Tectonophysics, 220 (1993) 193-203 193

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

North Chilean forearc tectonics and Cenozoic plate kinematics

Tim S. Buddin, Ian G. Stimpson and Graham D. Williams

~e~~~e~~ of Geology, Unive~i~ of Keele, Keek, ~ta~or~hire~ ST5 53G, UK
(Received May 13,1992; revised version accepted August 21,1992)

ABSTRACT

Buddin, T.S., Stimpson, LG. and Williams, G.D., 1993. North Chilean forearc tectonics and Cenozoic plate kinematics.
Tec~ono~hy~~, 220~ 193-203.

The continental forearc of northern Chile has been subjected to contemporaneous extension and compression. Here,
cross-sections constructed across the forearc are presented which show that since initial shortening, deformation of the
forearc has occurred in two tectonically distinct areas. These inner and outer forearc areas are separated by the strain
discontinuity of the Atacama fault system and the tectonically neutral Central Depression.
The outer forearc, the Coastal Cordillera, exhibits extensional tectonics, with large (up to 300 m) normal fault scarps
preserved. These faults cut the earlier thrusts responsible for the elevation of Jurassic rocks at the coast above their regional
elevation. The normal faults have been re-activated, displacing Quaternary salt deposits in the Salar Grande. This
re-activation of the basement faults is probably due to the subduction of anomalously thick oceanic crust, pr~ucing an
&static imbalance in the outer forearc. In the inner forearc, cross-sections through the Sierra de1 Medio and Cordillera de
Domeyko show that structures of the Pre-Cordillera are best explained by a thick-skinned thrust system, with localized
thin-skinned tectonics controlled by evaporite detachment horizons.
Current forearc deformation features indicate a strong degree of correlation between subduction zone geometry and
forearc tectonics. The timing of Cenozoic tectonism also fits well with established plate motion parameters, and the spatial
and temporal variation in the state of stress of the forearc shows a close relationship throughout the Cenozoic to the plate
kinematics and morphology of the subducting Nazca plate.

Introduction serves the surface expression of neotectonic fea-

As a result of the extreme aridity during the
past 2 Ma or more evidence of several tectonic
phases has been preserved within the Chilean
forearc between 19 and 24%. This offers a unique
opportuni~ to study the tectonic controls on
Cenozoic forearc development.
The morphological subdivision of the forearc is
shown in Figure 1, along with the major drainage
of the forearc area. The forearc can be divided
into two zones: an outer forearc dominated by
extensional tectonics, and an inner forearc domi-
nated by compression. The outer forearc, the
Coastal Cordillera, between 21 and 23S”S, pre-
Correspondence to: Dr. LG. Stimpson, Department of Geol-
ogy, University of Keele, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK,
tures consisting of numerous high angle normal
fault scarps, some cutting Pliocene and Quater-
nary salt and alluvial material. The Atacama fault
zone, a major lineament since the Late Jurassic,
separates the inner and outer forearc. The Cen-
tral Depression, lying to the east of the Atacama
Fault, is a featureless plain above a Tertiary to
Recent basin, and is some 80 km across at its
widest point. The basin fill consists mainly of
tectonically undisturbed Plio-Quaternary lacus-
trine, evaporitic and fluvial deposits which be-
come finer grained away from the flanking moun-
tain ranges.
The eastern boundary of the Central Depres-
sion is the Pre-Cordilleran Sierra de Moreno and
Sierra de1 Medio in the north and the Domeyko
Cordillera in the south. The latter is a broader
range with only a poorly developed Central De-

~~-i951/93/$~.~ 0 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

194 T.S. BUDDIN ET AL.

pression between it and the Coastal Cordillera. Outer forearc tectonics

To the east of the Pre-Cordillera locally devel-
oped intermontane basins occur forming the The Cenozoic tectonics of the outer forearc
Pre-Andean depression. will be shown using detailed observations from
two areas: the Salar Grande (Fig. 11, and the
Coastal Cordillera between 21.5 to 23.5”s.

