MODULE 1

Lesson 2: Valuing Identity and Diversity

Introduction:
Welcome Students for our 2nd lesson. In this lesson we will be describing the different identities
and diverse cultures of the members of ASEAN. We will come to learn and appreciate other cultures while
valuing ours.

In order for us to appreciate the cultural diversity of each member of the ASEAN while valuing our
own, it is a must to know what separates them from us, and us to them.

The following are the diverse cultures of all the members of the ASEAN.

1. BRUNEI
Facts and Statistics
Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
Climate: tropical; hot, humid, rainy
Population: 437,479 (2020)
Ethnic Make-up: Malay 66.3%, Chinese 11.2%, indigenous 3.4%, other 19.1% (2018 est.)
Religions: Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, other (includes indigenous beliefs) 10%
Government: constitutional sultanate

Language in Brunei
Due to Brunei's rich history, which has seen the country become the seat of the Malay empire and
the subject of European invasion, Brunei is a melting pot for international languages. The official language
of the state of Brunei is Standard Malay. This came into force on 29th September 1959, with the signing
of Brunei 1959 Constitution.

English is also widely used as a business and working language. It is also the language of instruction
in secondary and tertiary education. Other languages spoken in Brunei include the Chinese, Indian and
Native languages spoken by the minority ethnic groups.

Bruneian Society and Culture

The Family
The family is the focal point of the social structure. The Bruneian family is the extended family and
includes aunts, uncles, and cousins as well as close friends.
• Members of the extended family are expected to remain loyal to each other and the family.
• As a result of this Brunei is a hierarchical culture. Age and position are revered.
• From a young age, children are taught to subjugate their own desires for the good of the entire
family and to respect elders without question. In addition, they also learn that it is through family
support that they accomplish goals.

The Concept of Face

The role of face, shame and honor is crucial to Bruneians. Consequently, they are very polite and well-
mannered.
 • Maintaining face is of upmost importance and they do their best not to cause issues or problems
which could jeopardize this.
• In order to maintain face their communication style is very indirect and can come across as
somewhat ambiguous to those from a culture where direct communication is the norm.
• By being indirect Bruneians avoid embarrassing another person, which would cause that person
to lose face. As a consequence, this approach is an important way of protecting relationships
• Most Bruneians find emotions such as impatience, anger, or irritation embarrassing and try to
avoid them since expressing them could result in a loss of face and disharmony.

Religion
Most Bruneians are Muslims and as such their lives revolve around the duties afforded to them by
Islam.
• Alcohol is banned from the country however pork is allowed for non-Muslims.
• Gender relations are also governed by Islamic principles and etiquette. Shaking hands across
genders is rare. As such, if you are visiting Brunei, then consider placing your right hand over your
heart and giving a small bow if meeting someone of the opposite sex.
• Bruneians practice a devout but tolerant brand of Islam, which includes devotion, yet allows other
faiths and beliefs.
• Muslims must pray five times a day – at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening. Friday is the
Muslim holy day. Everything is closed. Many companies as well as government offices also close
on Sunday and Saturday afternoon.
• During the fasting month of Ramadan, government staff works a six-hour day and entertainment
and sporting activities are suspended.
• The Sultan encourages the recital of the Quran each morning prior to the start of work to obtain
Allah’s blessing and guidance (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).

2. CAMBODIA
Facts and Statistics
• Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
• Capital: Phnom Penh
• Population: 16,449,519 (est. 2018)
• Ethic Groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
• Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%

Language in Cambodia
Khmer is the official language of Cambodia and is used in most social contexts including government
administration, education at all levels, and in the mass media.
• It is spoken by roughly 90% of the population.
• Regional differences are slight and normally mutually intelligible. Based on the dialect of the capital
city of Phnom Penh,
• Modern Khmer is used throughout the nation and widely understood by its inhabitants. Much Khmer
vocabulary used in literature, the military, and administration is borrowed from Sanskrit, or Pali.
• Due to years of French colonial rule, French became widely spoken within the educated
classes. However, when the Khmer Rouge took power in the 1970s, they killed many educated people
 which saw an almost total decline of French language influences. These influences are now limited
to ad-hoc words only.

Cambodian Society & Culture

Religion
• The majority of Cambodians follow Theravada Buddhism which originated in India. It teaches
that that life and death in this world are intertwined through the concept of reincarnation.
• Every person lives a life as a worldly being and depending on their behavior will come back in their
next life as a higher or lower being.
• "Karma" is the term used to describe this - i.e. if you do good you will have good karma. A rough
translation of this is, "you reap what you sow."

Theravada Buddhism has the following principles:

• Have the right thoughts.
• Have the right goals.
• Speak the right words.
• Perform the right deeds.
• Earn a living in the right way.
• Make the right effort.
• Be intellectually alert.
• Meditate.

Hierarchy
• Buddhism also reinforces a sense of hierarchy within society.
• Interpersonal communication is built on the relationship between those involved.
• Common hierarchical guidelines are that parents are superior to children, teachers to students and
managers to subordinates.
• You will also see the value placed on hierarchy in the way that monks walk – they do so in rank order;
the most senior in front and the most junior at the rear.
• As a foreigner you may find that people ask personal questions - this is a means to identify your 'rank'
rather than being nosy. They may change the way they communicate depending on your status.

