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Geology

Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex of the central Andes

S. L. de Silva

Geology 1989;17;1102-1106
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<1102:APVCOT>2.3.CO;2

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Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex of the central Andes

S. L. de Silva
Lunar & Planetary Institute, 3303 NASA Road 1, Houston, Texas 77058

ABSTRACT
Since the late Miocene an ignimbrite flare-up has resulted in a major volcano-tectonic
province, the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, in the lat 21° to 24°S part of the Central
Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The dominant elements of the complex, which defines an area of
about 50000 km 2 between the Atacama basin and the Altiplano, are several large nested
caldera complexes which are the source structures for the major regionally distributed ignim-
brite sheets that characterize the complex. The chemical and physical characteristics of these
ignimbrites are best reconciled with an origin by large-scale crustal melting. The timing of the
ignimbrite flare-up coincides well with thickening of the Central Volcanic Zone crust just prior
to the late Miocene, and the coincidence of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex with the
thickest part of this crust ( - 7 0 km) points to a cause and effect relation. Crustal melting in
response to crustal thickening and the heat input from subduction-related magmas is suggested
to have resulted in large-scale silicic magmatism. Diapiric uprise of these magmas into a zone of
tectonically weakened crust due to strike-slip tectonics associated with the Atacama basin
resulted in major ignimbrite eruptions and the formation of the calderas of the Altiplano-Puna
volcanic complex.

INTRODUCTION
The Andean mountain chain is the type ex-
ample of subduction of oceanic lithosphere be-
neath a continental margin; the Nazca plate de-
scends beneath the western margin of the
continental South American plate. The Central
Volcanic Zone, extending from lat 14° to 28°S,
is one of three major active volcanic zones rec-
ognized along this margin (Fig. 1), and it con-
tains 50 recently active volcanoes (Francis and
de Silva, 1989). The volcanic zone lies above an
exceptionally thick crust ( - 7 0 km; James,
1971) which resulted from tectonic shortening
about 12-10 Ma (e.g., Isacks, 1988). Whereas
the young volcanoes are the most obvious vol-
canic expression in this region, they are built on
an extensive plateau of upper Tertiary ignim-
brites that forms one of the most extensive
young ignimbrite provinces in the world. Large-
scale ignimbrite volcanism that produces re-
gionally extensive crystal-rich, dacitic ignimbrites
with volumes in excess of 1000 km 3 is a charac-

Figure 1. Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of Andes.

Shaded region shows approximate extent of
upper Tertiary to Holocene volcanic rocks.
Dashed line is approximate outline of Altiplano.
Well-known volcanic centers include (a) Volcan
San Pedro (O'Callaghan and Francis, 1986),
(b) Cerro Purico (Hawkesworth et al., 1982), and
(c) Cerro Galan (Francis and Baker, 1978). Inset
map depicts relation of Central Volcanic Zone to
other volcanically active segments of Andes and
subduction geometry. NVZ and SVZ are Northern
and Southern volcanic zones of Andes.

1102 GEOLOGY, v. 17, p. 1102-1106, December 1989

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on September 14, 2012

teristic of this region and has been virtually con-
tinuous since its inception ~23 Ma (de Silva,
1989a). This volcanism is temporally and genet-
ically related to tectonic events that shaped the
major structural features of the region (e.g.,
Guest, 1969; Noble et al., 1974).
A major volcano-tectonic province, the Alti-
plano Puna volcanic complex has developed be-
tween lat 21° and 24°S (Fig. 2) in response to a
late Miocene ignimbrite flare-up. The high ele-
vation of the region, coupled with the arid cli-
68°30"W 67°30'W
21°3(rS
¿ BOLIVIA •
\ cc
mate that has prevailed for much of the Tertiary
(Galli-Olivier, 1967), has resulted in excellent
preservation and exposure of the geologic char-
acter. Although the region is logistically and
physically difficult to work in, it is an almost
ideal natural laboratory in which to study the
development and evolution of a major volcano-
tectonic province in a continental margin setting.
In this paper I discuss the main factors contribut-
ing to the inception, siting, and development of
the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.
66°30'W
&/ /
2i°30'S
IGNIMBRITE VOLCANISM IN THE
CENTRAL VOLCANIC ZONE
Available geologic and radiometric age in-
formation indicates that ignimbrite volcanism
was not contemporaneous throughout the cen-
tral Andes, and there appear to be regional vari-
ations in the onset of activity (Lahsen, 1982; de
Silva, 1989a). Whereas a general southward mi-
gration with time is apparent, a definite kick in
the ages at about lat 21°S is more obvious (Fig.
3). For example, between 21° and 26°S, no
large ignimbrites older than 10.6 Ma are known
(de Silva, 1989a), whereas to the north at
~20°30'S, the Altos de Pica Formation repre-
sents ignimbrite activity at 15-17 Ma (Baker
and Francis, 1978), and the Oxaya Formation
(18°30'S) represents ignimbrite activity between
18 and 23 Ma (Lahsen, 1982).
Throughout the Altiplano-Puna volcanic
complex, effusive andesitic volcanism domi-
nated throughout the late Tertiary until the late
Miocene. From the late Miocene to the earliest
Pleistocene, volcanism was dominated by vo-
luminous and extensive ignimbrite eruptions, the
products of which now form the San Bartolo
and Silapeti Groups (de Silva, 1989a). I have
estimated (de Silva, 1988) that at least 10000