The Salar Grande

.-x \ I I I
7ow ,"O\ 69 66 67
The Salar Grande (Fig. 2) is an intermontane
PERU :
10 0 O’-
16'S
\ o? basin that has developed within the Coastal
Cordillera at the northernmost contifluation of
the Atacama fault system. It lies about 70 km
south of Iquique and some 5-10 km east of the
19
Pacific coast. The basin is approximately 35 km
N-S and 15 km E-W. The main basement lithol-
ogy is the Jurassic La Negra Formation with
Cretaceous granodiorite intrusions, which exhibit
20
clearly defined fault scarps and basement linea-
BOLIVIA
ments (Fig. 2). Many of the fault scarps observed
were probably formed in the Late Tertiary since
they control the development of Plio-Quaternary
fluvial and alluvial fan material.
The sense of motion on these faults is predom-
inantly dip slip, with surface breaks of between 20
and 400 m. The predominant fault trend is
NNW-SSE with less frequently occurring faults
/
/ trending NNE-SSW and E-W. The major basin
bounding faults trend from 330” to 034” and are
23
preserved as flat-iron surfaces often with a car-
bonate cemented fault breccia patchily exposed.
--I
Faults at the western margin of the Salar Grande
are more dominant, giving the Salar Grande a
half-graben morphology (Fig. 2). The basin
bounding faults and the E-W-trending faults rep-
resent the pre-Pliocene basin forming episode
with the E-W faults being the younger of the two
sets, probably representing a phase of N-S exten-
sion. Recently-active faults form well developed
NNW-SSE- and NNE-SSW-trending scarps in
the basin fill of Quaternary salt indicating on-
going E-W extension.

The Coastal Cordillera

In the Coastal Cordillera, the major lithologies

Fig. 1. Geomorphological subdivisions of the north Chilean
forearc and the line of cross-sections shown in Figures 4 present are the dominantly volcanic rocks of the
and 6. Jurassic La Negra Formation and a suite of
NORTH CHILEAN FOREARC TECTONICS AND CENOZOIC PLATE KINEMATICS 195

To Central Depression

Fig. 2. Geological map and cross-section of the Salar Grande. JZn = Jurassic La Negra Formation; &d = Cretaceous granodiorite;
QaZ = Quaternary alluvium; QS = Quaternary salt.

Mesozoic intrusives. The La Negra Formation
consists of an accreted volcanic arc with up to 10
km of andesitic volcanics and subordinate shallow
marine sediments. The La Negra Formation
shows both intrusive and faulted contacts with
Jurassic and Cretaceous granodiorites, and an
unconformable relationship with a Palaeozoic
succession to the east of the main Coastal
Cordillera.
Recent coastal fan deltas between latitudes
21.5 and 23S”S exhibit numerous features indica-
tive of relative sea level change at a higher fre-
quency than global eustatic cycles (Haq et al.,
1988). Marine terraces have elevations which vary
on both local and regional scales and Pliocene to
Recent alluvial fan and fan delta deposits exhibit
differential incision; both features suggesting a
tectonic rather than eustatic control on sedimen-
tation. Localized emergence and subsidence of
the coast is also supported by global tide gauge
196 T.S. BUDDIN ET Al..

records (Aubrey et al., 1988) which show maxi-
mum coastal uplift in the Antofagasta region
(Fig. 1).
The structural control on the development of
coastal fans and their feeder systems is clearly
demonstrated by the extent of catchment areas.
These are heavily influenced by the presence of
normally reactivated basement faults. Analysis of
aerial photographs shows that coast-parallel faults
generally produce localized, scarp-sourced fans
and NE-SW-trending faults tend to generate
larger, externally-sourced fans. The incision of
pre-existing alluvial fans by later fan systems, and
the subsequent normal faulting of fan surfaces
suggest small-scale movement of fault blocks
within the Coastal Cordillera.
Inner forearc tectonics
Field observations in the Pre-Cordillera be-
tween latitudes 21 and 22’S in the Sierra de
Moreno and Sierra de1 Medio show that
polyphase deformation involving Palaeozoic to
Pliocene rocks has occurred. The Palaeozoic
structural fabric involves highly deformed schists
and intrusives. These rocks have been deformed
subsequently during the mid-Eocene Incaic
orogeny, producing folds within the Jurassic cover
sequence which have axes parallel to that of the
basement shear zones. Oligo-Miocene intrusions
within the Jurassic sucession are deformed to a
lesser extent, probably as a result of later re-
activation of the major bounding fault on the
western margin of the Sierra de Moreno. This
reactivation produced intense but localized fold-
ing of the Jurassic cover around the fault
(Skarmeta, 1983) and can be inferred to be post
Oligo-Miocene in age.
Further east, in the Pre-Cordillera, localized
and intense chevron folding of the Oligo-Miocene
Sichal Formation occurs, close to its contact with
the Palaeozoic granites. The deformation is of

W E
Quat.
Plio.