Collectivism
• Cambodia is a collective society - individuals take second place to the group whether this is the family,
neighborhood or company.
• In such societies, etiquette and protocol guidelines are used to maintain a sense of common harmony
- for example subtle communication styles are employed in order to minimize the chances of causing
offense to others.
• Cambodia is a face culture, where importance is placed on protecting the reputation of oneself and
of others.
• Face can be lost, given and accrued. It can be lost if one is criticized, embarrassed or exposed in public.
It can also be lost by the person doing the criticizing as others will perceive them as lacking etiquette
and potentially as someone not to be trusted. It can also be lost by failing to take care of one’s
appearance.
• Face can be given to others by praising them in public, hosting them to a nice meal or giving them
special treatment.
• Face can be gained by acting respectfully, wearing nice clothes, doing well in the workplace or through
the act of giving face to others.
• Foreigners in Cambodia need to be aware of the mechanics of face to ensure they do not cause
anyone to lose face as a result of unintentional actions. Saying something that could be perceived as
a criticism may cause someone to feel a loss of face. It will also lose you face by acting in an
underhanded way. Foreigners in Cambodia should also make the effort to gain face by being mindful
of their appearance and conduct and by giving face to others (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd.,
2020).

3. INDONESIA
Facts and Statistics
Location: South-eastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean
Capital: Jakarta
Population: 267+ million (2019 est.)
Ethnic Groups: Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5%, other 26%
Religions: Muslim 88%, Protestant 5%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 2%, Buddhist 1%, other 1%
Language
The official language of Indonesia is known as Indonesian or 'Bahasa Indonesian'. Indonesian is a
standardized dialect of the Malay language and was formulated at the time of the declaration of
Indonesian independence in 1945. Malay and Indonesian remain very similar.
Although the official language, in reality it is most of the population's second language. Due to the
sheer size and fractured, island make-up of the country most people speak regional dialects such as
Minangkabau or Javanese. These will usually be spoken at home and in the local community but at work
or at school Indonesian is used.

Indonesian Society & Culture

Diversity
• Indonesia is a hugely diverse nation.
• It is made up of over 17,500 islands (6,000 of which are inhabited) which are home to over 300 ethnic
groups.
• Each province has its own language, ethnic make-up, religions and history.
• Most people will define themselves locally before nationally.
• In addition, there are many cultural influences stemming back from difference in heritage.
Indonesians are a mix of Chinese, European, Indian, and Malay.
• Although Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world it also has a large number of
Christian Protestants, Catholics, Hindus and Buddhists.
• This great diversity has needed a great deal of attention from the government to maintain a cohesion.
• As a result, the national motto is "Unity in Diversity", the language has been standardized and a
national philosophy has been devised known as "Pancasila" which stresses universal justice for all
Indonesians.
• Group Thinking
• Due to the diverse nature of Indonesian society there exists a strong pull towards the group, whether
family, village or island.
• People will define themselves according to their ethnic group, family and place of birth.
• The family is still very traditional in structure.
• Family members have clearly defined roles and a great sense of interdependence.

Hierarchy
• As with most group orientated cultures, hierarchy plays a great role in Indonesian culture.
• Hierarchical relationships are respected, emphasized and maintained.
• Respect is usually shown to those with status, power, position, and age.
• This can be seen in both the village and the office where the most senior is expected to make group
decisions.
• Superiors are often called "bapak" or "ibu", which means the equivalent of father or mother, sir or
madam.
• Although those higher up the hierarchy make decisions Indonesians are advocates of group discussion
and consensus. This ties back to the idea of maintaining strong group cohesiveness and harmonious
relationships.

Face
• Due to the need to maintain group harmony the concept of 'face' is important to understand.
• In Indonesia the concept is about avoiding the cause of shame ("malu").
• Consequently, people are very careful how they interact and speak.
• Although a foreigner cannot be expected to understand the nuances of the concept it is crucial to
keep an eye on one’s behavior.
• One should never ridicule, shout at or offend anyone. Imperfections should always be hidden and
addresses privately. Similarly blame should never be aimed at any individual/group publicly.
• One manifestation of the concept of face/shame is that Indonesians communicate quite indirectly,
i.e. they would never wish to cause anyone shame by giving them a negative answer so would phrase
it a way where you would be expected to realize what they truly want to say. Bahasa Indonesian
actually has 12 ways of saying "No" and several other ways of saying "Yes" when the actual meaning
is "No" (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).

4. LAOS DARUSSALAM
Facts and Statistics
Location: A landlocked country bordered by China,
Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Burma.
Capital: Vientiane
Population: 7.062 million (2018 est.)
Climate: tropical monsoonal climate.
Geographic Make-up: rugged mountains, plateaus and
alluvial plains
Language in Laos
The official language of Lao’s is Laotian. The tribes have their own languages and dialects speaking
an assortment of Mon-Khmer, Hmong-Yao (Hmong has its own written language, but only a few Hmong
are literate), and Tibeto-Burman languages (Leigh, 2012).

Laotian Characteristics
• The Lao are known for their amiable characteristic and tolerant, easy-going attitudes.
• Traditionally the society is patriarchal in structure.
• Privacy is an important cultural value. Relationships are based on trust and personal questions
from people they don’t know very well are not appreciated.
• Modesty is highly valued. Public body contact, especially between men and women is avoided.
• Lao people do not like to be touched on the head as it is considered offensive. It is also considered
impolite to point one’s foot at another person.
• It is also not appreciated if visitors behave as if they are in a hurry.
• Lao people may ask visitors to their home and to remove their shoes. Many homes will have both
a mat and chairs on the floor for sitting. If an older person is sitting on the floor it is generally
considered impolite for the visitor to sit in a chair (Leigh, 2012).

Values
Respect and Equality
• Gender is the main way in which social roles and practices are organized.
• Women – has a relatively high standing in the private and civic realms of Lao culture.
• Men - are considered culturally superior because of their ability to become monks, this status is
affected by social class. Men have this status because they tend to occupy key positions in public,
predominately in political positions, something that is slowly but increasingly changing (Leigh,
2012).

