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What is an Operating System.

An operating system is a collection of system program that control and coordinate
the overall operation of a computer system. These program act as an interface
between the hardware and the applications software. It is an interface between the
user and the computer. It manages the resources of the computer namely the central
processing unit, memory and Input/Output devices. Normally transparent to the
user, operating system performs it task without intervention. The user is usually
unaware that the operating system is quietly at work assisting the user in various
ways. Examples are Disk Operating System (DOS), Macintosh, Unix, Linux etc.

Some popular Operating System's are:

Unix:
Multi-tasking, multi-processing, multi-user, protected, with built-in support for
networking but not graphics.
Windows NT:
Multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, protected, with built-in support for
networking and graphics.
Windows 95/98:
Multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for
networking and graphics.
Windows 3.x:
Single-tasking, single-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for
graphics but not networking.
DOS:
Single-tasking, single-processing, single-user, unprotected with no built-in support
for graphics or networking.

NetWare:
Multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for
networking but not graphics.
Windows XP.
Multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, protected, with built-in support for
networking and graphics.
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History of operating systems

In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems.
Electronic systems of this time were so primitive compared to those of today that
instructions were often entered into the system one bit at a time on rows of
mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-
purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or
controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After
programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages
(consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were
introduced that speed up the programming process.

OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including
the computers that helped NASA put a man on the moon.

In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user
had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a
scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and/or punched tape.
The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to
work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be
debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that
Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he
was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the
principles of the Universal Turing machine.

Later machines came with libraries of software, which would be linked to a user's
program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer
code from human-readable symbolic code. This was the genesis of the modern-day
operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge
University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line from which
tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.

Types of an OS.
Batch Processing Operating System
In a batch processing operating system interaction between the user and processor is
limited or there is no interaction at all during the execution of work. Data and
programs that need to be processed are bundled and collected as a ‘batch’ and
executed together.
Batch processing operating systems are ideal in situations where:
 There are large amounts of data to be processed.
 Similar data needs to be processed.
 Similar processing is involved when executing the data.
The system is capable of identifying times when the processor is idle at which time
‘batches’ maybe processed. Processing is all performed automatically without any
user intervention.
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Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at
executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized
scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior.
The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable
response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An
event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-
sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.

Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: Computer operating systems of

this type allow multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. Time-
sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple
user access to a computer through time sharing. Single-user operating systems, as
opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by only one user at a time.
Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not
make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user.
But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time
and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.

Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is

allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system
category, while in case the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks
at a time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of
two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the
operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the
programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-
emptive multitasking. If you are aware of the multi-threading terminology, you can
consider this type of multi-tasking as similar to interleave multi-threading.
Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the
other processes in a defined manner. This kind of multi-tasking is similar to the idea
of block multi-threading in which one thread runs till it is blocked by some other
event. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking.

Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of

independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as
a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could
be linked and made to communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed
computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine.
When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.

Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded
computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to
operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate
with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient
by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded
operating systems.
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Online and Offline Processing: In online processing of data, the user remains in
contact with the computer and processes are executed under control of the
computer's central processing unit. When processes are not executed under direct
control of the CPU, the processing is referred to as offline. Let's take the example of
batch processing. Here, the batching or grouping of data can be done without user
and CPU intervention; it can be done offline. But the actual process execution may
happen under direct control of the processor that is online.

Desktop OS
An operating system is software, consisting of programs and data, that runs on
computers, manages computer hardware resources, and provides common services
for execution of various application software. Operating system is the most
important type of system software in a computer system. Without an operating
system, a user cannot run an application program on their computer, unless the
application program is self booting.

Examples of popular modern operating systems are: BSD, Linux, Mac OS X,

Microsoft Windows and UNIX

Server OS
Server-oriented operating systems tend to have certain features in common that
make them more suitable for the server environment, such as---
1- GUI not available or optional.
2- Ability to reconfigure and update both hardware and software to some extent
without restart,
3- Advanced backup facilities to permit regular and frequent online backups of
critical data,
4- Transparent data transfer between different volumes or devices,
5- Flexible and advanced networking capabilities,
6- Automation capabilities such as daemons in UNIX and services in Windows,
and
7- Tight system security, with advanced user, resource, data, and memory
protection.

Dead Lock
A deadlock is a situation in which two or more competing actions are each waiting
for the other to finish, and thus neither ever does.
In an operating system, a deadlock is a situation, which occurs when a process
enters a waiting state because a resource requested by it is being held by another
waiting process, which in turn is waiting for another resource. If a process is unable
to change its state indefinitely because the resources requested by it is being used
by another waiting process, then the system is said to be in a deadlock.
Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing systems, parallel computing and
distributed systems, where software and hardware locks are used to handle shared
resources and implement process synchronization.
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File system
A file system (or filesystem) is a means to organize data expected to be retained
after a program terminates by providing procedures to store, retrieve and update
data as well as manage the available space on the device(s), which contain it. A file
system organizes data in an efficient manner and is tuned to the specific
characteristics of the device. A tight coupling usually exists between the operating
system and the file system. Some file systems provide mechanisms to control access
to the data and metadata. Ensuring reliability is a major responsibility of a file
system. Some file systems allow multiple programs to update the same file at nearly
the same time.

Types of File Systems:

The following are the major File Systems.
1. Disk File Systems:
It is a file system designed for the storage of files on a data storage device, most
commonly a disk drive, which might be directly or indirectly connected to the
computer.
Example: FAT, FAT32, NTFS, HFS, etc.

2. Flash File Systems:

It is a file system designed for storing files on flash memory devices.
Example: JFFS2, YAFFS.

3. Database File Systems:

It is a new concept of file management in which Instead of hierarchical structured
management, files are identified by their characteristics, like type of file, topic,
author or similar metadata.

4. Transactional File Systems:

This a special kind of file system in that it logs events or transactions to files. Each
operation that you do may involve changes to a number of different files and disk
structures. It is important that they all be executed at the same time. For example,
file system used in bank’s that sends money to other bank electronically. This type
of file system is synchronized and is fault tolerant and having a high degree of
overhead.

5. Network File System:

This type of file system acts as a client for a remote file access protocol, providing
access to files on a server. Example: NFS, FTP, etc.