Mio.

.
1 21Ma __’

Oligo

Eoc.

Palaeoc 6

Crel

-120km
Fig. 3. Chronostratigraphic diagram for the Sierra de Moreno showing location and duration of sedimentation and tectonics.
Arrows indicate periods of faulting. Control on timing from dated ignimbrite flows.
NORTH CHILEAN FOREARC TE.CTONlCS AND CENOZOK PLATE KINEMATICS 197

Cerros de Cordillera Salar de Atacama

Purilactis - de la Sal
Qua1 I,

Plio

Mio

J-1 9 d
-..” 1
local minor
extension

Incaic foreland ?

Palaeoc

Fig. 4. Chronostratigraphic diagram for the Cordillera de la Sal.

late Miocene age because these sediment are
overlain un~~fo~ably by ignimbrites dated as
5-7 Ma (Maksaev, 1978). This deformation may
well correspond to the re-activation event on the
western margin of the Pre-Cordillera and its tim-
ing coincides with the Quechuan orogeny ob-
served throughout the Andes.
In the Sierra de Moreno, at least 20% of
mainly Tertiary shortening is calculated from re-
stored cross-sections. The timing of deformation
is illustrated in the chronostratigraphic diagram
(Fig. 3). The last identifiabIe movement is latest
Miocene in age. In order to produce this shorten-
ing a linked thrust system detaching at mid-crustal
levels is proposed with the major thrusts dipping
to the west (Fig. 5). The emergent of the Pre-
Cordilleran belt is possibly controlled by buttress-
ing occurring against numerous Cretaceous and
Tertiary granitic intrusions.
In contrast with the Sierra de Moreno region
further north, the Safar de Atacama area (Figs. 1,
6) exhibits deformation characteristic of thin-
skinned, rather than thick-sunned tectonics. This
is probably due to the presence of a thick, evap-
orite-rich Tertiary sequence developed in the
footwaIl to the Frontal Domeyko Thrust. This
sequence has undergone at least four phases of
Tertiary deformation, each constrained by dated
ignimbrite flows as shown in the chronostrati-
graphic diagram (Fig. 4). Structures resulting from
 SIERRA DE ~ORENO
W E

Fig. 5. Schematic structural cross-section of the Sierra de Moreno.

W E
OUTER FOREARC INNfR FOREARC

Cordillero Cenfrol CordNero de Solar de High

de la Cosfo Depression Domeyko AfOCOmO Andes
0 b

6km

(ol$.&e~~
--*and M--
Iv - - 01 isi?
Ihe L# t&#m t-m;
g-J f%ZEZLd-+
Fig. 6. Schematic structural cross-section across the forearc at 23.3% ( x 2 vertical exaggeration).
NORTH CHILEAN FOREARC TECTONICS AND CENOZOIC PLATE KINEMATICS 199

the most recent deformation demonstrably de-

flect Quaternary drainage patterns (Jolley et al.,
1990).

Overall forearc structure

The overall structure of the forearc is best

illustrated by a geological cross-section con-
structed at latitude 235, from the Coastal
Cordillera to the volcanic arc (Fig. 6). 22-24”s

The rocks of the Coastal Cordillera have been

elevated on a deep seated thrust system during
the Eocene. The overall monoclinal structure of
the La Negra Formation would suggest that the
main thrusts dip westward and link to a basal
detachment that becomes shallower towards the
east. Thrust and fold geometries at the surface b

suggest that the thrust system underlies the Cen-

2F-30”s
tral Depression at a depth of approximately 20
km, and has been responsible for elevating the 75% sow