Marriage
Lao’s have a considerable degree of freedom in choosing their spouse although there is some
preference for cousins. Among male-lineage inheritance clans (e.g. Hmong, Iu Mien, Khmu, and others)
they tend to choose their wives from outside the clan. The Hmong had a past practice of so-called
“marriage by capture”. Multiple wives to the one husband can be found among some highland groups.
Parents may propose a potential spouse and must be consulted about potential marriage
partners. A payment like a bride-price is made with its value varying considerably.
Most young men are expected to become a monk for a short period to prepare them for marriage. This
practice is also crucial for the transfer of merit from son to mother and is the source of a special bond
between them.
The marriage ceremony usually takes place in the bride's family home. At the center of the ritual
is a spirit-calling ceremony. In the past the marriage ceremony was always in the morning which was
believed to be the best time for a joyful celebration to take place—whereas the afternoon is considered
the time for sad ceremonies like cremations. However, with modern lifestyles, convenience has become
more important so the time doesn’t really matter anymore.
Divorce can be initiated by either party and is not uncommon. Among male-lineage groups,
parents play a much more active role in choosing spouses for their children (Leigh, 2012).
Family Structure
Hierarchical inter-dependence is the central value instilled in Lao children. Parents raise and
support their children and the children reciprocate as soon as they can, thus creating strong family bonds.
Kinship amongst the Lao is reckoned through males and females in general with little genealogical
consciousness beyond two past generations, except among the former aristocracy. Male-lineage
inheritance clans can be found among the Hmong, Iu Mien, Khmu, and others.
With babies and children, separation is avoided and crying is actively discouraged. Babies are
constantly in the care of the mother and are fed on demand. Older children are responsible for the care
of younger children.
Usually, the whole family sleeps together until the children reach puberty. Even in modern homes
where children may have a separate room, they all sleep together (Leigh, 2012).

Religion
The dominant religion is Theravada Buddhism (which was brought from India and is shared by
Thailand, Cambodia and Burma). Co-existing easily with Buddhism are beliefs usually labeled animistic
(common among the mountain people) and beliefs associated with shamanism that involve house spirits,
village spirits, district spirits, city spirits, and spirits of the realm.
Lao Buddhists may also wear images of Buddha around their necks or display images of Buddha
in their homes. These images are there to remind Buddhists of the qualities of the perfect wisdom and
the perfect compassion of Buddha. They serve to inspire Buddhists to develop these qualities. Some Lao’s
may also wear amulets for protection against evil spirits (Leigh, 2012).

Socializing
Lao people typically socialize as families and most live in extended families with three or
sometimes more generations sharing one house or compound. With the Lao people’s simple life, it is
perfectly normal for relatives or friends to drop by without calling in advance. The fact that most Lao
people were brought up in extended families that require a high level of harmony, kindness, patience and
readiness to help each other, has made the Lao people a generous, kind and soft-hearted, tolerant and
socialized people.
Time is also a fairly flexible commodity in Lao culture. Planning ahead and making firm times can
sometimes be problematic. Invitations (e.g., to parties and weddings) are often only issued the day before
the event (Leigh, 2012).

5. MALAYSIA
Facts and Statistics
Location: Southeastern Asia. Shares borders with Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei.
Capital: Kuala Lumpur
Climate: tropical; annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons
Population: 32+ million (2019 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Malay 50.4%, Chinese 23.7%, indigenous 11%, Indian 7.1%, others 7.8%
Religions: Muslim 60.4%, Buddhist 19.2%, Christian 9.1%, Hindu 6.3%, Confucianism, Taoism, other
traditional Chinese religions 2.6%, other or unknown 1.5%, none 0.8%
Government: constitutional monarchy
Language in Malaysia
The Malay language is an Austronesian language spoken not only by Malaysians but all Malay
people who reside in the Malay Peninsula, southern Thailand, the Philippines, Singapore, central eastern
Sumatra, the Riau islands, parts of the coast of Borneo, Cocos and Christmas Islands in Australia.
It is also very similar to Indonesian, known locally as Bahasa Indonesia. In Malaysia, the language
is officially known as Bahasa Malaysia, which translates as the "Malaysian language". The term, which was
introduced by the National Language Act 1967, was predominant until the 1990s, when most academics
and government officials reverted to "Bahasa Melayu," which is used in the Malay version of the Federal
Constitution.

Malay Culture and Society

A Multi-Cultural Society
Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as well as large
populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country, it is clear that the ethnicities retain their
religions, customs and way of life. The most important festivals of each group are public holidays.
Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually work in the
same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialize within their own ethnic
group – all part of retaining their individual traditions and lifestyles.
Despite the ethnic differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.

Group Orientation
The family is considered the center of the social structure. As a result, there is a great emphasis
on unity, loyalty and respect for the elderly. The family is the place where the individual can be guaranteed
both emotional and financial support. When one member of the family suffers a financial setback, the rest
of the family will contribute what they can to help out. Families tend to be extended, although in the
larger cities this will naturally differ.