6. Special Purpose File System:

This type of file system includes systems where the files are arranged dynamically
by software. These are most commonly used by file-centric OS’s such as UNIX.

Process and Thread

Process
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In computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that is being
sequentially executed by a computer system that has the ability to run several
computer programs concurrently.

Thread
A single process may contain several executable programs (threads) that work
together as a coherent whole. One thread might, for example, handle error signals,
another might send a message about the error to the user, while a third thread is
executing the actual task of the..

Importance of operating system / Role of an Operating System

1. It moderates the relationship between the computer and its peripherals
2. It helps in the management of files,- copying, deleting, moving of files from
one storage location to the other.
3. It encourages the memory for its efficient usage and thus adding the speed of
the computer.
4. It manages the activities of the processor in terms of job execution according
to the priority of arrival, of jobs
5. It informs the user of any hardware or software error
6. It makes communication between the computer and the user or the operator
possible.

Basic functions/features of an operating system

The following are the main function of Operating system.
1) Convenient to I/O Operation.
2) Error detection and Recovery.
3) Resource Management.
a. Processor Management
b. Storage Management
c. Memory management
4) Process Management
5) Communication Management
6) File Management/Data Management

1. Convenient to I/O operation

An operating system makes a computer more convenient to user. Every computer
system has a number of I/O devices, to handle each of them is not only very
complex, but also need an extensive logic. Hence every operating system provides
convenient I/O operation to provide a high interface.

2. Error detection and Recovery:

A Varity of errors can occurs while a computer system is running. These include
internal and external errors. An important function of operating system is to detect
various errors committed by the users and provides them a suitable help to
overcome their problems.
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3. Resource management: As computer system is designed for more than one user,
an essential job of operating system is to manage different resources. The following
are the main points of resource management.

a) Processor management: In multiprocessor environment as there are more then

one processor therefore it is the responsibility of operating system to manage these
many processor, release process from a processor act.

b) Storage Management: When the data is stored in storage devices, provided by

different users, then space is reserved for each users data. This reservation of space
is called storage management, which is provided by O.S.
The O.S is responsible for the following activities in connection with the storage
management.
1. Free space Management.
2. Storage allocation.
3. Disk Scheduling.

c) Memory Management: memory management refers to main memory, RAM

management in which it is the responsibility of operating system to load a program
successfully.
As RAM is mainly divided into two portion
1. System area
2. User area
System files or program are loaded into system area .In early segment of user area
command .com is resided and the rest of memory is available for user’s programs to
be loaded. As there are two types of operating system one is single user operating
system and other is multi user operating system. So separate memory schemes are
adopted in both cases. The main function of operating system in single user
memory scheme is

1. Conventional memory management.

2. Expanded memory management.
3. Extended memory management.
4. TSR management.
5. Device deriver management.
6. Reallocation.
In multi-user system the main function of memory management are
1. Swapping.
2. Reallocation
3. Vertical memory
4. Paging
5. Segmentation
6. Sharing of the memory.

4. Process management: A process is a program in execution. When a program is

being executed by a processor and at the same time another process is supplied to
the processor for execution, then the remaining portion of executing program and a
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new one are compared and small one is executed. After this the remaining portion
of stopped program is executed. This is called process management.
The O.S is responsible for the following activities in connection with the process
management.
1. The creation and deletion of both user and system process.
2. The suspension and resumption of process.
3. The provision of mechanisms for process communication and also for
deadlock handling.

5. Communication management: Direct communication by means of a computer

is not only a trend, but also an important requirement of a modern technology. Now
a day a large number of o.s have facilities to supports LAN (Local area network) in
order to share available resources among different users.

6. Data management/file management:- In data management operating system

perform the following logical operations.
1. Open a file.
2. Create a file
3. Delete a file.
4. Change attribute.
5. Rename a file.
6. Directory management.

SCHEDULING
The allocation of resources in the computer system is one of the most significant
problems faced by the O.S.
The allocation of CPU time (resources) to different jobs, to be processed on the
computer is called scheduling and the module of O.S, which handle this task, is
called scheduler.
The scheduler arranged the jobs in the sequence, based in the priority. In the time-
sharing system, all the resources of the computer are shared among the different
users. As CPU is one of the primary computer resources, so the sharing of CPU
time among different users (jobs) is termed as scheduling. The scheduler has to
make decision that which process should be given CPU time and when and how
much.

OBJECTIVE OF SCHEDULING
The following are the objective of scheduling.
1. To provide a good response/turned around time.
2. To meet the user specification deadlines.
3. To provide a high CPU utilization.
4. To provide a good utilization of other system resources.
5. Avoid the indefinite post prompt.
6. The environment, in which the processes are given priorities, then higher
priorities processes, will be serviced first.
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Methods of scheduling / scheduling algorithms:
The following are the some most known scheduling algorithm. These may be
defined in term of decision mode, a time based priority function and Arbitration
rule.

Non-pre-emitive scheduling algorithm

a. FIFO
b. LIFO
c. SJF

Pre-emptive scheduling algorithm

a. SJN
b. RR
c. MLFBQ
d. PD

Non-pre-emitive scheduling algorithm

(a) FIFO (First-in-First-out): -
In this algorithm all the incoming jobs are placed in a queue and are processed one
by one at first come first out basis. A job at the front of queue is allowed to use the
CPU. One job is assigned to CPU, and then CPU cannot be taken away from it until
it is completed.
FIFO is non-pre-emptive discipline. This kind of scheduling is fair in sense that the
first coming job whether having higher priority or lower, whether short or long will
be processed first. It means that according to this strategy processes are dispatched
according to their arrival time. Hence priority function depends upon real time “r”
that a process spent in the system and may be expressed as:
P = F(r)
i.e. the priority is the function of real time.
It is unfair in the sense that smaller jobs wait for long job and unimportant jobs
make important jobs wait.
Suppose p1 with 10 KB and P2 with 5 KB comes to the system (system executing
1KB/Sec). P1 takes 10 sec and P2 will wait for 10 sec for its turn.

b. LIFO (Last-in-First-out):-
In this strategy the incoming jobs are placed in a STACK and CPU is assigned to
job, which is at the top of the STACK. The priorities are assigned in the reverse
order of processes arrival (The processes priority decreases in real time).
Hence the priority function is
P = F (-r)

c. SJF (Shortest-job-First): -
According to this algorithm, first of all, all active processes are stored according to
their size and shortest jobs are assigned highest priority. It means that a job require
less memory will be give higher priority. So
P = F (-m)
P = priority of the process.
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m = memory occupied by a process.