22°30'S 22°30'S
•4. CG
\ • 18 i 1 : 1 r

,1 • ) I
ARGENTINA
19
CHILE i ^ I \
3 • /->D..

20

23°30'S 23°30'S 2!
t/5
o
W
Q
22
H
* •
s
68°30'W 67°30'W 66°30'W
23 *
0 50 100

km

26
l U i t Hfc* Caldera collapse scarp Major structural lineaments

x- - i - x Inferred collapse scarp Major normal faults

— Major faults associated with caldera

<jf¡¡¡¡? Silicic domes (>1 km 3 )
27
^ Outline of resurgent centers Salars

• Individual stratovolcanoes (—10 Ma to present)

§ International frontiers

_^ % Alignment of stratovolcanoes

25 20 15 10
Figure 2. Map showing major volcanic and tectonic features of Altipiano-Puna volcanic complex. Ma
Major calderas: PG—Cerro Pastos Grandes; P—Cerro Panizos; CC—Cerro Corutu; CG—Cerro
Guacha; LP—La Pacana; other ignimbrite centers include Cerro Purico (CPu) and Cerro Chaxas Figure 3. Variation with latitude of K-Ar
(Ch). Two calderas in Argentina are also part of volcanic complex, but little is known about these. ages of ignimbrites in Central Volcanic
SAsc = Salar de Ascotan; SAC = Salar de Aguas Calientes. SM = Sol de Manana and ET = El Zone. Data sources in Lahsen (1982)
Tatio, active geothermal fields. and de Silva (1989a, 1989b).