marine Jurassic back-arc sediments and the

Jurassic volcanic arc above their regional eleva-
tion. Subsequent erosion within the Central De-
pression has locally revealed Palaeozoic rocks
beneath.
The thrust front emerges approximately 50 km
from the volcanic arc, forming the Pre-Cordil-
leran Sierras. These ranges overthrust the eastern
margin of the Central Depression on a major
backthrust (Domeyko Backthrust). A mixed suite
of Palaeozoic granitic rocks and highly deformed
sediments form the core of the Pre-Cordillera,
and are thrust over a series of Jurassic-Tertiary
sediments and volcanics. The youngest rocks af-
fected by erogenic activity are of Plio-Quaternary
age.
On the western margin of the Pre-Andean
basin in the Salar de Atacama (Fig. 6), a thick
Tertiary sequence is deformed by thin-skinned
thrusting ahead of the westerly dipping Frontal
Domeyko thrust. The series of easterly verging
thrust culminations at depth identified on seismic
sections beneath the Salar de Atacama, continue
east towards the volcanic arc and may underlie
the Bolivian Altiplano.
During the Neogene, the outer forearc was
subjected to extension with the development of
large normal faults which presumably cross-cut
C
Fig. 7. W-E cross-sections through the subduction system
showing ISC major earthquake locations and selected Har-
vard Centroid Moment Tensor “best double-couple” solu-
tions. (a) 16-185, (b) 22-245, (c) 28-305.
the earlier thrust faults at depth. This phase of
extension has also re-activated the Atacama fault
in an extensional mode, controlling the initiation
of Pliocene alluvial fans and subsequently displao
ing the fan surfaces in a normal sense.
From the earthquake moment tensor solutions
(Fig. 7), it ca n b e seen that active thrusting is
occurring, predominantly in the inner forearc and
further to the east, above the same subduction
system that is producing the extensional effects
observed in the Coastal Cordillera. Consequently,
the compressional inner forearc has to be tectoni-
cally separated from the extensional outer fore-
arc. The boundary zone is probably the tectoni-
cally neutral Central Depression which separates
the Coastal Cordillera from the Pre-Cordilleran
ranges.
200 T.S.BUDDIN ETAL.

Forearc seismotectonics three sections through the Wadati-Benioff zone,

The present day morphology of the subducting
Nazca oceanic plate can be determined from the
spatial distribution of earthquake hypocentral lo-
cations. The eastward dip of the subducting slab
beneath the north Chilean forearc varies greatly
from about 5 to over 25”. The majority of seismic
events in the forearc originate from within or at
the margins of the subducting slab (Fig. 7a-c).
Selected centroid moment tensor “best double
couple” solutions (Giardini, 1984; Dziewonski et
al., 1983a-c, 1984a-c, 1985a-d, 1986a-c) along
having contrasting slab dips, imply differences in
the state of stress both within the slab and the
over-riding forearc.
The section between latitudes 16 and 18’S
(Fig. 7a) shows an initial Wadati-Benioff zone dip
of around 10” and a slight flattening beneath the
forearc. The events from the area within the
subducting slab show high angle normal fault
focal mechanism solutions indicating within slab
tension, with the tension axes orientated slightly
to the north of east. The continental lithosphere
above the subducting slab shows a significant