The Concept of Face

Malays, Chinese and Indians all strive to maintain face and avoid shame both in public and private.
Face is a personal concept that embraces qualities such as a good name, good character, and being held
in esteem by one's peers. Face is considered a commodity that can be given, lost, taken away, or earned.
On top of this face also extends to the family, school, company, and even the nation itself.
The desire to maintain face makes Malaysians strive for harmonious relationships.
Face can be lost by openly criticizing, insulting, or putting someone on the spot; doing something
that brings shame to the group; challenging someone in authority, especially if this is done in public;
showing anger at another person; refusing a request; not keeping a promise; or disagreeing with someone
publicly. Conversely, face can be saved by remaining calm and courteous; discussing errors or
transgressions in private; speaking about problems without blaming anyone; using non-verbal
communication to say "no"; and allowing the other person to get out of the situation with their pride
intact (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).
6. MYANMAR
Facts and Statistics
Location:It is bordered by Bangladesh to the west, India and China to the north, and Laos and Thailand to
the east. The southern portion faces the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.
Capital: Naypyitaw
Population: 54 million (2009 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: The Burmese account for about 68% of the population. Other major ethnic groups
include the Shan (about four million), Karen (about three million), Arakaneseor Rakhine (about two
million), Chinese (over one million), Chin (over one million), Wa (about one million), Mon (about one
million), Indians and Bengalis (about one million), Jingpho (about less than one million), and Palaung (less
than one million). With the exception of the Chinese, Indian, and Belgalis, each minority group occupies a
relatively distinct area (Everyculture, 2020)

Social conventions in Myanmar (Burma)

Modesty and Face
Generally speaking, people from Myanmar tend to maintain a modest and calm disposition. This
is partly due to the concept of face. Face indicates a person's reputation, dignity and honor. By
complimenting people, showing them respect or doing something to increase their self-esteem, you give
them face. Similarly, people can lose face by being criticized or behaving in a way that is considered socially
inappropriate. Therefore, the Burmese generally communicate quite indirectly and maintain a modest
demeanor to protect their self-worth and peer perception. For example, people avoid excessive displays
of negative emotions (e.g., anger, selfishness) or public outbursts.
One of the biggest ways to lose face in Myanmar is to be contradicted, criticized or disagreed with
by a junior (e.g., a child or any kind of subordinate). Such an action shows a lack of respect, which is both
embarrassing for the person being disrespected, and uncouth of the speaker. However, the shame felt
from moments such as these is not very long-lasting. While people may be temporarily embarrassed, small
indiscretions rarely permanently damage one’s reputation as it might in some other cultures (Evason,
2017).

Age
Age is very much respected in Myanmar, and this is also reflected in the national attitude - as well
as the Burmese language, which makes considerable use of age-dependent honorific terms. Elders are
always served first at mealtimes, when something is passed to them it is done with both hands, and
younger people avoid raising themselves to a higher level than their elders. These are all marks of respect
for age (Insideasiatours, 2020).

Religious courtesy & freedom of expression

Since the 2010 reforms, talking openly about politics has become much easier in Myanmar - and
although there are sore points (namely religious clashes and ethnic strife), in general there are not too
many subjects that are considered taboo.
Despite this relaxation of attitudes, there are still areas where visitors should exercise special care.
Perceived disrespect towards Buddhism, particularly, is not something that is taken lightly in Myanmar
(Insideasiatours, 2020).
Sensitive Interaction
Consideration of other people’s feelings is essential in Myanmar. The Burmese are very
empathetic people and tend to assume a personal approach to everything. For instance, criticism is often
taken to heart. Such emotional investment means the Burmese rarely seek objective analysis into personal
situations; the advice of an elderly family member or monk is usually preferred over that of a counsellor.
Furthermore, people are expected to respond empathetically in difficult circumstances. To console
someone by being very stoic and logical about the situation (e.g., pointing out that an issue is temporary)
could be seen as insensitive.
The Burmese are constantly mindful of whether their actions could offend, embarrass or
inconvenience other people. This is related to the concept of ‘ah-nar-de’ (or anade) – the feeling of not
having the heart to say or do something that might affect another person’s feelings. Ah-nar-de represents
the unwillingness of many Burmese to assert themselves or interfere with other people’s affairs. This
concept underpins the expectations of social etiquette and interaction. As an example, if someone asked
you to perform a favor that was becoming excessive, there would be a feeling that the person lacked ah-
nar-de because they did not care or were unaware of how it was inconveniencing you.
Such reluctance to impose on others means the Burmese tend to comply and say what they think
the other person wants to hear rather than voicing their opinion. For example, if asking a Burmese what
they’d like to eat, they might say, "Anything is fine," to avoid embarrassing you by asking for something
you may not have. While this is very considerate, such delicate consideration can make it quite hard to
get direct and open answers when asking more crucial questions. Ultimately, it sees the Burmese be quite
accommodating and compliant people (Evason, 2017).