GEOLOGY, December 1989 1103

 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on September 14, 2012
km 3 of ignimbrite were erupted in the complex
during this phase of volcanism, and I have
pointed out the volumetric dominance of ignim-
brites and related silicic volcanic rocks over con-
temporaneous mafic volcanics; a ratio of ignim-
brite (dacite) to andesite of about 6:1 has been
estimated. Even though comparative erosion
rates may artificially bias estimates toward the
andesites, this contrasts sharply with the 1:5
ratio estimated by Baker and Francis (1978) for
the 19°30' to 21°30'S part of the Central Vol-
canic Zone, a ratio that also seems to character-
ize the rest of the zone. It therefore appears that
the late Tertiary was characterized by an ignim-
brite flare-up between 21°S and, at least, 24°S—
older ages for ignimbrites start appearing south
of 26°S, but there is a data gap between 24° and
26°S.
CALDERAS
Several caldera complexes are associated with
the ignimbrites (Fig. 2), and although studies of
these are in their preliminary stages, much valu-
able information has been gained. All of these
appear to be complex nested structures with evo-
lutionary histories spanning several millions of
years, and it is apparent that they have served as
the major pathways for silicic magmas through-
out the ignimbrite flare-up.
The largest of these structures is the La Pa-
cana Complex, which covers an area of about
100 x 70 km 2 , largely within northern Chile
(Fig. 2). This complex consists of several dis-
crete ignimbrite centers that temporally, spa-
tially, and structurally overlap (de Silva et al.,
1988a). These include the 65 x 35 km La Pa-
cana caldera (Gardeweg and Ramirez, 1987),
Cerro Guacha, and the 1.3 Ma to Holocene Pu-
rico complex (Baker, 1981). The La Pacana cal-
dera is a complicated nested caldera with a long
history ranging from about 5.6 to at least 2.3 Ma
(de Silva et al., 1988a). Cerro Guacha has un-
dergone two major collapse and resurgence epi-
sodes, one at about 4.1 Ma (de Silva, 1989,
unpub. data). The most recent activity from the
La Pacana Complex occurred at < 10 ka and is
associated with the Purico complex.
Cerro Pastos Grandes is the source of ignim-
brites dated at 3.2 Ma, 5.6 Ma, and possibly 8.1
Ma (de Silva and Francis, 1989). More recent
activity from the caldera is represented by young
rhyolitic flows and domes which, on the basis of
morphological criteria, are less than 10 ka. An
active geothermal system is also associated with
the caldera. Cerro Panizos is an enigmatic
"downsag" caldera with an eruptive history
spanning several millions of years (Ort et al.,
1987). Although no major ignimbrite eruptions
of < 1 Ma are known in the Altiplano-Puna vol-
canic complex, several young silicic lava domes,
such as the Chao dacite (Guest and Sanchez,
1969), can be found. These are mineralogically,
chemically, and isotopically similar to the da-
1104
citic ignimbrites (de Silva et al., 1988b) and are
interpreted as leaks from the silicic magma
generation zone below the complex. Further-
more, the presence of active geothermal fields at
Sol de Manana in Bolivia and at El Tatio in
Chile (Fig. 2), and geothermal manifestations
within Cerro Guacha and Cerro Pastos Grandes
calderas indicate that the magmatic system of
the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is cur-
rently active.
CRUSTAL THICKENING, CRUSTAL
MELTING, AND ORIGIN OF THE
IGNIMBRITE MAGMAS
I (de Silva, 1987, 1989b) showed that the
physical, chemical, and isotopic characteristics
(Fig. 4) of the Altiplano-Puna ignimbrites are
similar to those reported from other upper Ter-
tiary ignimbrites in other parts of the Central
Volcanic Zone (Sparks et al., 1985; Francis et
al., 1989; Ort et al., 1988) and that these dacitic,
crystal-rich, ignimbrites are the typical product
of late Tertiary silicic magmatism in the zone.
The consistency of their physical and chemical
features implies a consistent magma-generation
process throughout this region. Another major
factor in considering the origin of the ignimbrite
magmas is the paucity of associated mafic vol-
canism. If the ignimbrites are the result of frac-
tional crystallization from more mafic magmas
(e.g., Thorpe et al., 1979), this would require
huge volumes of basaltic and andesitic magmas
(and the resulting cumulates) for which there is
no evidence. I (de Silva, 1989b) have argued for
an origin by large-scale crustal melting, a mech-
anism popular with early workers in the region
(e.g., Pichler and Zeil, 1972).
The timing of the ignimbrite flare-up in the
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex coincides well
with thickening of the central Andean crust to its
present 70 km maximum about 12-10 Ma
Figure 4. e Nd -c Sr for various magmatic suites from Central Volcanic Zone.
Data sources: San Pedro—Rogers and Hawkesworth (1989); Purico-Chascon—
Hawkesworth et al. (1982); Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex (APVC) ignimbrites—
this work; Panizos—Ort et al. (1988); Cerro Galan ignimbrites—Francis et al.
(1989). Note that ignimbrites all show elevated t S r and low e Nd consistent with large
crustal contribution.
(Isacks, 1988). Furthermore, at this time ex-
tremely rapid spreading at the present-day East
Pacific Rise (Larson and Pitman, 1972) resulted
in a faster rate of subduction at the Andean
margin (Pardo-Casas arid Molnar, 1987), which
in turn may have resulted ¡ n increased heat input
(intrusion of mafic magmas) to the crust. These
coincidences suggest an integrated model for the
formation of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic com-
plex (Fig. 5). At about 12-10 Ma, crustal thick-
ening occurred in response to tectonic shorten-
ing, resulting in elevated geotherms. Subduction-
related basaltic magmas invaded the crust,
heating and subsequently partially melting it.
Until this time volcanism had been dominantly
andesitic, reflecting assimilation and fractional
crystallization processes in ascending basaltic
magmas. Prior to the onset of ignimbrite volcan-
ism (-10.6 Ma), the partially molten zone
overturned, resulting in a huge zone of anatexis
in the crust; the crust then acted as a viscosity
barrier to further inputs of basaltic magma,
which ponded, crystallized, and fueled further
melting episodes. Large volumes of homogene-
ous dacitic melts from the anatectic zone rose
