscles
located in both sides were analyzed. For each muscle, the mean values of the CSA of the right and left sides were calculated and used
for regression analyses of the relationships between CSA variables and MV100m. Results: Stepwise multiple-regression analyses
produced prediction equations of MV100m with independent variables of QF CSA at the midthigh and PM-to-QF CSA ratio at the
upper thigh for boys (R2 = 0.38) and PM-to-QF CSA ratio at the midthigh for girls (R2 = 0.33). In the regression model for boys,
QF CSA at the midthigh had a negative regression coefficient. Conclusion: For junior sprinters of both genders, the higher
development of PM relative to QF, rather than absolute muscle size, is a factor in achieving a better performance in 100-m race
performance. Key Words: BODY COMPOSITION, TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETES, RUNNING SPEED, CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA, GENDER DIFFERENCE

A
thletes participating in different sports differ in
physique and body composition (18). Particular
characteristics of body composition and build tend
not only to typify proficient adolescent competitors of
specific athletic events, but they may also, in some
instances, distinguish between performers of different
levels of proficiency in the same event (27). Furthermore,
some studies have provided evidence that, compared with
their nonathletic peers, adolescent athletes show a prom-
inent development in muscle groups primarily used in their
competitive activities and/or training regimens (14,15).
Address for correspondence: Yoshihiro Hoshikawa, Sports Photonics
Laboratory, Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., 2150-1 Iwai, Iwata-City, Shizuoka
438-0016 Japan; E-mail: hoshi@hq.hpk.co.jp.
Submitted for publication December 2005.
Accepted for publication June 2006.
0195-9131/06/3812-2138/0
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISEÒ
Copyright Ó 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine
DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000233804.48691.45
2138
Again, a prior study using magnetic resonance imaging
provided evidence that elite junior sprinters showed a
greater cross-sectional area (CSA) in the thigh-muscle
groups located at the upper position of the femur compared
with their nonathletic peers (16). However, it is unknown
how the profiles of muscularity in adolescent athletes are
related to competitive performance.
In previous studies on the relationship between either
body size or composition and motor performance, one of
the main subjects examined was how the absolute and
relative masses of fat or fat-free tissue in the total body
could be related to sprint-running ability (6,19). It has been
shown that both absolute and relative values of fat-free
mass were negatively correlated to 50-yard-dash times in
boys aged 10–12 yr (12). However, information about the
extent to which the muscularity of individual muscles
contributes to sprint-running performance is scarce (17).
Several studies have reported that the force-generating
capability of knee-extensor muscles is a factor in achieving a
high level of performance in sprint running (3,8,10,26). In
addition, previous findings on electromyograms recorded
during maximal sprint running (22) have provided evidence

Copyright @ 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
that, for sprinters, the predominant development of certain transverse scanning of T1-weighted images of 10-mm
muscle groups acting on the knee and/or hip joints thickness was performed from the greater trochanter to
contribute to sprint-running performance. For example, the the lower edge of the femur with a 10-mm gap (TR 350
biceps femoris muscle plays an important role in the ms, TE 21 ms, matrix 256  256, FOV 40  40 cm, 2
propulsion phase of the constant-speed phase of maximal NEX). As described by Kano et al. (16), the images located
sprint running (22). In addition, a larger hip-flexor torque is nearest to 50% (midthigh) and 70% (proximal to the
needed to reverse the hip extension with a larger angular greater trochanter, upper thigh) from the greater trochanter
momentum caused by a higher angular velocity, and to to the lower edge of the femur were selected for
accelerate the leg forward within the shorter swing time determining the CSA of the QF and Ham. The actual
available (23). The psoas major (PM) is the largest of the percentages of the thigh levels, where the images were
hip-flexor muscles (7). Taking these points into account, it is obtained for the thigh CSA determinations, ranged from
hypothesized that, for sprinters, the muscularity of not only 47.6 to 52.1% for the boys (49.9 T 1.5%) and 48.1 to 52.1%
knee extensors but also knee and/or hip flexors can be for the girls (49.4 T 1.4%) in the midthigh and 68.2 to
significantly related to sprint-running performance. 72.3% for the boys (70.5 T 1.4%) and 68.3 to 71.6% for the
In the present study, CSA of the quadriceps femoris girls (70.0 T 1.5%) in the upper thigh. At the two positions,
(QF), hamstrings (Ham), and PM muscles were determined there were no significant differences between the boys and
in adolescent sprinters of both genders. The purpose of this girls in the actual percentages of the thigh levels. For
study was to investigate how the CSA of the three muscles measuring the CSA of the PM, after longitudinal scans for
are related to 100-m race performance. identifying the position of the lumbar vertebrae, a
transverse image of 10-mm thickness (TR 250 ms, TE 20
ms, matrix 224  128, FOV 30  30 cm, 4 NEX) was
METHODS scanned at the mid level between the fourth (L4) and fifth
Subjects. Forty-four track and field athletes (22 boys (L5) lumbar vertebrae, as described by Peltonen et al. (24).