Pre-emptive scheduling algorithm

a. SJN (Shortest job next):-
In this type of scheduling all the processes are arranged according to their size from
the smaller to larger and highest priority is assigned to the smallest process (require
less memory). The decision mode for this strategy is pre-emptive; while the
arbitration rule for this strategy is random.
Suppose process P1 with 1KB is in execution and at the mean time another process
p1 with 2KB arrive to the system then it will not affect current process, because the
size of new process is larger than current one.

b) RR (round-rabin algorithm):-
In this scheduling method the processes are dispatch in FIFO and no priority is
assigned to any job. All the active jobs are give a limited amount of CPU time
called a time slice.
If a process does not complete before its CPU time expires, then this process is pre-
emptive and CPU is given to the next waiting process. The pre-emptive process is
placed at the back of ready list.
Suppose four processes P1, P2, P3,P4 with 2KB, 3KB, 1KB and 5KB are placed in
ready list and system is executing 1KB/sec. Suppose 10 sec interval are to be
divided into these four processes, so time slice will be 2.5 sec. If a process is
completed in a given time slice then it will be swapped from the list.

When P1 is assigned to CPU, it will be completed in 2 sec. The remaining interval

0.5 sec allocated to P1 will be divided among P2, P3 and P4 time slice.
It means that 8sec will be divided among P2, P3, and p4 so the time slice for these
processes will be 2.66 sec.
Round robin is effective in time sharing system, in which the system needs to
guarantee reasonable response time for interactive users.

NEED OF OPERATING SYSTEM

The following statements indicate the need of operating system.
1. The operating system provides a high-level interface b/w the user and computer.
2. Operating system provides the most effective use of hardware of the computer.
3. Operating system is the most important components of the system software. Its
overall objective is to achieve maximum efficiency in processing.
4. Operating system provides high resources utilization.
5. Error protection, detection, recovery and indication are also the responsibility of
operating system.

Parts of an Operating System / Components of Operating System

As operating system is a very large program and it is inconvenient to put all the
components into a single program. Thus operating system is divided into different
modules.
The three major components of operating system are:
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1. Control program
2. System service program
3. Utility program

1. Control program
The basic function of control program is to control and maintain the operations of
the computers. This component contains the following three major modules
a) Initial program loader
b) Supervisor
c) Job controller

2. System service program:

The purpose of system service program is to support control program, which is also
divided into three portions.
a) Linkage editor.
b) Libertarian
c) Input / output control system.

3. Utility program:
These programs comprise up different utility like, edit, Fdisk etc. In case of MS-
DOS software vender in form of extended files provides them. They are not integral
part of the operating system like others. It is supplied as an extended portion.

Explain the following.

i. Multiprocessing
ii. Multiprogramming
iii. Multithreading

Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing refers to a computer system ability to support more than one
process at the same time. Multiprocessing operating systems enable several
programs to run concurrently. MVS and UNIX are two of the most widely used
multiprocessing systems, but there are many others, including OS/2 for high end
PCs.

Multitasking.
In computing, multitasking is a method where multiple tasks, also known as
processes, share common processing resources such as a CPU. In the case of a
computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any point in
time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task.
Multitasking solves the problem by scheduling which task may be the one running
at any given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn. The act of reassigning
a CPU from one task to another one is called a context switch. When context
switches occur frequently enough the illusion of parallelism is achieved. Even on
computers with more than one CPU (called multiprocessor machines), multitasking
allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs.
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Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is a feature of an OS which allows running multiple programs
simultaneously on 1 CPU. So, say, you may be typing in word, listening to music
while in background IE is downloading some file & anti-virus program is scanning.
These all happen simultaneously to you. Actually programs don’t run
simultaneously, but OS divides time for each program according to priorities. When
the chance of that program comes it runs, after the stipulated time is over, next
program runs & so on. Since this process is so fast that it appears programs are
running simultaneously.
Most of recent O.Ses are multiprogramming. For e.g. Windows XP, Linux

Multithreading:
The ability of an operating system to concurrently run programs that have been
divided into subcomponents, or threads. Multithreading, when done correctly, offers
better utilization of processors and other system resources. Multithreaded
programming requires a multitasking/ multithreading operating system, such as
UNIX/Linux, Windows NT/2000 or OS/2, capable of running many programs
concurrently. A word processor can make good use of multithreading, because it
can spell check in the foreground while saving to disk and sending output to the
system print spooler in the background.

Windows7
What is Windows 7
Windows 7 is an operating system released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009. It
follows the previous (sixth) version of Windows, called Windows Vista.

Like previous versions of Windows, Windows 7 has a graphical user interface

(GUI) that allows you to interact with items on the screen using a keyboard and
mouse. However, Windows 7 is also includes a feature called "Windows Touch"
that supports touchscreen input and multitouch functionality. For example, you can
right-click a file by touching it with one finger and tapping it with another. You can
also zoom in on an image by touching it with two fingers, then spreading your
fingers apart. Windows 7 is bundled with several touch-ready programs that are
designed for touchscreen use.

Windows 7 is available in the following editions:

Windows 7 Home Premium - The standard version installed with most home PCs
and includes all of the features listed above.
Windows 7 Professional - Typically installed on business computers and includes
all the Home Premium features as well as additional features such as Windows XP
mode (XPM) and Domain Join.
Windows 7 Ultimate - The most complete version, which has all of the
Professional features as well as BitLocker data protection and additional language
support.

Windows 7 features:
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Direct Access for Mobile Workers - Allows IT administrators to update Group
Policy settings and distribute software updates any time the mobile device has
Internet connectivity, whether or not the user is logged on. DA supports multi-
factor authentication and encryption.

XP mode - Allows older applications designed for Windows XP to use a virtualized

version of the XP operating system. To the end user, the applications seem to be
running right on the Windows 7 desktop.

