How to work the Multi-User operating system?

The single master system is contained within the multi-user system. All network users can access
the master system anytime and from any place and open their local version of the system. The
local version is also known as a 'working model'. All users can update, delete, and create new
files on their local working model, but this model will not be available to other users until it is
saved to the master system.

Characteristics of Multi-User Operating System

There are various characteristics of a multi-user operating system. 

Resource Sharing

Several devices, like printers, fax machines, plotters, and hard drives, can be shared in a multi-
user operating system. Users can share their own documents using this functionality. All users
are given a small slice of CPU time under this system.

Multi-Tasking

Multi-user operating systems may execute several tasks simultaneously, and several programs
may also execute at the same time.

Background Processing

Background processing is a term that refers to when commands are not processed but rather
executed "in the background". Usually, other programs interact with the system in real-time.

Time-Sharing

A strategy used by multi-user operating systems to operate on several user requests at the same
time by switching between jobs at very short periods of time.

System

The operating system must handle a computer's combination of hardware and software resources.

Invisibility

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Various functions of the multi-user operating system are hidden from users. It is due to factors
such as the OS being instinctive or happening at the lower end, such as disk formatting, etc.

Examples of Multi-User Operating System

There are various examples of multi-user operating systems

A highly dependable open system architecture for small and medium-scale business computing
systems. Because it is based on Open System Architecture, tech giants including AIX, Solaris,
and even Mac OS have their own version of Unix. For example, the Hospitality industry,
Healthcare, etc.

Multiple Virtual Storage

IBM develops an operating system for use on mainframe systems. It's commonly utilized in
enterprise computing, where high-intensity I/O is required. For example, Banking, Insurance,
Aviation business, etc.

Shared Computing

A multi-user OS is a software that operates the servers that support most webmail apps. A typical
webmail application may require the utilization of hundreds of computers. Each one runs a
multi-user operating system capable of supporting various users at the same time. Because these
systems have millions, if not billions, of users who constantly log on to check their messages,
they require operating systems that can handle a high number of users at once.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multi-User Operating System

There are various advantages and disadvantages of a multi-user operating system. These are as
follows:

Advantages

There are various advantages of a multi-user operating system

A multi-user operating system can be used in the printing process to allow multiple users to
access the same printer, which a normal operating system may not do.

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 On a single computer system, several users can access the same copy of a document. For
instance, if a PPT file is kept on one computer, other users can see it on other systems.

Multi-user operating systems are very useful in offices and libraries because they can efficiently
handle printing jobs.

If one computer fails in its own network system, the entire system does not come to a halt.

Airlines use multi-user operating systems for some of their functions.

The ticket reservation system uses a multi-user operating system.

Each user can access the same document on their own computer.

Disadvantages of Multi-User Operating System

There are various disadvantages of a multi-user operating system.

Virus attacks occur simultaneously on all of them as the computers are shared. As a result, if one
machine is affected, the others will be as well.

If a virus hits one computer, it spreads to the entire network system simultaneously, and finally,
all computer systems fail.

All computer information is shared publicly, and your personal information is accessible to
everyone on the network.

Multiple accounts on a single computer may not be suitable for all users. Thus, it is better to have
multiple PCs for each user.

Difference Between Single user and Multi user System

Single user Operating System Multi-user Operating System

It is an operating system in which the user can It is an operating system in which multiple users
manage one thing at a time effectively. can manage multiple resources at a time

Example: Linux, Unix, windows 2000, windows

Example: MS DOS
2003 etc.

Single user Operating System has two types: It is of three types: time-sharing operating system,

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Single user Single task Operating System and distributed operating system and multiprocessor
Single user Multi task Operating System. system.

It is simple. It is complex.

It provides controlled access for the number of

It provides a platform for one user at a time.
users by maintaining a database of known users.

If another user wants to access the computer

There is no need to wait for accessing the
resources, then he/she has to wait until the
computer resources.
current process completes.

This type of operating system is used for single This type of operating system is used for multiple
user. users.

In this, sometimes CPU is utilised to its The operating system stimulates real-time
maximum limit. performance by task switching.

It supports standalone systems. It doesn’t support standalone systems.

It is the operating system which maximum people It is the operating system which is most of the
use on their personal computers or laptops. time used in mainframe computers.

In this, we have to take care of balance between

In this, there is no need to take care of balance
users so that if one problem arises with one user
between users.
does not affect other users also.

What is Data Processing?