Social Hierarchies
The respectful and compliant character of the Burmese often leads them to be quite accepting of
the differences in power and status throughout society. This obviously has its exceptions (for example,
ethnic minorities have challenged the dominance of the ethnic majority), but on a day-to-day basis, people
generally observe the power distances between members of society and obey their superiors. It is
considered inappropriate to challenge, argue or answer back to someone with a senior social status,
especially if they are older. Respect for the social hierarchy of age is particularly strong and important.
The Burmese are expected to defer to their elders at all times.
There is also quite a noticeable social divide between the educated urban elites and those living
in rural areas. Apart from an obvious differentiation of wealth, there are often different family practices
and attitudes between these two groups. The 2014 census reported that 30% of people in Myanmar lived
in urban areas, whilst the majority (70%) lived in rural areas. People rarely travel outside of their city or
region to explore the rest of the country.
As mentioned previously, there is generally a strong sense of belonging and loyalty to one’s
hometown and ethnicity as well as one’s religion. However, years of instability and necessity have
prioritized the individual and family over the group. Social attitudes are generally individualistic,
particularly in urban areas. There may be variation to this; for example, the Karen people are traditionally
focused on harmony, consensus and cooperation and are much more likely to continue a collectivistic
community structure. Nonetheless, the Burmese appear to be some of the more individualistic thinkers
in the South Asian region (Evason, 2017).
Ethnic Relations
Myanmar has had a history of multi-ethnic tolerance and interchange. However, the era of
colonialism emphasized ethnic differences that led to tensions between the Bamar majority and
indigenous minorities. The British distinguished the more literate Buddhist Bamar majority from the (often
non-literate) ethnic minorities in the hills and essentially practiced a policy of ‘divide-and-rule’. Some
believe these divides were pre-existing; however, the push for independence undoubtedly stressed them.
The exact events are complex, but ultimately a strong political rhetoric arose in the mid-20th
century. It asserted that the ethnic Bamar majority represented the national identity and culture of
Myanmar. The spirit of the country has been correlated with Theravāda Buddhism (the traditional Bamar
religion); meanwhile, minority religions have been seen as a foreign invasion. The use of minority
languages continues to be discouraged. This nationalism marginalized the ethnic minorities in the hills and
many ethnic groups that had been promised independence never received it (e.g. the Karen, Karenni, Mon
and Shan). This led to ethno-religious antagonism and ultimately prompted some minority groups to
mobilize as armed rebels to fight for self-determination against Bamar nationalism. Some of these groups
are still active today whilst others have demobilized. Recently, some rebel groups have agreed on
ceasefires; however, tensions remain.
On a day-to-day basis, different ethnicities are respectful and courteous to one another. Many
different ethnicities and religions often live together harmoniously in metropolitan areas. The Burmese
are generally peace-seeking, passive people. Nevertheless, there is a lot of unresolved resentment and
distrust that has developed over years of conflict (Evason, 2017).

Spirituality, Stoicism and Patience

The Burmese are generally very patient and stoic in difficult circumstances. It is common for
people to restrain themselves from reacting to problems, saying “Shi-par-say-taw” (‘Let it be’). This
relaxed attitude is somewhat attributed to the spiritual culture of the country. Indeed, the teachings of
Theravāda Buddhism consider the pursuit of revenge to be evil, and encourage people to be tolerant.
The fundamental importance of religion can influence the Burmese to have a fatalistic attitude.
For example, it may be assumed that the causes of problems are the result of a spirit’s work, and
misfortunes are often attributed to an individual’s behavior. For instance, Buddhists commonly perceive
accidents to result from bad karma. Therefore, people are known to be quite stoic and tolerant in difficult
situations as this explanation of problems can make them feel as if they somewhat deserve to suffer.
This relaxed and patient attitude has also partly impacted the approach to time in Myanmar.
People are not generally in a hurry and tend to carry out their business at a more leisurely pace. With such
freedom of time, the Burmese often stop to help or put more time and effort into interactions. However,
it also means that foreigners may be kept waiting longer than expected. Try to be tolerant in this regard.
‘Thee Khan’ (patience) is a core value in Myanmar and people generally don’t like it when they’re hassled
or put in a pressurized situation (Evason, 2017).

7. PHILIPPINES
Facts and Statistics
Location: Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of
Vietnam
Capital: Manila
Population: 107+ million (2019 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Christian Malay 91.5%, Muslim Malay 4%, Chinese 1.5%, other 3%
 Religions: Roman Catholic 83%, Protestant 9%, Muslim 5%, Buddhist and other 3%

Languages in the Philippines

Filipino (formerly Pilipino) is based on Tagalog and is the official language of the Philippines.
In spite of being the national language, only about 55 percent of Filipinos speak the language. In addition
to Filipino are about 111 distinct indigenous languages and dialects, of which only about 10 are important
regionally.
English is generally used for educational, governmental and commercial purposes and is widely
understood since it is the medium of instruction in schools. The Philippines is the third largest group of
English-speaking people in the world, after the United States and the United Kingdom.
Since English is widely spoken in the Philippines, it is common to hear Filipinos use a mixture
English and Filipino words or phrases, known as "Taglish" (a mixture of English and Tagalog), in their
everyday conversations. A steadily dwindling minority still speak Spanish, which had at one time been an
official language.

Filipino Society & Culture

Filipino Family Values
• The family is the center of the social structure and includes the nuclear family, aunts, uncles,
grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such as godparents, sponsors, and close family
friends.
• People get strength and stability from their family. As such, many children have several
godparents.
• Concern for the extended family is seen in the patronage provided to family members when they
seek employment.
• It is common for members of the same family to work for the same company.
• In fact, many collective bargaining agreements state that preferential hiring will be given to family
members.

Filipino Concept of Shame

• Hiya is shame and is a motivating factor behind behavior.
• It is a sense of social propriety and conforming to societal norms of behavior.
• Filipinos believe they must live up to the accepted standards of behavior and if they fail to do so
they bring shame not only upon themselves, but also upon their family.
• One indication of this might be a willingness to spend more than they can afford on a party rather
than be shamed by their economic circumstances.
• If someone is publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not live up to expectations, they feel shame
and lose self-esteem (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).

8. SINGAPORE
Facts and Statistics
Location: Southeastern Asia, islands between Malaysia and Indonesia
Capital: Singapore
Population: 5,567,301 (2014 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Chinese 76.7%, Malay 14%, Indian 7.9%, other 1.4%
Religions: Buddhist (Chinese), Muslim (Malays), Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Taoist, Confucianist
The Language
Singapore has attempted to promote a national identity in its land of immigrants since its
independence in 1965. As part of this effort, Singapore has four national languages: Mandarin, Malay,
Tamil and English. For business and politics, English is the language of choice.