and 22 girls) participated in this study. All subjects were For each of the transverse images, a single experienced
sprinters who primarily competed in the 100-m race. They observer who did not know the subject`s characteristics
were recruited as elite junior athletes of Shizuoka traced the boundaries of each subject`s QF, Ham, and PM
Prefecture in Japan to a training project of the Shizuoka using a computer mouse, and the CSA were obtained by
Amateur Sports Association. Ages for the boys and girls summing the pixels of the enclosed regions (Fig. 1). In
ranged from 13.9 to 16.3 yr (15.1 T 0.6 yr, mean T SD) and addition to the three muscles, the CSA of the total muscle
14.0 to 17.0 yr (15.4 T 0.9 yr), respectively. The mean and compartment within the image obtained at each of the two
SD values for body height and mass were 168.9 T 4.9 cm thigh levels was also analyzed and defined as the total
and 57.9 T 4.8 kg, respectively, for the boys and 159.3 T
0.16 cm and 49.9 T 5.2 kg, respectively, for the girls. All
subjects had experienced regional and national junior
competitive meets from the ages of 11 or 12 yr. Best times
in an official 100-m race within the 3 months preceding the
measurements ranged from 10.95 to 11.52 s (11.24 T 0.16 s)
for the boys and 12.00 to 12.97 s (12.48 T 0.21 s) for the
girls. The mean best records for the boys and girls were
lower by 9.8 and 12.3%, respectively (world youth records
are 10.24 s for boys and 11.13 for girls; The International
Association of Athletics Federations, http://www.iaaf.org/).
This study was approved by the Shizuoka Amateur Sports
Association and the Office of Sports Photonics Laboratory,
Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. and was consistent with their
requirements for human experimentation. Each subject and
their parents were fully informed of the procedures to be
used as well as the purpose of the study, and each subject
gave informed written consent.
Measurements of muscle CSA. Magnetic resonance
images of both thighs and the abdomen were obtained
using a 0.2-T scanner (Signa Profile, General Electric
Medical System) with a body coil to determine the CSA of
QF, Ham, and PM in both sides. The subjects were scanned
while supine with the knee and hip joints extended and the
arms folded over the chest. For imaging the thigh,
FIGURE 1—Cross-sectional images with the muscles outlined from a
longitudinal images were first obtained to identify the male subject at the upper (A) and middle (B) thigh of the right leg and
greater trochanter and lower edge of the femur. Second, the lumbar region (C).

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUSCULARITY AND 100-M TIME Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 2139

Copyright @ 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
thigh-muscle CSA. The intraobserver difference for the
calculation of the muscle CSA was tested by repeating the
CSA determinations 10 times in a pilot study with three
young men. The coefficient of variation (%CV) for every
CSA determination was less than 1%. The mean value of
the CSA of the right and left sides was calculated and used
for the gender comparison and regression analyses on the
relationship between the CSA variables and 100-m race
performance.