Branch Cache - WAN optimization through more effective use of local, read-only
caches.

Bit Locker To Go - Extends on-disk encryption and key management techniques to

portable storage devices.

Virtual hard disk support - Allows you to mount a virtual hard disk (VHD) and
interact with it as if it were a physical drive.

Enterprise Search - Extends search to remote document repositories, SharePoint

sites and Web applications.

App Locker - Allows IT administrators to use Group Policy to specify rules about
what software applications can be run on a particular user's desktop.

Enhanced VDI - Allows administrators to use the same master image for both
remote clients using virtual desktop infrastructure and traditional desktop
computers.

Minimum System Requirements

To install Windows 7 and work your way through the exercises in this book, your
computer
must meet certain specifications.
Windows 7
To run Windows 7, including the Aero desktop experience features, your computer
needs
to meet the following minimum requirements:
 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor
 1 gigabyte (GB) of system memory (RAM) for 32-bit systems; 2 GB for 64-
bit systems
 16 GB of available hard disk drive space for 32-bit systems; 20 GB for 64-bit
systems
 Support for DirectX 9 graphics with Windows Display Driver Model
(WDDM) 1.0 or higher driver and 128 megabytes (MB) memory (to enable
the Aero theme)
 Internal or external DVD drive
 l Monitor with minimum 1024 × 768 screen resolution
 l Keyboard and mouse or compatible pointing device
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 l Internet connection for product activation, accessing online Help topics, and
any
 other Internet-dependent processes

Some features of Windows 7 work only if you have the hardware or network
connections
to support them. For descriptions of the system requirements for specific features of
Windows 7, visit windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows7/products/system-
requirements/.

How to Install Windows 7

The best way to install Windows 7 is to do a clean install. It is not difficult to
perform a clean installation. Before you start the installation process I recommend
that you check Windows 7 System Requirements list to ensure that your hardware is
supported by Windows 7. If you don't have Windows 7 drivers for all your
hardware, it is a good idea to download all the drivers from the hardware
manufacturers website and save all the necessary drivers on a CD-R or a USB drive
before you start the installation.

Windows 7 DVD is bootable. In order to boot from the DVD you need to set the
boot sequence. Look for the boot sequence under your BIOS setup and make sure
that the first boot device is set to CD-ROM/DVD-ROM.

Step 1 - Place Windows 7 DVD in your DVD-ROM drive and start your PC.
Windows 7 will start to boot up.

Step 2 - The next screen allows you to setup your language, time and currency
format, keyboard or input method. Choose your required settings and click next to
continue.

Step 3 - The next screen allows you to install or repair Windows 7. Since we are
doing a clean install we will click on "install now".

Step 4 - Read the license terms and tick I accept license terms. Then click next to
continue.

Step 5 - You will now be presented with two options. Upgrade or Custom
(Advanced). Since we are doing a clean install we will select Custom (Advanced).

Step 6 - Choose where you would like to install Windows 7. Click next.

Step 7 - Windows 7 starts the installation process and starts copying all the
necessary files to your hard drive.

Step 8 - It will go through various stages of the setup and will reboot your system
few times.
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Step 9 - When your PC reboots it attempts to boot from DVD as its the first boot
device. Do not press any key during the boot prompt so Windows 7 will continue
with the installation by booting from the hard drive.

Step 10 - After the reboot your computer will be prepared for first use.

Step 11 - At this stage you need to choose a user name and computer name. Click
next to continue. The user account you create here is the Administrator account
which is the main account for your Windows 7 that has all the privileges.

Step 12 - Choose your password and password hint just incase you forget your
password and need to jog your memory.

Step 13 - You can now type the product key that came with Windows 7 and click
next.

Step 14 - Help protect your computer and improve Windows automatically. Choose
Use recommended settings.

Step 15 - Review your time and date settings. Select your time zone, correct the
date and time and click next to continue.

Step 16 - Select your computer's current location. If you are a home user then
choose Home network otherwise select the appropriate option.

Step 17 - Windows will now finalize the settings for your computer and restart.

Step 18 - After the final restart Windows 7 will start to boot up.

Step 19 - Finally you have the logon screen. Just type your password and press
enter or click on the arrow to logon to Windows 7 for the first time.

Step 20 - After you have logged on to Windows 7 for the first time, you will see
desktop .At this point you can start using your computer. However it may not be
fully configured. You need to make sure that all the hardware is detected correctly
and the necessary device drivers are installed.

Installing drivers in Windows 7

This can be done from the device manager.
Step 1 - To go to device manager click - Start Menu -> Control Panel -> System
and Security -> System -> Device Manager. You will see all your hardware listed
as. You need to check if you have any yellow exclamation marks next to the name
of the devices,. This indicates that the driver has not been installed for this device.
At this stage you can install the driver for this device. To do so, Right Mouse click
on the device you want to install, Update Driver Software...
 16
Step 2 - You can choose to "Search automatically for updated driver software" or
"Browse my computer for driver software". If you have the driver CD or if the
driver is on a USB drive then choose "browse my computer for driver software".
Window 7 will search and install the driver from the CD or you can locate the
driver manually.
Once you have removed all the yellow exclamation marks from the device manager
your Windows 7 configuration would be fully complete.