Data processing is ingesting massive amounts of data in the system from several different
sources such as IoT devices, social platforms, satellites, wireless networks, software logs etc. &
running the business logic/algorithms on it to extract meaningful information from it.

A centralized data process is when a single or group of computers located in a central site
serves all units or users of an organization / data processing support is provided by one or a

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cluster of computers located in a central data processing facility. Each person is provided by a
local terminal connected by a communications facility to central data processing facility.

Characteristics of centralized facility

Centralized computers, processing, data, control and support staff.

Advantages: economies of scale in purchase and operation of equipment/software, professional

programmers to meet needs of organization, control over data processing procurement,
enforcement of standards for programming and data file structure, and security policies can be
put into place.

Office Automation

Basics of Office Automation

Office automation refers to the use of computer technology on accomplishing office tasks. It
emphasizes that tasks should be done automatically as far as possible. The major applications of
office automation include: Data processing, Management of digital information. Information
exchange

The advantages of office automation include: Increased Productivity Better Communications

Better Data Management Reducing Company Expenses

Basics of Office Automation

Increased Productivity -Complete time-consuming office tasks in shorter time Better

Data Management-Digital data and documents can be effectively stored, reused and referenced
through a computer network.

Better Communications -Various digital communication channels: Video conferencing IP phones

Instant messenger These channels can complement traditional communication methods.

Reducing Company Expenses-The operating cost of office automation software is lower.

Storing document digitally can save office space.

Software and Hardware for Office Automation

Software in Office Automation A number of types of application software have been developed
for office automation. Application software helps us organize raw data into useful information.
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Typical examples include: Word processors Spreadsheets Database software Presentation
software Communication software Image editing software

 Software and Hardware for Office Automation

Hardware in Office Automation Computer systems are the essential types of hardware found in a
modern office. The standard input and output devices include: Keyboards Mice Monitors
Speakers Microphones Common types of hardware for office automation include: Network
printers Fax machines Scanners

Electronic Mail

What is E-mail?

E-mail is defined as the transmission of messages on the Internet. It is one of the most commonly
used features over communications networks that may contain text, files, images, or other
attachments. Generally, it is information that is stored on a computer sent through a network to a
specified individual or group of individuals.

Email messages are conveyed through email servers; it uses multiple protocols within
the TCP/IP suite. For example, SMTP is a protocol, stands for simple mail transfer protocol and
used to send messages whereas other protocols IMAP or POP are used to retrieve messages from
a mail server. If you want to login to your mail account, you just need to enter a valid email
address, password, and the mail servers used to send and receive messages.

Although most of the webmail servers automatically configure your mail account, therefore, you
only required to enter your email address and password. However, you may need to manually
configure each account if you use an email client like Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail. In

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addition, to enter the email address and password, you may also need to enter incoming and
outgoing mail servers and the correct port numbers for each one.

Email messages include three components

Message envelope: It depicts the email's electronic format.

Message header: It contains email subject line and sender/recipient information.

Message body: It comprises images, text, and other file attachments.

The email was developed to support rich text with custom formatting, and the original email
standard is only capable of supporting plain text messages. In modern times, email
supports HTML (Hypertext markup language), which makes it capable of emails to support the
same formatting as websites. The email that supports HTML can contain links, images, CSS
layouts, and also can send files or "email attachments" along with messages. Most of the mail
servers enable users to send several attachments with each message. The attachments were
typically limited to one megabyte in the early days of email. Still, nowadays, many mail servers
are able to support email attachments of 20 megabytes or more in size.

In 1971, as a test e-mail message, Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail to himself. This email was
contained the text "something like QWERTYUIOP." However, the e-mail message was still
transmitted through ARPANET, despite sending the e-mail to himself. Most of the electronic
mail was being sent as compared to postal mail till 1996.

Differences between email and webmail

The term email is commonly used to describe both browser-based electronic mail and non-
browser-based electronic mail today. The AOL and Gmail are browser-based electronic mails,
whereas Outlook for Office 365 is non-browser-based electronic mail. However, to define email,
a difference was earlier made as a non-browser program that needed a dedicated client and email
server. The non-browser emails offered some advantages, which are enhanced security,
integration with corporate software platforms, and lack of advertisements.

Uses of email

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Email can be used in different ways: it can be used to communicate either within an organization
or personally, including between two people or a large group of people. Most people get benefit
from communicating by email with colleagues or friends or individuals or small groups. It allows
you to communicate with others around the world and send and receive images, documents,
links, and other attachments. Additionally, it offers benefit users to communicate with the
flexibility on their own schedule.