Data analysis. Descriptive data were presented as
means T standard deviations (SD). The official record of
the 100-m race for each subject was translated to mean
velocity (MV100m; 8.9 T 0.1 mIsj1 for the boys and 8.0 T
0.1 mIsj1 for the girls) and related to the measured
variables. Furthermore, CSA was expressed as a relative
value to examine how the development of a muscle relative to
either the whole body or other muscles could be correlated to
MV100m. The following were calculated: the ratio of CSA
to body height squared (CSA-to-ht2 ratio), the ratio of Ham
to QF in CSA (Ham-to-QF CSA ratio), the ratio of the
upper-thigh to midthigh CSA (upper-to-midthigh CSA
ratio) for QF and for Ham, and the ratio of PM to Ham
(PM-to-Ham CSA ratio) and to QF (PM-to-QF CSA ratio)
in CSA. The CSA-to-ht2 ratio was calculated as a variable
representing the relative development of the muscles
examined to the whole body on the basis of the assumption
that CSA and height squared are dimensionally equivalent
to each other, because CSA is theoretically a function of
body height squared (5). A Student`s t-test was used to
identify the significance of the difference between the
mean values of the boys and girls in each of the measured
variables. Statistical significance for the gender com-
parison was set at P G 0.05. A simple linear regression
analysis was used to calculate the correlation coefficient (r)
between each of the CSA variables and MV100m. In
addition, a stepwise multiple-regression analysis was
applied to develop a prediction equation for MV100m using
the CSA and CSA-to-ht2, Ham-to-QF CSA, upper-to-
than the boys (Table 2). However, the PM-to-Ham and
PM-to-QF CSA ratios were significantly greater for the
boys than for the girls in all cases (Table 3).
Table 4 summarizes simple correlation coefficients
between the CSA variables and MV100m, which were
expressed as z scores. Stepwise multiple-regression analy-
ses using the z scores produced prediction equations of
MV100m as follows: MV100m = 0.485  (PM-to-QF CSA
ratio at the upper thigh) j 0.386  (QF CSA at the
midthigh) j 0.016 for the boys and MV100m = 0.576 
(PM-to-QF CSA ratio at the midthigh) + 0.021 for the girls.
The raw R2 values of these equations were 0.38 for the
boys and 0.33 for the girls.
DISCUSSION
The main finding of the present study was that only PM
CSA, expressed as the ratio to QF CSA, was selected as a
significant contributor in the regression model for predict-
ing MV100m in both genders. At the start of the study, we
hypothesized that the CSA values of one or all of the three
muscles examined here would be related to MV100m.
Notably, it was expected that a large PM could provide
an advantage for achieving a better performance in the
100-m race, because it produces fast and forceful hip
flexion (11). However, the present results indicate that the
development of PM relative to QF (rather than absolute
muscle size) positively influences 100-m race performance
in junior sprinters of both genders. Furthermore, an
unexpected finding here was that the QF CSA at the
midthigh for the boys had a negative regression coefficient
in the regression model. This contradicts the report of
Kumagai et al. (17) in which muscularity at the anterior
and posterior sites of the upper leg was positively
correlated to 100-m race performance, although differences
exist between the two studies in the subjects (junior vs
TABLE 1. Descriptive data on cross-sectional area variables.

midthigh CSA, PM-to-Ham CSA, and PM-to-QF CSA Gender

Boys Girls Differences
ratios as independent variables. For the regression
(N = 22) (N = 22) P Values
analyses, the MV100m and CSA variables were translated Cross-sectional area (cm2)
to z scores [(x j mean)/SD]. Total thigh-muscle
Midthigh 144.0 T 9.7 121.5 T 10.2 G0.0001
Upper thigh 160.2 T 10.8 128.4 T 10.8 G0.0001
RESULTS QF
Midthigh 70.4 T 5.7 57.8 T 5.5 G0.0001
Upper thigh 66.7 T 5.4 52.7 T 4.4 G0.0001
Descriptive data on the measured CSA variables are Hamstrings
presented in Table 1. Except for the Ham CSA at the upper Midthigh 36.2 T 3.3 32.0 T 3.0 G0.0001
thigh, the differences between the mean values of the boys Upper thigh 15.6 T 3.5 14.1 T 3.2 0.1396
PM 17.1 T 2.6 11.4 T 1.2 G0.0001
and girls were significant. The percentage of the mean CSA-to-ht2 ratio (10j4 cm2Icmj2)
CSA for the girls to that for the boys was lowest in PM Total thigh-muscle
Midthigh 50.5 T 4.5 48.0 T 4.5 0.0346
(66.7%) and highest in Ham at the upper thigh (90.4%). In Upper thigh 56.2 T 3.8 50.7 T 4.9 0.0001
terms of the CSA-to-ht2 ratio, the boys showed signifi- QF
cantly higher values than the girls in the QF at the two Midthigh 24.7 T 1.8 22.8 T 2.3 0.0039
Upper thigh 23.4 T 2.1 20.8 T 2.1 0.0002
positions and PM (Table 1). Hamstrings
In the thigh-muscle groups examined, there were no Midthigh 12.7 T 1.2 12.6 T 1.4 0.8139
Upper thigh 5.5 T 1.1 5.69 T 1.4 0.7379
significant differences between the boys and girls in the PM 6.0 T 0.9 4.5 T 0.6 G0.0001
upper-to-midthigh CSA ratios for QF or Ham (Table 2). The Values are means T SD. QF, quadriceps femoris; PM, psoas major; CSA-to-ht2 ratio,
girls showed significantly higher Ham-to-QF CSA ratios cross-sectional area relative to body height squared.