Linux
Linux History
The emergence of Linux onto the computing scene grew out of the Unix culture. As
an operating system (really a variety of different operating systems with similar
features), Unix long predates the era of desktop computers; Unix was developed in
the mid-1970s when minicomputers and mainframe computers were the norm in the
corporate world. Unix continues to be widely used in this corporate environment, as
well as in the educational world, although it is also often found running on today’s
client-server intranet networks.
The problem with Unix, historically, has been its inaccessibility to programmers
and developers who want to work with it outside the context of corporate or
university computing centers. While versions of Unix have long been available for
PCs, they never had the grace or power of the operating systems available for
minicomputers, mainframes, and today’s servers. In addition, the early commercial
versions of Unix were costly, sometimes costing more than the PC hardware they
were destined to run on.
This lack of accessibility ultimately gave birth to Linux as a means to make a Unix-
like operating system available on a widespread basis.
Linux’s life began in the hands of Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki in
Finland. While the Linux you know today was developed with the assistance of
programmers worldwide, Linus Torvalds still retains control of the evolving core of
the Linux operating system: the kernel.
Torvalds originally intended to develop Linux as a hobby. Early versions of Linux
didn’t have the end user in mind; instead, they provided the barest bones of
functionality to allow Unix programmers the apparent joy of programming the
kernel. As the core of the operating system, the kernel keeps everything running
smoothly—without a stable, powerful kernel, you don’t have an operating system.
But as the team of programmers grew and the base software for a complete
operating system emerged, it became clear to those involved that Linux was
evolving to the state where it could respectably be called an operating system. In
March 1992, version 1.0 of the kernel came into being, marking the first official
release of Linux. At this point, Linux ran most of the common Unix tools from
compilers to networking software to XWindows.
Linux continues to evolve as the preeminent Unix-clone operating system for PCs.
Hardware support is now broad, including the most popular and common
peripherals; performance is strong, giving many PCs power comparable to that of
mid-range workstations such as Sun Microsystems’ SPARC systems. Although
technically today’s Linux is not Unix because it fails to qualify for the brand name,
 17
efforts are under way to add to Linux the features needed to receive full
certification as a Unix operating system.

What is LINUX
Linux is an Operating System. Linux is a free, UNIX work-alike designed for Intel
processors on PC architecture machines. Linux is not UNIX, as UNIX is a
copyrighted piece of software that demands license fees when any part of its source
code is used. Linux was written from scratch to avoid license fees entirely, although
the operation of the Linux operating system is based entirely on UNIX. It shares
UNIX's command set and look-and-feel, so if you know either UNIX or Linux, you
know the other, too.
Linux supports a wide range of software, from TeX (a text formatting language) to
X (a graphical user interface) to the GNU C/C++ compilers to TCP/IP networking.
Linux is also compliant with the POSIX.1 standard, so porting applications between
Linux and UNIX systems is a snap.

Features of Linux
1. Full multitasking
Multiple tasks can be accomplished and multiple devices can be accessed at
the same time.
2. Virtual memory
Linux can use a portion of your hard drive as virtual memory, which increases
the efficiency of your system by keeping active processes in RAM and placing
less frequently used or inactive portions of memory on disk. Virtual memory
also utilizes all your system's memory and doesn't allow memory
segmentation to occur.

3. The X Window System

The X Window System is a graphics system for UNIX machines. This
powerful interface supports many applications and is the standard interface for
the industry.

4. Built-in networking support

Linux uses standard TCP/IP protocols, including Network File System (NFS)
and Network Information Service (NIS, formerly known as YP). By
connecting your system with an Ethernet card or over a modem to another
system, you can access the Internet.

5. Shared libraries
Each application, instead of keeping its own copy of software, shares a
common library of subroutines that it can call at runtime. This saves a lot of
hard drive space on your system.

6. Compatibility with the IEEE POSIX.1 standard

Because of this compatibility, Linux supports many of the standards set forth
for all UNIX systems.
 18
7. Non proprietary source code
The Linux kernel uses no code from AT&T, nor any other proprietary source.
Other organizations, such as commercial companies, the GNU project,
hackers, and programmers from all over the world have developed software
for Linux.

8. Lower cost than most other UNIX systems and UNIX clones
If you have the patience and the time, you can freely download Linux off the
Internet. Many
books also come with a free copy.

9. GNU software support

Linux can run a wide range of free software available through the GNU
project. This software includes everything from application development
(GNU C and GNU C++) to system administration (gawk, groff, and so on), to
games (for example, GNU Chess, GnuGo, NetHack
Hardware Requirements
System Requirements
According to Red Hat, these are the system requirements for running Red Hat
Linux on an Intel platform:
 Intel 386 or greater, through Pentium Pro
 40MB of hard drive space in character mode, or 100MB with X Window
 5MB of memory (although 8 to 16 is recommended)
 Most video cards supported
 CD-ROM drive
 3.5-inch disk drive

Installing Linux
Following instruction can be used to install Red Hat Linux 8.0 on a typical PC.
Follow these instructions to install a Red Hat Linux.
A. Boot your computer by inserting Disk 1 of Red Hat Linux 8.0 in your
CEROM.
B. To install new Red Hat Linux 8.0 system in GUI mode, just press “Enter”
C. Choose “Skip” to skip media test use arrow keys.
D. You will see blue screen followed by message “running anaconda”.
E. From here you will be GUI Installation mode.
F. Welcome to Red Hat Linux, Click “Next”
G. Initial Selection
a. Languages Selection for Installation process: Select “English” and press
“Nest”
b. Keyboard Configuration : Select: U.S English Click “Next”
c. Mouse Configuration: Select 3 Button Mouse PS/2 and Click “Next”
H. Installation type, choose Install: “Custom” and click “Next”
I. Disk Partitioning Setup
a. Choose Automatically Partition and click “Next”
b. Select “Remove all partitions on this system” and click “Next”
 19
c. In Warning Box click “Yes”
d. Next you will see 3 partitions, /bood, /and swap, click “Next”
J. Boot loader Configuration (Use default settings in this window)
a. User GRUB as the boot loader.
b. Do not enter a GRUB password unless needed.
c. Click “Next” ( this will skip you to Networking Configuration)
( Select Network configuration according to your requirement)