diapirically into the upper crust, where they
formed large magma chambers from which the
ignimbrites erupted. The model is consistent
with the recent fluid dynamical investigations
(e.g., Huppert and Sparks, 1988) and implies
that large-scale silicic volcanism is the surface
expression of silicic magmatism at depth (e.g.,
Lipman, 1984; Whitney and Stormer, 1986).
An implication of the model is that a large
batholith should be present below the Altiplano-
Puna complex and maybe the Central Volcanic
Zone; the ignimbrite magma chambers can be
looked at as shallow-level apophyses to this
batholith. In this context, it is interesting that the
distribution of recent volcanoes is dominantly to
the edge of the Altiplano-Puna complex where
GEOLOGY, December 1989 1104
linear vent patterns predominate, whereas the
number of these within the complex is very
small and they exhibit either random, diffuse, or
arcuate vent patterns (Fig. 2). Although this may
be due in part to a viscosity barrier formed by
silicic magma bodies to more mafic magmas at
depth, it may also be due to perturbation of the
local stress field resulting from emplacement of
large bodies of silicic magma at shallow levels in
the crust (e.g., Bacon, 1985). In addition, the
coincidence of the calderas with the highest sur-
Minor c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s andesitic
volcanism o n Hanks of
silicic volcanic province
GEOLOGY, December 1989
faces in the central Andes may imply a direct
relation between diapirically emplaced large si-
licic magma bodies and uplift, at least on a local
scale.
DISCUSSION
Although the above model accounts for many
features of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex
and the ignimbrite flare-up, it is not clear what
factors governed the location of the complex; the
whole Central Volcanic Zone was volcanically
D o m i n a n t l y andesitic volcanism
Fractionation of m a g m a s
in high level m a g m a chambers
small volumes of dacite produced
Partial melting of crust begins
Basaltic
dike injection
Ponding of basalt
at base of crust
Basaltic flux f r o m Hthospheve
UPPER CRUSTAL M A G M A CHAMBERS
low pressure fractionation
formation of zoned m a g m a s
Basaltic Underplating?
continuing Basaltic flux from lithosphère
active during the late Miocene, yet the ignim-
brite flare-up focused between lat 21° and 24°S.
The area overlies a relatively shallow subducting
slab, which may account for the easterly posi-
tion of the complex relative to the early to mid-
Miocene volcanic front as well as its broad
east-west extent ( - 2 5 0 km). In addition, the
complex is developed on the thickest part of the
central Andean crust, which is important to the
magmatic model outlined above.
Other dominantly tectonic controls can be
envisaged. Although the regional tectonic envi-
ronment of the central Andes is dominantly
compressive, the high plateau region, where the
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex is developed,
is characterized by neutral or extensional stresses
(e.g., Froidevaux and Isacks, 1984). Such stress
Figure 5. Schematic representa-
tion of main magmagenetic pro-
cesses involved in late Miocene
ignimbrite flare-up. F.C. = frac-
tional crystallization; A.F.C. = as-
similation and fractional crystal-
lization. A: About 12-10 Ma;
thickening of crust and partial
melting of crust begins, domi-
nantly andesitic volcanism. B:
About 10 Ma to Holocene; over-
turn of partially molten zone to
form huge anatectic zone; silicic
magmas rise diapirically into
upper crust to form large magma
chambers from which ignimbrites
erupt.
1105
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on September 14, 2012
regimes characterize most other large silicic vol-
canic fields (e.g., the southwestern United States,
New Zealand [North Island], and Sumatra
[Toba]), suggesting that this has been an impor-
tant factor in the development of the Altiplano-
Puna complex.
The Altiplano, which is commonly associated
with the Puna, is a major structural block that
has been mostly inert tectonically and volcani-
cally since the Eocene (Baker, 1981) and can be
considered a stable structural element. Although
little is known about the evolution of the Ata-
cama basin, reconnaissance field observations
(R. Forsythe, 1988, personal commun.) and ev-
idence from satellite images reveal that the Ata-
cama basin is a rhombo-graben typical of many
in the central Andes and is the result of right-
lateral strike-slip tectonics. This is consistent
with the observations of Beck (1987), w h o
showed that this part of the central Andes is
characterized by right-lateral strike-slip move-
ments induced by oblique subduction at the An-
dean margin. Drill cores from the basin (P. M.
King, 1988, personal commun.) reveal several
ignimbrite units below the surface salts. Al-
though no direct correlations have been made,
these ignimbrites can only be from the San Bar-
tolo and Silapeti Groups in northern Chile; this
indicates that the basin was present and active
during the period of ignimbrite activity. Quater-
nary and Holocene normal faults on the eastern
margin of the basin indicate recent movements. I
suggest that the strike-slip tectonics may have
weakened the region of crust between the active
Atacama basin and the stable Altiplano block.
Silicic magma emplaced into this zone may have
resulted in further weakening of the crust due to
perturbation of the local stress fields (local ex-
tension?) and heating of the crust above the ris-
ing diapirs. Further inputs of magma would
follow, and large magma chambers that fed the
ignimbrites would form. The Altiplano-Puna
volcanic complex may therefore represent a
zone of tectonically and thermally weakened
crust.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Supported by NASA Grant NAGW-1167. The
early work of Mike Baker and Peter Francis has been
vital to this work, as has fruitful collaboration with
Francis. Lynette Lucas, Everett Rutherford, Gordon
Wells, and Kevin Burke have also made helpful con-
tributions. I thank Donna Chady for the figures, and
Jon Davidson (University of California, Los Angeles)
and Sue Mahlburg Kay (Cornell) for helpful reviews.
Lunar and Planetary Institute Contribution No. 718.
Manuscript received March 15,1989
Revised manuscript received July 14, 1989
Manuscript accepted July 19, 1989
GEOLOGY, December 1989