CONVERGENCE RATE SOMa TO PRESENT

200

0
IO 20 40 SO 60

CONVERGENCE DIRECTION SO Ma TO PRESENT

--- QPTHOGONAL

140'
10 20 30 40 SO 60
2
Ma t-

Fig. 8. (a) Convergence rate and (b) convergence angle (with error bounds) for the last 50 Ma, recalculated for the latitude of north
Chile from the data of Pardo-Casas and Molnar (1987).
NORTH CHILEAN FOREARC ECTONICS AND CENOZOIC
amount of seismic& indicating a degree of inter-
action between the subducting and over-riding
plates. In contrast to the state of stress within the
subducting slab, events occurring within the
over-riding continent indicate compression to be
predominant, with the development of fairly high
angle thrust faults. Shallow level thrusting occurs
beneath the Pre-Cord~ler~ ranges, the Alti-
plano and the Eastern Cordilleran thrust belt.
A similar “flat slab” type subduction is also
observed on the section at 28-30”s (Fig. 7~). This
would suggest that the northern part of the fore-
arc is undergoing broadly similar deformation to
that occurring in the region where the anomalous
oceanic lithosphere of the Juan-Fernandez Ridge
is being subducted. The subduction in the north
is presumably being influenced by the oblique
subduction of the Iquique ridge between Iquique
and Antofagasta (Fig. 1).
The section illustrated at 22-24”s (Fig. 7b) is
an area of relatively uniform, steeper subduction
(appro~mately 25” to the east). It illustrates a
predominance of earthquakes with extensional
source mechanisms located within the subducting
lithosphere. The absence of earthquakes in the
over-riding continental lithosphere indicates re-
duced interaction between the two plates.
Forearc plate kinematics
The present convergence rate of the Nazca
and South American plates is high (84-93 mm/yr,
DeMets et al., 1990; Minster and Jordan, 1978).
The sea-floor topography is characterized by sev-
eral linear ridges of anomalously thick oceanic
lithosphere formed at the spreading centre and
trending NE-SW. The maximum topographic ex-
pression of these aseismic ridges is up to 2.5 km
above the surrounding sea-floor indicating their
buoyancy relative to normal oceanic lithosphere.
Pardo-Casas and Molnar (1987) computed the
relative plate motions of the Nazca and South
American plates since the Late Cretaceous, in-
corporating reasonable uncertainty estimates. Us-
ing this model, convergence rate and direction
have been recalculated for the latitude of north
Chile (Fig. 8). The change in convergence rate
through time shows a strong correlation with the
PLATE KINEMATICS 201
timing of tectonism within the ~ntinental forearc
as illustrated in the chronostratigraphic diagrams
(Figs. 3, 5). Both the mid-Eocene Incaic orogeny
and the Mio-Pliocene Quechuan orogeny were
coincident with a rapid increase in convergence
rate.
Discussion
There appears to be a significant link between
kinematics of subduction and forearc tectonics.
The most striking correlation is that during peri-
ods of rapid convergence (> 100 mm/yr> the
inner forearc undergoes significant compression
and during phases of slow ~nvergence ( < 70
mm/yr) the forearc becomes tectonically passive.
In the present day outer forearc, extension and
regional uplift predominate. However, local uplift
occurs in the vicinity of the subduction of anoma-
lous oceanic lithosphere. The effects of subduct-
ing an aseismic ridge have been documented at
n~erous subduction zones, and their overlying
forearc areas (Machare et al., 1986; Adamek and
Tajima, 1987; Cashman and Kelsey, 1990; Corri-
gan et al., 1990). In general, the outer forearc
tends to respond in a flexural way to the subduct-
ing plate with the necessity for constant isostatic
readjustment of the coastal ranges in response to
variation in the subducting plate morpholo~.
The observed segregation of the inner and
outer forearc areas can be explained using the
continuum model of Wdowinski et al. (19891,
originally used to explain the width of the Alti-
plano. This predicts that during shallow subduc-
tion, an area of extreme compression develops
next to the mantle wedge tip corresponding to
the inner forearc region close to the volcanic arc.
Extension may occur elsewhere, such as in the
outer forearc.
Isacks (1988) suggested that the elevation of
the Altiplano is maintained by compression of the
Andes as a whole and the response of the litho-
sphere to this compression is determined by the
presence of the asthenospheric wedge that pro-
duces thermal thinning. Hence the lithosphere is
weakened and this facilitates the shortening dur-
ing compression. The localization of the compres-
sive deformation of northern Chile to the inner
202
forearc during the Quechu~ orogeny would sup-
port this hypothesis.
Work by various authors (Jordan and Alonso,
1987; Isacks, 1988; Roeder, 1988) suggests a link
between the plate parameters and foreland de-
formation, albeit with an inherent time lag
(Sarewitz, 1988). Comparing the deformation in
the forearc to episodes and styles of deformation
further east in the Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia
and its foreland is very conjectural. However,
Roeder’s (1988) trans-crustal thrust, if continued
sub-horizontally beneath the Altiplano, may link
with the basal detachment modelled in the sec-
tions described above, which occurs at a similar
depth. This would involve a southeastward ex-
trapolation of this thrust of the order of 300 km.
There appears to be a demonstrable link be-
tween Tertiary to Recent plate kinematics, the
timing of defo~ation and structural style within
the north Chilean forearc, and this concept possi-
bly applies to the whole of the Andes. This may
have important impli~tions for tectonic studies
of ancient continental forearcs.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge valuable con-
sultation with colleagues Elizabeth Jolley, Peter
Turner, Adrian Hartley and Steven Flint. Logisti-
cal support in Chile provided by Guillermo Chong
Diaz was greatly appreciated. Paul Brockbank is
thanked for assistance in the field. Tim Buddin
acknowledges N.E.R.C. award GT4/88/GS/46.
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