What Is a Distribution?
The concept of a distribution can be a little hard to understand in a world of
commercial operating systems such as Windows 98 and NT, Mac OS, and even
commercial Unix systems such as Solaris and HP-UX.
After all, in all these cases, the name of the operating system denotes a very specific
product. For instance, Windows 98 defines the complete set of Windows utilities,
applications, and drivers that Microsoft ships. There is no room for variation. Any
application, driver, or utility that users adds to their systems is not considered part
of Windows 98, and Windows 98 doesn’t technically exist as a product with less
than its complete set of software and tools.
In the Linux world, however, this definition becomes blurred. The term “Linux” can
refer to everything from the kernel (the heart of the operating system) to any
collection of Linux-based applications put together with a kernel to produce a
functioning system running Linux.
This lack of a clear set of applications, utilities, drivers, and a kernel that together
can clearly be identified exists because Linux has opened the door to different
flavors of Linux that meet different needs. These are the distributions.
Distributions can be built on different versions of the kernel, can include different
sets of applications, utilities, tools, and driver modules, and can offer different
installation and upgrade programs to ease management of the system.
It might seem that with this type of flexibility would come chaos. This is a logical
deduction. After all, how is it possible to have potentially infinite varieties of Linux
and yet have some level of reasonable assurance that Linux applications can be
installed and run on any of these systems?
Luckily, this tends to work: in all the diversity that is Linux is an underlying thread
of similarity that provides the compatibility needed to develop applications that can
be used on most Linux systems.
At the heart of most Linux distributions is a common set of basic programs,
utilities, and libraries that application developers can reasonably expect to find in a
Linux system. In addition, most Linux distributions now adhere to such standards as
the Linux File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS).
Therefore, large-scale commercial applications such as Netscape Communicator or
Corel WordPerfect can be developed for Linux and be expected to work on the
majority of Linux systems. Even if a component, such as a program or library, upon
which an application depends is missing, it can be downloaded from one of the
large Linux software repositories on the Internet to enable the application to work.
 20
The Major Distributions
There are numerous Linux distributions. In recent years, though, five distributions
have emerged as the most common: Red Hat, Slackware, Caldera, S.u.S.E., and
Debian. These distributions have some of the longest histories in the Linux
community, and together they control the lion’s share of the market. In addition, all
five distributions are freely available, which has made them the bases for other
distributions and for commercial packages that include a Linux distribution.
After these five, there is a second tier of Linux distributions that includes some
long-standing distributions such as Yggdrasil, and newer distributions such as
Turbo Linux.
Red Hat Linux
By most counts, the Red Hat Linux distribution from Red Hat Software has
emerged as the favorite Linux distribution for most users. This distribution is the
target, or base, distribution for many commercial Linux software developers and is
the benchmark against which many Linux distributions are measured.
Red Hat has gained fame particularly for its tools for installing and upgrading the
operating system and for its well-designed system for installing, uninstalling, and
tracking software application packages.
Red Hat Linux has also won awards, including InfoWorld’s Reader’s Choice and
Browser’s Choice Awards in March 1998. Red Hat Linux came first in a survey of
InfoWorld’s Web site visitors that asked readers to indicate their choice for product
of the year (receiving 27 percent of the vote, well ahead of the number two package,
OS/2 Warp 4, which had just over 8 percent). Red Hat Linux has also been used in
projects that have proven the commercial viability of Linux, including animation
work for the movie Titanic.
Red Hat Linux is available in a free version that can be downloaded from popular
Linux archives on the Internet and in a reasonably priced $50 commercial version
that includes a manual, a CD-ROM, and several commercial applications to
supplement its collection of free software.
Slackware Linux
Before Red Hat Linux came to fame, Slackware was the distribution to beat.
Slackware is still a popular distribution and is found on CD-ROMs from many
vendors, including InfoMagic and Walnut Creek, the official home of Slackware,
which offers a CD-ROM set of Slackware that includes support.
The distribution offers the full range of expected utilities, tools, and applications,
including X Windows, development tools such as the GNU C Compiler, PPP
support, full Java support, and the Java SDK (Developer’s Kit) for Linux. Like
most Linux distributions, Slackware offers the Apache Web server for using Linux
to set up an intranet or Internet Web site, as well as several freely available Web
browsers.
Caldera OpenLinux
Caldera caused a stir in both the Linux and the broader computer markets by
trumpeting the call of supportable commercial Linux. Now the call has been
roundly taken up by other Linux vendors, most notably Red Hat. The idea is to offer
tested, stable, and supported versions of Linux that appeal to the corporate market
and to application developers who want a secure target distribution of Linux to
develop for.
 21
Caldera currently is working on several initiatives that promise to broaden the reach
of Linux, including a powerful, customizable Linux administration system that it
plans to make available to the Linux community.
S.u.S.E. Linux
S.u.S.E. Linux is a popular Linux distribution available primarily in Europe and is
offered in both English and German versions.
The version of S.u.S.E. available at the time of this writing is unique in several
ways when compared against the major distributions.
S.u.S.E. is menu-driven installation program has been lauded by some magazines as
the simplest around, although the competition for easy-to-install distributions is
heating up considerably. The boxed version of the distribution also includes a 400-
page manual.

Kernel
The closer layer to Unix/Linux hardware is kernel. Kernel is responsible for all
resources management activities that includes
 Memory management

 Process Management

 Scheduling

 File Management

 Execute all the commands

 Handling all the errors

The kernel is launched when you turn on your computer and remain running no
matter what software or shell you run. In many ways, you as a user will not have to
think about the kernel you jus need to know that it works.

Shell
The shell or command processor provide an interface to the users to interact with
the kernel. In timesharing systems a shell is shared by all users sitting at various
terminals making Unix/Linux as a multi-user Operating System. All shell performs
the following three functions.
 It reads the user commands

 It checks the commands for syntax errors.

 If syntax is correct, it processes that instruction to kernel, which in turn

activate hardware to process the command.

Shells have mainly two types. These are.
 The $ shell: For users are called Borne shell. These are written by the

programmers at the Bell Lab. USA.

 The % shell: For the users are called the C Shell. These are written by

the programmers at the California Barkeley University.

 22
Linux Commands
1. PWD (Present Working Directory)
Purpose
This command is used to display the name of the directory, which will be currently
used by the user.
Format / syntax
pwd
Example
$ pwd
\home\tba

2. Man
Purpose
The man command is used to display the online LINUX manual page for a given
command, file, subroutine and so on. If you do not know the full name of the item
for which you want help, you can use the LINUX wildcard to specify the object
name.
For example, if you want to find out about the find command, execute the following
command.

man find

If you want to find out help for cat command, execute the following command.

man cat

to find help about passwd command, execute the following command.

man passwd

3. KILL
Purpose
The kill command is used to send signals to the processor. The kill command
terminate the process unless the process has the appropriate logic to accept the
signal and respond differently. Unless you are logged in as the root user, you can
kill only the processes initiated by you.
Use the kill command carefully because it immediately ends any specified
processes.