There is another benefit of using email; if you use it to communicate between two people or
small groups that will beneficial to remind participants of approaching due dates and time-
sensitive activities and send professional follow-up emails after appointments. Users can also use
the email to quickly remind all upcoming events or inform the group of a time change.
Furthermore, it can be used by companies or organizations to convey information to large
numbers of employees or customers. Mainly, email is used for newsletters, where mailing list
subscribers are sent email marketing campaigns directly and promoted content from a company.

Email can also be used to move a latent sale into a completed purchase or turn leads into paying
customers. For example, a company may create an email that is used to send emails
automatically to online customers who contain products in their shopping cart. This email can
help to remind consumers that they have items in their cart and stimulate them to purchase those
items before the items run out of stock. Also, emails are used to get reviews by customers after
making a purchase. They can survey by including a question to review the quality of service.

History of E-mail

Advantages of Email

There are many advantages of email, which are as follows:

Cost-effective: Email is a very cost-effective service to communicate with others as there are

several email services available to individuals and organizations for free of cost. Once a user is
online, it does not include any additional charge for the services.

Email offers users the benefit of accessing email from anywhere at any time if they have an
Internet connection.

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Email offers you an incurable communication process, which enables you to send a response at a
convenient time. Also, it offers users a better option to communicate easily regardless of
different schedules users.

Speed and simplicity: Email can be composed very easily with the correct information and
contacts. Also, minimum lag time, it can be exchanged quickly.

Mass sending: You can send a message easily to large numbers of people through email.

Email exchanges can be saved for future retrieval, which allows users to keep important
conversations or confirmations in their records and can be searched and retrieved when they
needed quickly.

Email provides a simple user interface and enables users to categorize and filter their messages.
This can help you recognize unwanted emails like junk and spam mail. Also, users can find
specific messages easily when they are needed.

As compared to traditional posts, emails are delivered extremely fast.

Email is beneficial for the planet, as it is paperless. It reduces the cost of paper and helps to save
the environment by reducing paper usage.

It also offers a benefit to attaching the original message at the time you reply to an email. This is
beneficial when you get hundreds of emails a day, and the recipient knows what you are talking
about.

Furthermore, emails are beneficial for advertising products. As email is a form of

communication, organizations or companies can interact with a lot of people and inform them in
a short time.

Disadvantages of Email

Impersonal: As compared to other forms of communication, emails are less personal. For
example, when you talk to anyone over the phone or meeting face to face is more appropriate for
communicating than email.

Misunderstandings: As email includes only text, and there is no tone of voice or body language
to provide context. Therefore, misunderstandings can occur easily with email. If someone sends

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a joke on email, it can be taken seriously. Also, well-meaning information can be quickly typed
as rude or aggressive that can impact wrong. Additionally, if someone types with short
abbreviations and descriptions to send content on the email, it can easily be misinterpreted.

Malicious Use: As email can be sent by anyone if they have an only email address. Sometimes,
an unauthorized person can send you mail, which can be harmful in terms of stealing your
personal information. Thus, they can also use email to spread gossip or false information.

Accidents Will Happen: With email, you can make fatal mistakes by clicking the wrong button
in a hurry. For instance, instead of sending it to a single person, you can accidentally send
sensitive information to a large group of people. Thus, the information can be disclosed, when
you have clicked the wrong name in an address list. Therefore, it can be harmful and generate
big trouble in the workplace.

Spam: Although in recent days, the features of email have been improved, there are still big
issues with unsolicited advertising arriving and spam through email. It can easily become
overwhelming and takes time and energy to control.

Information Overload: As it is very easy to send email to many people at a time, which can
create information overload. In many modern workplaces, it is a major problem where it is
required to move a lot of information and impossible to tell if an email is important. And, email
needs organization and upkeep. The bad feeling is one of the other problems with email when
you returned from vacation and found hundreds of unopened emails in your inbox.

Viruses: Although there are many ways to travel viruses in the devices, email is one of the
common ways to enter viruses and infect devices. Sometimes when you get a mail, it might be
the virus come with an attached document. And, the virus can infect the system when you click
on the email and open the attached link. Furthermore, an anonymous person or a trusted friend or
contact can send infected emails.

Pressure to Respond: If you get emails and you do not answer them, the sender can get annoyed
and think you are ignoring them. Thus, this can be a reason to make pressure on your put to keep
opening emails and then respond in some way.

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Time Consuming: When you get an email and read, write, and respond to emails that can take
up vast amounts of time and energy. Many modern workers spend their most time with emails,
which may be caused to take more time to complete work.