Singapore Society & Culture

The Family
• The concepts of group, harmony, and mutual security are more important than that of the
individual.
• The family is the center of the social structure and emphasizes unity, loyalty and respect for the
elderly.
• The term, 'family' generally includes extended family and close friends who are treated as family
members.
• Respect for the elderly and seeing the family as the place one goes to for support, both help retain
core values in this island nation.

Face & Respect

• Having face indicates personal dignity.
• Singaporeans are very sensitive to retaining face in all aspects of their lives.
• Face is a prized commodity that can be given, lost, taken away or earned.
• It is a mark of personal qualities such as a good name, good character, and being held in esteem
by one's peers.
• It can also be greater than the person and extend to family, school, company, and even the nation
itself.
• Face is what makes Singaporeans strive for harmonious relationships.

Hierarchy
• Singaporeans claim they are an egalitarian society, yet they retain strong hierarchical relationships
that can be observed in the relationship between parents and children, teachers and students, and
employers and employees.
• This goes back to their important cultural value, group dependence.
• This reliance on hierarchy is drawn from Confucianism, which emphasizes respecting age and
status, even blind obedience to one's elders. In the workplace this is seen in the increased
deference that is paid to employees who are older.
• The elderly is always treated with the utmost respect and courtesy.
• Even if you do not personally know the individual, you will be expected to give special
consideration.
• Elders are introduced first, are given preferential seating, are given the choicest food, and in
general put on a pedestal.
• There was a law passed in 1996 that mandated that children must assume financial responsibility
for their elderly parents should the need arise.
• This is indicative of the high status of the elderly and the challenges facing the small country as the
next generation becomes more individualistic.
 Ethnic Diversity
• Singapore is a multi-ethnic society where Chinese, Malay and Indian traditions coexist beneath the
veneer of a western cosmopolitan metropolis.
• The three main ethnic groups are religiously and culturally diverse.

Non-Verbal Communication
• Singaporeans are group dependent and rely on facial expression, tone of voice and posture to tell
them what someone feels.
• They often trust non-verbal messages more than the spoken word.
• They tend to be subtle, indirect and implicit in their communications.
• They hint at a point rather than making a direct statement, since that might cause the other person
to lose face.
• Rather than say 'no', they might say, 'I will try', or 'I'll see what I can do'. This allows the person
making the request and the person turning it down to save face and maintain harmony in their
relationship.
• Silence is an important element of Singaporean communication.
• Pausing before responding to a question indicates that they have given the question appropriate
thought and considered their response carefully.
• They do not understand western culture’s ability to respond to a question hastily and think this
indicates thoughtlessness and rude behavior (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).

9. THAILAND
Facts and Statistics
• Location: South-eastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, southeast of
Burma
• Capital: Bangkok
• The Flag: The Thai flag was adopted in 2017 by royal decree. It consists of five horizontal stripes
which, starting from the top, run in the following order: red, white, blue, white and red. On
direction of Rama VI, who commissioned the flag and considered ‘blue’ an important color, the
middle blue strip is twice the width of the other four stripes. The red stripes denote the Thai people
the white stripes denote religion and the blue stripe denotes the Thai Monarchy.
• National anthem: The national anthem of Thailand, entitled ‘Phleng Chat’ (literally translated as
‘national anthem), was adopted shortly after the country changed its name from ‘Siam’. The
national anthem is played twice a day on television and radio and Thais are expected to stand for
its duration to show their respect. This custom is played out in public as part of the lifting of the
flag in public areas such as the work place, schools, universities, prisons, hospitals etc.
• Ethnic Make-up: Thai 96%, Burmese 2%, other 2%.
• Population: 69 million (2019 est.)
• Population growth rate: 0.32% (2019 est.)
• Climate: tropical; rainy, warm, cloudy southwest monsoon (mid-May to September); dry, cool
northeast monsoon (November to mid-March); southern isthmus always hot and humid
• Time Zone: The time zone used in Thailand is ‘Indochina Time’ (ICT) which is UTC +7
• Currency: Thai Baht
 • Government: Thailand has a constitutional monarchy but is currently led by a military Junta which
took power in May 2014, following which, General Prayuth Chan-ocha became Prime Minister.
Following the 1932 Siamese coup d'état, in which the system of absolute monarchy was replaced
by a constitutional monarchy, Thailand’s military has seized power 12 times. The current King, Maha
Vajiralongkorn, ascended the throne in 2016 following the death of his father, King Bhumibol
Adulyadei. Much loved by the Thai people, King Bhumibol had lived to become the world’s longest
reigning monarchy prior to his death.

INTRODUCTION TO THAILAND
Whilst its neighbors fell prey to the colonizing powers of Europe, Japan and the United States,
Thailand holds a unique position in South East Asia for its ability to have retained its integrity.
This was not without a price however, as Thailand was not only compelled to give away large
areas of land to the French and English but was also forced to end its position of neutrality during World
War II and side with the Japanese – or face being taken over. Called Siam until 1939, the bloodless Siamese
coup d’étatended the rule of absolute monarchy and resulted in the renaming of the country to ‘Thailand’.
Although Thailand had aligned with the Japanese during the second world war, it proceeded to
become a US ally in 1954 whereby it fought alongside America during the Vietnam war.
Politically tumultuous, Thailand has faced coups in 1932, 1947 2006 and 2014. There is also
considerable violence due to the ethno-nationalist insurgency taking place in its Malay-Muslim majority
province which has resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians.