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Copyright @ 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
TABLE 2. Descriptive data on the cross-sectional area ratios of the upper- to midthigh TABLE 4. Simple correlation coefficients between cross-sectional area variables and
position (upper-to-midthigh cross-sectional area ratio) and the hamstrings to the mean speed for 100-m races (MV100m).
quadriceps femoris (hamstrings-to-QF cross-sectional area ratio).
Boys Girls
Gender (N = 22) (N = 22)
Boys Girls Differences
Cross-sectional area
(N = 22) (N = 22) P Values QF midthigh j0.388 j0.469
Upper-to-midthigh cross-sectional area ratio Upper thigh j0.391 j0.257
QF 0.949 T 0.047 0.916 T 0.065 0.0730 Hamstrings midthigh j0.028 j0.122
Hamstrings 0.433 T 0.097 0.441 T 0.090 0.7719 Hamstrings upper thigh j0.232 0.397
Hamstrings-to-QF cross-sectional area ratio PM 0.216 0.323
Midthigh 0.517 T 0.056 0.557 T 0.059 0.0314 CSA-to-ht2 ratio
Upper thigh 0.234 T 0.048 0.269 T 0.060 0.0374 QF midthigh j0.078 j0.230
Upper thigh j0.057 0.097
Values are means T SD.
Hamstrings midthigh 0.239 j0.006
Hamstrings upper thigh j0.135 0.442
PM 0.370 0.422
senior sprinters) and the variables measured (muscle CSA Upper-to-midthigh CSA ratio
QF 0.001 0.319
determined by MRI vs muscle thickness determined by Hamstrings j0.239 0.472
ultrasonography). Hamstrings to QF CSA ratio
In the regression model for predicting MV100m in boys, Midthigh 0.251 0.324
Upper thigh j0.078 0.501
the beta weight, which is the regression coefficient for PM to midthigh QF CSA ratio 0.478 0.572
standardized data, was higher in PM-to-QF CSA ratio than PM to midthigh hamstrings CSA ratio 0.213 0.271
PM to upper-thigh QF CSA ratio 0.482 0.408
in QF CSA at the midthigh. This suggests that, for boys, PM to upper-thigh hamstrings to CSA ratio 0.348 j0.242
PM-to-QF CSA ratio has a high contribution to predict QF, quadriceps femoris; PM, psoas major; CSA-to-ht2 ratio, cross-sectional area relative
MV100m as compared with QF CSA. It is not known why to body height squared.
only the PM-to-QF CSA ratio was selected as a positive
contributor to predict MV100m, but the explanation might
involve the role of PM as a power generator for performing Another reason for the positive influence of PM-to-QF
the movement of the swing leg during sprint running. As CSA ratio on MV100m may be that some interaction between
described earlier, a larger hip-flexor torque is needed to the activities of PM and QF exists in relation to the
reverse hip extension with a larger angular momentum translation of the body during the ground phase, in which
caused by a higher angular velocity, and to accelerate the the foot makes contact with the ground. The ground phase is
leg forward within the shorter swing time available (23). In divided into two stages, defined as the periods when the
this task, it is reasonable to assume that the PM is a key center of gravity of the body moves either downward
muscle because it is the largest of the hip-flexor muscles (braking) or upward (propulsion) (22). The better sprinters
(7). The movement of the thigh during maximal sprint use the entire ground phase to generate productive torque at
running is a pendulum-like swing around the hip joint. the knee and hip, whereas the less skilled sprinters terminate
Because QF has a greater muscle volume compared with torque production prematurely (21). From previous findings
other muscle groups located in the thigh (2), it can be said of kinetic analyses of the ground leg at maximal running
that QF CSA represents the inertia load of the thigh for hip velocity, extensor- and flexor-dominated torque forces were
flexors when the leg moves forward. In this sense, the generated at the hip and knee, respectively, from foot
muscularity of QF might be assumed to be a factor descent, through foot strike, and into midsupport (20,21).