Example.
If you are running a command in the background and think it has gone into a loop,
you will want to terminate it. If the process number is, for example, 2060, execute
the following command.
kill 2060
if, for some reason, this command does not kill it, use the stronger version.
kill –kill 2060
 23
4. chmod
Purpose.
This command is used to change the modes of a file or directory. The modes are
access permission controlling who can and cannot access the file or directory.
Permission for a file or directory can be specified for the following.
 Owner: User who created the file.
 Group: The group to which the owner belongs
 Others: Users other than the owner and users in the group to which the owner
belongs.
The permission granted to the owner, group and other is derived from three bits
associated with read, write and execute for the file. The combination of these three
bits is expressed as an octal number and is used to designate the permission. The
weight associated with the read bit is 4, the weight associated with the write bit is 2,
and the weight associated with the execute bit is 1. The value of the permission is
derived as follows.
( 4 value of read bit) + ( 2 value of write bit) + ( 1 value of execute bit)

The value of the permission vary from 0 (no read, write, or execute permission) to 7
(read, write and execute permission)

Example
Suppose that you want the file testfile to have these permission.
 Owner with read, write and execute permission.
 Group with read only permission
 Others with execute only permission
To assign these permissions, you must execute the following command.
chmod 741 testfile
If you want to set up the permission for testfile owned by you in the current
directory so that only you and users in your group can read write the file, execute
the following command using absolute permissions.
chmod 660 testfile
If you want to add write permission for the group for testfile in the current directory
(assuming that currently testfile has 741 permission), execute the following
command.
chmod g+w testfile
Similarly, if you want to revoke the read permission for others for testfile in the
current directory, execute the following command.
chmod o-r testfile.
If you want to grand the same permissions to the others as the group for testfile in
the current directory has, execute the following command.
chmod o=g testfile.
5. rm
Purpose.
The rm command removes files permanently from the disk. To remove a file from a
directory, you do no need either read or write permission to the file, but you do
need write permission to the directory containing the file. The rm command is
 24
usually used to remove files, but it provides a special flag –r to remove files in a
directory recursively, including the directory and its subdirectories.

Example
Delete the file ‘foo’ rm foo
Delete the files ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ rm foo bar
Delete all files and directories (dangerous) rm –rf*

6. mv
Purpose
If you are not satisfied with a file name, you may want to name the file differently.
The mv command let you do that. In addition, the mv command allows you to move
files from one directory to another, retaining the original filename. This action is
equivalent to copying the files from the source directory to the destination directory
and then removing the file from the source directory.
Examples
Move the file to the directory /foo mv file /foo
Move the file to /foo and change name to bar mv file /foo/bar
Change the filename from ‘foo’ to ‘bar’ mv foo bar

7. cp
Purpose.
The cp command can be used to make copy of the contents of one or more source
files as specified target files. If the target file already exits, it is overwritten with the
contents of the source file. The behaviour of the cp command varies depending on
whether the source and the target are files or directories.
Examples.
Copy file foo to bar under current directory cp foo bar
Copy file foo to different directory with same name cp foo /u/target_dir/
Copy file foo to different directory with different name cp foo /u/bar

8. mkdir
Purpose
To create a directory, use the mkdir command. The mkdir command accepts
multiple directory names for creation at the same time. You can use a relative path
name or an absolute path name to create a directory. To create a directory, you must
have write permission for its parent directory. Linux uses the current permission
setting to set the permission for the directory.

Examples
Create a directory temp under current directory mkdir temp
Create a directory temp in a different directory mkdir ../u/temp

9. rmdir
Purpose
When you are done with a directory or you run out of space and want to remove a
directory, use the rmdir command. You can remove a directory only if it is empty,
 25
that is, if all the files and directories in it have been removed. You can specify
multiple directories name as arguments to rmdir command. To remove a directory,
you must have write permission to the parent directory.
You can use the –p flag with rmdir command. The –p flag removes all the
directories in the specified path name.

Examples
If your current directory is /u/testuser, and it contains the test subdirectory, you can
remove temp with this command.
Remove a current working directory temp
rmdir temp
if the directory temp is not empty, you will get a message similar to the following.
rmdir: Directory temp is not empty.

10 ls
Purpose
The ls command can be used to inquire about the various attributes of one or more
files or directories. You must have read permission to a directory to be able to use
the ls command on that directory and the files under that directory. The ls command
generates output to standard output, which can be redirected to a file using the
LINUX redirection operator >
You can provide the names of one or more filenames or directories to the ls
command. The file and directory names are optional. If you do not provide them,
LINUX processes the current directory.
By default, the list of files within a directory is sorted by filename. You can modify
the sort order by using some of the flags.
Simple listing: ls
Long listing: ls –l
Show hidden: ls – a
Be recursive: ls - R

11. Find
Purpose.
If you are not sure where a particular file is stored, use the find command to search
for the particular file. The find command gives you the flexibility to search for a file
by various attributes, such as name, size, permission, and so on. Additionally, the
find command allows you to execute commands on the found that are found as a
result of the search.

The format of the find command is as follows:

Find directory-name search-expression
The directory-name can be a full path name for the current directory

12. More
Purpose.
 26
The more command can be used to display the contents of a files one screen at a
time. By default, the more command displays one screen’s worth of data at a time.
However, the number of lines displayed can be modified. The more command
pauses at the end of each page of display. Press the spacebar to display the next
page; press the Return or Enter key to display the next line. The more command is
typically used when output from other commands is piped to the more command for
display.
Examples
More filel
If you want to start from the bottom of the rather than at the top of the file and go
backwards, use +g flag as in the following command.
More +g filel
If you want to start the display of the file at line number 20 of filel, use the
following commands.

More +20 filel

If you want to display the five files filel, file2 file3, file4, and file5, execute the
following command:
More filel file2 file3 file4 file5

13 Tail
Purpose
You can use the tail command to display a file, on standard output, starting at a
specified point form the top or bottom of the file. Whether the tail command starts
at the top of the file or at the end of the file depends on the parameter and flags
used. One of the flags, -f, can be used to look at the bottom of a file continuously as
it grows in size. By default, tail displays the last 10 lines of the file.
Examples
If you want to see last 10 lines of the file, execute the tail command without any
flags as follows:
Tail filel
If you want to skip 17 lines from the start of the file, execute the following
example:
Tail +17 filel
In this example, the display starts at the 18 th line from the top of the file. If you want
to specify an absolute line number from which to display the file, use the –n flag as
in the following example.
Tail –n –5 filel
In this example, the display starts at to 5 th line from the bottom. It you want to
display the lines of filel in reverse order, use five –r flag as in the following exampl:
Tail –r –n –5 filel
In this example, the last five lines are displayed in reverse order, with the last line
list.