LANGUAGE IN THAILAND
The Thai language is comprised of 44 consonants, 32 vowels and five tones in Thai
pronunciation, along with a script that has Indian origins.
The Thai language, belonging to the ‘Tai’ family, is the standard spoken language in Thailand and
is used for governmental and administrative purposes across the country. Regional dialects are
particularly distinct depending on whether the speaker is from the North or South of Thailand.
Other languages spoken in Thailand are Chinese, Lao, Malay and Mon-Khmer. The use of English
is becoming more prevalent in government and commerce. It is also being taught as a second language in
secondary school and universities, which enables the English-speaking visitor in Thailand to have little
trouble conversing.
The largest concentration of people speaking Thai outside of the country is in the US; in particular
in the states of California and Los Angeles.

THAI CULTURE & SOCIETY

Religion & Beliefs
With 93% of adherents, Buddhism is the official religion in Thailand with Islam as the largest
minority religious group at 5% of adherents. Christians account for 1.2% of the Thai population and those
in the ‘other’ or non-religious category account for 0.8%.

The Family
• Thai families are the cornerstone of life in Thailand and, although nuclear family setups are the norm,
it is not uncommon for extended family members live with the family.
• Families are typically far more closely knit than those in western culture and hierarchy is more
pronounced.
Social Stratification
• Social stratification demographics in Thailand have changed considerably over the last fifty years.
• Social stratification traditionally consisted of an elite section of Thai noble people, complimented by
a small foreign merchant class, and a large class of poorer rural dwellers.
• Over the years however, these distinctions have changed and wealth has played a key role in
establishing a middle class which has grown considerably.
• The elite class and poorer rural dwellers still exist, but the latter has grown to include poorer dwellers
of the growing urban areas.

Gender Roles
• Traditional gender divisions exist in Thailand in respect to child care and domestic work, with women
taking on the vast majority of these tasks.
• In an agricultural setting, there is a great deal of overlap in tasks carried out between the genders
whilst men dominate roles within the religious sphere.
• Women make up almost half of the labor force and account for over half of the workforce.
• The Thai government is working to combat violence against women and women’s rights are built into
the constitution.
• Most frequent violations against women include domestic abuse (affecting women across the socio-
economic spectrum), discrimination and prostitution trafficking.

Socialization
• Children have a special place in Thai society and are typically doted on by family members and non-
family adults.
• Mothers rarely, if ever, leave their babies and will typically take them wherever they go.
• Babies are weaned at two or three years of age. They learn from the people and implements around
them and are often given access to the tools used by their parents.
• In this respect, the children of craftsmen, farmers etc. will grow up with a passive (and often active)
understanding of parental crafts.
• The government provide children with free education for a minimum period of 12 years and children
are mandated to attend for at least 9 of these 12 years.

Food
• Thai cuisine is much loved internationally and Thai restaurants are a feature of most large cities
around the world.
• In 2011, Thai dishes featured more than the dishes of any other country on an online CNN poll.
• Thai cuisine is a complex fusion of sweet, sour, salty, spicy and bitter flavors which are balanced in a
way that creates ‘harmony’.
• Rice plays such an important role in Thai cuisine that the word for ‘rice’ and ‘food’ is the same.
• It is typically eaten at all meals and comes in the form of standard white rice, or, it is of the sticky,
glutinous variety. It is usually eaten using a spoon and fork in dishes containing seafood, beef, pork,
chicken or vegetables.

Thai cuisine varies depending on region, with differences primarily reflecting the food preferences of
the region’s neighbors. Many popular Thai dishes were introduced by the Chinese during the 15th century
and European influences on Thai cuisine were gradually introduced from the 17th century onwards. Some
of the most popular dishes include:
• Pad Thai – Pad Thai could well be considered a national Thai dish due to its popularity both in Thailand
and abroad. It consists of noodles, with fish sauce, tamarind and stir fried with other ingredients such
as egg, shrimp, shallots, garlic, ginger, chili, soy sauce, bean sprouts and peanuts. It is often sold as
street food.
• Thai Green Curry – This is a fragrant and popular dish, which consists of coconut cream, green chilies,
lemon grass and a key ingredient such as chicken or fish balls.
• Tom Yum Soup –The basic building blocks of Tom Yum (or Tom Yam) soup are lemon grass, lime juice,
fish sauce, chilies and kaffir lime. Shrimp is then typically used as the key ingredient.

Arts, Humanities & Popular Culture

• The arts are supported by both private and public groups.
• There are colleges of dance, music and drama in Thailand and a very popular national theatre.
• There are also organizations which support the work of Thai artisans
• Fictional writing has changed greatly over the years, and modern fiction is generally built around plots
which detail the lives of ordinary people; particularly depicting the struggles of those in the poorer
classes
• Traditional folk dance has influenced a love of classical dance in Thailand and national festivals are
fairly popular events.
• If there is a great social distance between two people, the wai will not be returned.
• If invited to a Thai home, then allow your host and hostess to introduce you to the other guests. This
enables other guests to understand your status relative to their own, and thus know who performs
the wai and how low the head should be bowed (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).

10. VIETNAM
Facts and Statistics
• Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Tonkin, and South China Sea,
alongside China, Laos, and Cambodia
• Capital: Hanoi
• Climate: tropical in south; monsoonal in north with hot, rainy season (mid-May to mid-September)
and warm, dry season (mid-October to mid-March)
• Population: 97 million (2019 est.)
• Ethnic Make-up: Vietnamese 85%-90%, Chinese, Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Cham, various mountain
groups
• Religions: Buddhist, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, Christian (predominantly Roman Catholic, some Protestant),
indigenous beliefs and Muslim.