disturbing the leg`s movement in the swing phase as the During the phase from midsupport to takeoff, however,
inertia of moment of the thigh becomes a negative factor torque production at the hip and knee were reversed to
for MV100m. This assumption is partially supported by the become flexor and extensor dominated, respectively. The
fact that QF CSA had negative regression coefficients with knee-extensor dominance shortly after ground contact is
MV100m in both genders (Table 4). Therefore, it seems that essential in terminating the negative vertical velocity of the
athletes with high PM-to-QF CSA ratios have an advantage body and in producing positive vertical and horizontal
in accelerating the displacement of the thigh by over- velocity during the latter stages of the ground phase (21).
whelming its inertia of moment; consequently, these The shift from extensor to flexor dominance at the hip
athletes will perform well in the 100-m race. during midsupport seems to be an attempt by the performer
to rotate the trunk and upper body into the approaching air
TABLE 3. Descriptive data on the cross-sectional area ratios of the psoas major (PM) phase (20). This movement might be assumed to contribute
to either the quadriceps femoris (QF) or hamstrings.
to putting the extensor-dominated torque production at the
Gender
Boys Girls Differences
knee to produce the horizontal velocity rather than the
(N = 22) (N = 22) P Values vertical velocity of the body by translating the center of
PM to midthigh QF 0.244 T 0.032 0.199 T 0.028 G0.0001 gravity forward, with the PM acting on the stabilization of
PM to midthigh 0.476 T 0.073 0.360 T 0.052 G0.0001 the spine as well as hip flexion (25). Therefore, it is
hamstrings
PM to upper-thigh QF 0.257 T 0.036 0.218 T 0.032 0.0005
speculated that the higher PM-to-QF CSA ratio would be
PM to upper-thigh 1.139 T 0.238 0.849 T 0.189 G0.0001 advantageous for the effective transition of extensor to
hamstrings flexor dominance at the hip by holding a position of the
Values are means T SD. trunk and upper body against the extensor-dominated torque
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUSCULARITY AND 100-M TIME Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised 2141

Copyright @ 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
production at the knee in the ground leg. In any case, little
information on the activity of PM during maximal sprinting
is available from previous studies. To our knowledge, only
one study (4) has examined electromyograms of PM during
running at a submaximal effort on a treadmill. Hence,
further investigation is warranted to determine how the
activities of PM during maximal sprint running interact with
those of other muscles.
The regression models developed here explained 38 and
33% of the variation in MV100m in the boys and girls,
respectively. These values are modest. A recent study
reported that the fascicle-length values of the vastus
lateralis and medial gastrocnemius muscles were nega-
tively correlated with 100-m race time in senior male
sprinters (17). In addition, it has been shown that the
percentage of fast-twitch fiber in the vastus lateralis muscle
is significantly related to the maximum speed of leg
extension (28). Other than the CSA variables, the architec-
tural and/or qualitative profiles of the muscles examined
might also explain the variation in MV100m. Furthermore, it
should be mentioned that the present study used the mean
velocity calculated from 100-m race records as a perform-
ance variable. A 100-m race is divided into four phases:
starting block, acceleration, constant speed, and deceler-
ation phases (22). The knee extensors as well as the gluteal
muscles are the main accelerators for the initial accel-
eration phase (9). From the finding of Delecuse (9),
variance in the speed for every 2 m of distance during
the first 15-m of a 40-m running sprint is determined more
by the variance in the concentric strength of knee and ankle
extensors. Hence, we cannot rule out that, if running speed
in the accelerating phase during the 100-m race were
analyzed and related to the CSA variables, the result of the
correlation between QF CSA and speed variables might
differ from that obtained here.
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Copyright @ 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Apart from the relation with MV100m, the current study
is the first to indicate the magnitude of the gender-related
differences in the CSA of thigh muscles as well as PM in
junior athletes. For junior athletes, available information on
the gender difference in muscle CSA is limited to that in
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PM-to-QF CSA ratio provides an advantage for better
performance in 100-m races.
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