Overlong Messages: Generally, email is a source of communication with the intention of brief

messages. There are some people who write overlong messages that can take much time than
required.

Insecure: There are many hackers available that want to gain your important information, so
email is a common source to seek sensitive data, such as political, financial, documents, or
personal messages. In recent times, there have various high-profile cases occurred that shown
how email is insecure about information theft.

Different types of Email

Newsletters: It is studying by Clutch, the newsletter is the most common type of email that are
routinely sent to all mailing list subscribers, either daily, weekly, or monthly. These emails often
contain from the blog or website, links curated from other sources, and selected content that the
company has recently published. Typically, Newsletter emails are sent on a consistent schedule,
and they offer businesses the option to convey important information to their client through a
single source. Newsletters might also incorporate upcoming events or new, webinars from the
company, or other updates.

Lead Nurturing: Lead-nurturing emails are a series of related emails that marketers use to take
users on a journey that may impact their buying behavior. These emails are typically sent over a
period of several days or weeks. Lead-nurturing emails are also known as trigger campaigns,
which are used for solutions in an attempt to move any prospective sale into a completed
purchase and educate potential buyers on the services. These emails are not only helpful for
converting emails but also drive engagement. Furthermore, lead-nurturing emails are initiated by
a potential buyer taking initial action, such as clicking links on a promotional email or
downloading a free sample.

Promotional emails: It is the most common type of B2B (Business to Business) email, which is
used to inform the email list of your new or existing products or services. These types of emails
contain creating new or repeat customers, speeding up the buying process, or encouraging

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contacts to take some type of action. It provides some critical benefits to buyers, such as a free
month of service, reduced or omitted fees for managed services, or percentage off the purchase
price.

Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts way of communication
between mobile devices. Our Mobile Communication tutorial is designed for beginners and
professionals.

Mobile communications refers to a form of communications which does not depend on a

physical connection between the sender and receiver. It facilitates the users to move from one
physical location to another during communication.

Our Mobile communication tutorial includes all topics of history and application of wireless
communication, satellite systems, GPS, 2G, 3G, reference model etc.

Web Conferencing

Web conferencing is any type of online meeting that involves two or more participants in
different locations. These participants could be anywhere in the world. With a reliable internet
connection and conferencing software, they can see, talk, and hear each other in real-time.

They include;

Webinars

Webcast:

Web Meeting

Online Collaboration

Online Presentations

Function of web conferencing

Web conferencing allows users to conduct business meetings and seminars, lead

presentations, provide online education and offer direct customer support via remote

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keyboard mouse control. Control of the session can be passed among users, so any attendee can
act as the main presenter.

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OVERVIEW OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Characteristics of a programming Language – 

A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good readability, and be
human recognizable.

Abstraction is a must-have Characteristics for a programming language in which the ability to

define the complex structure and then its degree of usability comes.

A portable programming language is always preferred.

Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily converted into a
machine code and executed consumes little space in memory.

A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is suitable for
application development.

Necessary tools for the development, debugging, testing, maintenance of a program must be
provided by a programming language.

A programming language should provide a single environment known as Integrated

Development Environment(IDE).

A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.

ALGORITHMS

What is an algorithm

A finite set of instruction that specifies a sequence of operation is to be carried out in order to
solve a specific problem or class of problems is called an Algorithm.

A programming algorithm is a procedure or formula used for solving a problem. It is based
on conducting a sequence of specified actions in which these actions describe how to do
something, and your computer will do it exactly that way every time. An algorithm works by
following a procedure, made up of inputs.

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Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning.

An Algorithm Development Process

Step 1: Obtain a description of the problem.

Step 2: Analyze the problem.

Step 3: Develop a high-level algorithm.

Step 4: Refine the algorithm by adding more detail.

Step 5: Review the algorithm

Types of algorithms

Simple recursive algorithms.,Backtracking algorithms., Divide and conquer algorithms.,

Dynamic programming algorithms., Greedy algorithms., Branch and bound algorithms, Brute
force algorithms, Randomized algorithms

What is Algorithm?

The word Algorithm means “a process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or other

problem-solving operations”. Therefore, Algorithm refers to a set of rules/instructions that
step-by-step define how a work is to be executed upon in order to get the expected results.  

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It can be understood by taking an example of cooking a new recipe. To cook a new recipe, one
reads the instructions and steps and execute them one by one, in the given sequence. The result
thus obtained is the new dish cooked perfectly. Similarly, algorithms help to do a task in
programming to get the expected output.
The Algorithm designed are language-independent, i.e. they are just plain instructions that can
be implemented in any language, and yet the output will be the same, as expected.