The Language
Vietnamese, Vietnam's official language, is a tonal language that can be compared to Cambodia's
official language, Khmer. With each syllable, there are six different tones that can be used, which change
the definition and it often makes it difficult for foreigners to pick up the language.
There are other languages spoken as well such as Chinese, Khmer, Cham and other languages
spoken by tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions. Although there are some similarities to Southeast
Asian languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese is thought to be a separate language group, although a
member of the Austro-Asiatic language family.
In written form, Vietnamese uses the Roman alphabet and accent marks to show tones. This system of
writing called quocngu, was created by Catholic missionaries in the 17th century to translate the
scriptures. Eventually this system, particularly after World War I, replaced one using Chinese characters
(chu nom), which had been the unofficial written form used for centuries.

Vietnamese Culture & Society

Confucianism
• The teachings of Confucius influence the Vietnamese describe the position of the individual in
Vietnamese society.
• Confucianism is a system of behaviors and ethics that stress the obligations of people towards one
another based upon their relationship.

The basic tenets are based upon five different relationships:

• Ruler and subject
• Husband and wife
• Parents and children
• Brothers and sisters
• Friend and friend

Confucianism stresses duty, loyalty, honor, filial piety, respect for age and seniority, and sincerity.

The Family
• Vietnamese life revolves around the family.
• The Vietnamese family consists of the nuclear as well as the extended family.
• It is not uncommon for three generations to be living together under one roof.
• In Confucian tradition, the father is the head of the family and it is his responsibility to provide food,
clothing and shelter and make important decisions.
• Within the same tradition it is believed that after someone dies their spirit lives on. Descendants will
"worship" their ancestors to ensure their good favor. On the anniversary of a person's death,
ceremonies are held in their memory. They are also remembered during certain lunar festivals and
souls are consulted prior to important decisions or occasions such as a birth or a wedding.

Face
• As with many other Asian nations, the concept of face is extremely important to the Vietnamese.
• Face is a tricky concept to explain but can be roughly described a quality that reflects a person's
reputation, dignity, and prestige.
• It is possible to lose face, save face or give face to another person.
• Companies as well as individuals can have face or lose face.
• For foreigners it is important to be aware that you may unintentionally cause a loss of face so it is
important to be aware of your words and actions. Understanding how face is lost, saved or given is
critical.
 • Someone can be given face by complimenting them for their hospitality or business acumen. Accusing
someone of poor performance or reprimanding them publicly will lead to a loss of face.

Collectivism
• In general, the Vietnamese are collectivists.
• The individual is seen as secondary to the group - whether the family, school or company.
• As a result, there are strict guidelines for social interaction that are designed to protect a group's face.

Hierarchy
• As with most group-orientated societies there are also hierarchical structures.
• In Vietnam these are very much based upon age and status.
• This derives from Confucianism, which emphasizes social order. Everyone is seen as having a distinct
place and role within the hierarchical structure, be it the family or workplace.
• An obvious example is seen in social situations where the oldest person in a group is greeted or served
first.
• Within the family the head would be responsible for making decisions and approving marriages.

Etiquette and Customs in Vietnam

Vietnamese society has a fair amount of public etiquette. The following are some of the more
common points:

Etiquette in Vietnam
• Avoid public displays of affection with a member of the opposite sex.
• Do not touch someone's head.
• Pass items with both hands.
• Do not point with your finger - use your hand.
• Do not stand with your hands on your hips.
• Do not cross your arms on your chest.
• Do not pass anything over someone's head.
• Do not touch anyone on the shoulder.
• Do not touch a member of the opposite sex.
• Shorts should only be worn at the beach.

Dining Etiquette
If invited to a Vietnamese home:
• Bring fruit, sweets, flowers, fruit, or incense.
• Gifts should be wrapped in colorful paper.
• Do not give handkerchiefs, anything black, yellow flowers or chrysanthemums.

Table Manners
• Wait to be shown where to sit.
• The oldest person should sit first.
• Pass dishes with both hands.
• The most common utensils are chopsticks and a flat spoon.
 • Chopsticks should be placed on the table or a chopstick rest after every few mouthfuls or when
breaking to drink or speak.
• People hold bowls close to their faces.
• Hold the spoon in your left hand while eating soup.
• Meals are typically served family-style.
• Try to finish everything on your plate.
• When you are finished eating, rest your chopsticks on top of your rice bowl.
• Cover your mouth when using a toothpick.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

• Appointments are required and should be made several weeks in advance.
• The best means of doing so is through a local representative who can act as a reference and also
translator/interpreter.
• The Vietnamese are punctual and expect others to be so to.
• Dress conservatively.
• Handshakes are used upon meeting and departing. Handshakes only usually take place between
members of the same sex.
• Some Vietnamese use a two-handed shake, with the left hand on top of the right wrist.
• Always wait for a woman to extend her hand. If she does not, bow your head slightly.
• Business cards are exchanged on initial meetings and should be presented with both hands. When
receiving business cards ensure you show proper respect to it and do not simply glance at it and put
it on the table.
• Hierarchy and face manifest in different ways within business meetings. For example, the most senior
person should always enter the room first.
• Silence is also common in meetings where someone disagrees with another but remains quite so as
to not cause a loss of face.
• Relationships are critical to successful business partnerships. Always invest time in building a good
relationship based on both personal and business lines. Any initial meeting
• Should be solely used as a "getting to know you" meeting.
• The spoken word is very important. Never make promises that you cannot keep to as this will lead to
a loss of face.
• Negotiations can be slow so it is important to bear in mind that decisions have to go through a lot of
red tape and also group consultation. Be patient.
• Business gift giving is fairly common at the end of a meeting or during a meal in honor of your business
associates. Gifts should be small but not expensive. Something with your company logo or something
typical from your country both make excellent gifts (Commisceo Global Consulting Ltd., 2020).