Characteristics of an Algorithm

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As one would not follow any written instructions to cook the recipe, but only the standard one.
Similarly, not all written instructions for programming is an algorithm. In order for some
instructions to be an algorithm, it must have the following characteristics:
 

Clear and Unambiguous: Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps
should be clear in all aspects and must lead to only one meaning.

Well-Defined Inputs: If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-defined inputs.

Well-Defined Outputs: The algorithm must clearly define what output will be yielded and it
should be well-defined as well.

Finite-ness: The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should not end up in an infinite loops or
similar.

Feasible: The algorithm must be simple, generic and practical, such that it can be executed
upon with the available resources. It must not contain some future technology, or anything.

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Language Independent: The Algorithm designed must be language-independent, i.e. it must
be just plain instructions that can be implemented in any language, and yet the output will be
same, as expected.

Advantages of Algorithms:

It is easy to understand.

Algorithm is a step-wise representation of a solution to a given problem.

In Algorithm the problem is broken down into smaller pieces or steps hence, it is easier for the
programmer to convert it into an actual program.

Disadvantages of Algorithms:

Writing an algorithm takes a long time so it is time-consuming.

Branching and Looping statements are difficult to show in Algorithms.

How to Design an Algorithm

In order to write an algorithm, following things are needed as a pre-requisite:  

 The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm.

The constraints of the problem that must be considered while solving the problem.

The input to be taken to solve the problem.

The output to be expected when the problem the is solved.

The solution to this problem, in the given constraints.

Then the algorithm is written with the help of above parameters such that it solves the problem.
Example: Consider the example to add three numbers and print the sum.
 

Step 1: Fulfilling the pre-requisites 

As discussed above, in order to write an algorithm, its pre-requisites must be fulfilled.  

The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm: Add 3 numbers and print their sum.

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The constraints of the problem that must be considered while solving the problem: The
numbers must contain only digits and no other characters.

The input to be taken to solve the problem: The three numbers to be added.

The output to be expected when the problem the is solved: The sum of the three numbers
taken as the input.

The solution to this problem, in the given constraints: The solution consists of adding the 3
numbers. It can be done with the help of ‘+’ operator, or bit-wise, or any other method.

Step 2: Designing the algorithm

Now let’s design the algorithm with the help of above pre-requisites:
Algorithm to add 3 numbers and print their sum: 

START

Declare 3 integer variables num1, num2 and num3.

Take the three numbers, to be added, as inputs in variables num1, num2, and num3
respectively.

Declare an integer variable sum to store the resultant sum of the 3 numbers.

Add the 3 numbers and store the result in the variable sum.

Print the value of variable sum

END

PSEUDO CODE

Pseudo code is a methodology that allows the programmer to represent the implementation of
an algorithm. Simply, we can say that it’s the cooked-up representation of an algorithm. Often
at times, algorithms are represented with the help of pseudo codes as they can be interpreted by
programmers no matter what their programming background or knowledge is. Pseudo code, as
the name suggests, is a false code or a representation of code which can be understood by even
a layman with some school level programming knowledge.

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Pseudo code: It’s simply an implementation of an algorithm in the form of annotations and
informative text written in plain English. It has no syntax like any of the programming
language and thus can’t be compiled or interpreted by the computer.

Advantages of Pseudocode

Improves the readability of any approach. It’s one of the best approaches to start
implementation of an algorithm.

Acts as a bridge between the program and the algorithm or flowchart. Also works as a rough
documentation, so the program of one developer can be understood easily when a pseudo code
is written out. In industries, the approach of documentation is essential. And that’s where a
pseudo-code proves vital.

The main goal of a pseudo code is to explain what exactly each line of a program should do,
hence making the code construction phase easier for the programmer.

Pseudocode to Add Two Numbers

BEGIN.

NUMBER s1, s2, sum.

OUTPUT("Input number1:")

INPUT s1.

OUTPUT("Input number2:")

INPUT s2.

sum=s1+s2.

OUTPUT sum.

PROGRAM STRUCTURE

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program structure is the overall form of a program, with particular emphasis on the individual
components of the program and the interrelationships between these components

What is the basic structure of a program?

A declaration part and an Execution part. The declaration part is the part where all the variables
are declared. The execution part begins with the curly brackets and ends with the curly close
bracket. Both the declaration and execution part are inside the curly braces.

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