14 Head
Purpose.
 27
The head command displays a file on the standard output. The head command starts
at the top of the file and displays the specified number of lines from the top of the
file. By default, head displays 10 lines.
Examples
Head filel

15 Shutdown
Purpose
This command is used by the super user to change the state of the computer. By
default it bring the system to a state where only the console has the access to the
LINUX system. It is console command.
Format
shutdown [options]
where options are
-y Without confirmation from the users
-g It is used to change the default period of 60 seconds to user to end and
complete all the task before the system is shutdown.
-I specify the state that should be put in following warning if any.
There are two main states
0 Shut the machine down so that it is safe to remove the power
1 Bring the machine to single user state
Example
# shutdown
It will shutdown the Linux system by giving the 60 seconds to the users to
logout and save the work
# shutdown -g 40
It will shutdown the Linux system by giving the 40 seconds to the users to
logout and save the work
# shutdown -I 1
This command will change the machine state from multi-user system to single user
system.

17 write
Purpose
This command is used to send the message to the specified user right at the time
when you type message. It sends the real time message to on line user.
Format
Write user name list
Message
…………………………
………………………..
Z^
Where : User name list is the user id of the users to whom you want to send the
message.
Message is the message which you to want send to users typing of message is
complete by pressing ctr+z keys.
 28
Examples
$ write Asad, Ambreen
Welcome to the TBA Computer Institute
Z^
This command will display the message to the users Asad and Ambreen.

18. Cat
This command is used for creating, concatenating and displaying short files.
Example
# cat>dict
red: rojo
yellow: amarillo
black: negro
white: blanco
blue: azul
green: verde

<ctr+d>
#
The symbol > tells the computer that what is typed is to be put into the file dict:
By pressing ctr+d we mean to hold down the control key, while it is down press d.
The above command will create a file named dict. The contents of the file will be
the English spanish words.
Now to display the contents of the file we use the command.
# cat dict
red: rojo
yellow: amarillo
black: negro
white: blanco
blue: azul
green: verde
#
To joint (Concatenate) two files use this command.
# cat dict temp>dict2
This command will join dict & temp and will create a file named dict2.

19. whoami
whoami command displays the login name of the current user. Suppose the
current user name is Jerney, to display the name of the current we use this
following command.
# whoami
Jerney
20. grep
Use this command to search for information in a file or files, suppose we have
a file dict whose contents are.
red rojo
green verce
 29
blue azul
white blanco
Then we can look up items in our file like this.
grep red dict
red rojo

grep blanco dict

white blanco

grep brown

notice that no output was returned by grep brown. This is because “brown” is
not in our file “dict”.
21. bg
The bg command is used to force a suspended process to run in the background. For
example, you might have started a command in the foreground (without using &
after the command), and realized that it was going to take a while, but that you still
needed your shell. You could take that process that is currently running and hold
down the Ctrl key, and, while it is held down, press the Z key. This places the
current process on hold. You can either leave it on hold, just as if you called your
telephone company, or you could place that process in the background by typing bg.
This then frees up your shell to allow you to execute other commands.

22. unzip
The unzip command will list, test, or extract files from a zipped archive. The default
is to extract files from the archive. The basic syntax is unzip <filename>. unzip
tba
23 zip
The zip command will list, test, or add files to a zipped archive. The default is to
add files to an archive.
zip tba

24. clear : This command clear the screen. The syntax is : Clear

Windows Server 2008

Windows Server 2008 is the server operating system developed by Microsoft. It is

considered the successor to Windows Server 2003 and boasts new features such as
Server Core, an optional installation which allows administration completely via the
command-line interface.

In Windows Server 2008, Microsoft rolled together the Manage Your Server and
Security Configuration Wizard from Windows Server 2003 into the Server Manager
console, which allows administrators to conduct many server tasks.
 30
Active Directory received a major update in Windows Server 2008, with expanded
Group Policy and identity management features. Other updates include Active
Directory Rights Management Services and Federation Services.

Hardware requirement for Installing windows server 2008

To use Windows Server 2008 you need to meet the following hardware
requirements:
1. Processor :
• Minimum: 1GHz (x86 processor) or 1.4GHz (x64 processor)
 Recommended: 2GHz or faster
2. Memory :
Minimum: 512MB RAM
• Recommended: 2GB RAM or greater
3. Available Disk Space :
• Minimum: 10GB
• Recommended: 40GB or greater
4. Drive :
DVD-ROM drive
5. Display and Peripherals :
• Super VGA or greater-resolution monitor (800x600)
• Keyboard
• Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

Active Directory (Action Directory)

Active Directory is Microsoft's trademarked directory service, an integral part of the
Windows 2008 architecture. Like other directory services, such as Novell Directory
Services (NDS), Active Directory is a centralized and standardized system that
automates network management of user data, security, and distributed resources,
and enables interoperation with other directories. Active Directory is designed
especially for distributed networking environments.
Active Directory features include:
 Support for the X.500 standard for global directories
 The capability for secure extension of network operations to the Web
 A hierarchical organization that provides a single point of access for system
administration (management of user accounts, clients, servers, and
applications, for example) to reduce redundancy and errors
 An object-oriented storage organization, which allows easier access to
information
 Support for the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) to enable
inter-directory operability
 Designed to be both backward compatible and forward compatible

Roles in Windows Server 2008 R2

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Server roles in Windows Server 2008 R2 are used to organize the functionality of
the operating system. The server roles are an expansion of the server roles of
previous versions of Windows, with significant enhancements. Roles usually
include a number of related functions or services that make up the capabilities that
the server will offer. A role designates a primary function of the server, although a
given server can have multiple roles.
Windows Server 2008 R2 includes the following roles:
 Active Directory Certificate Services
 Active Directory Domain Services

 Active Directory Federation Services

 Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services

 Active Directory Rights Management Services

 Application Server

 DHCP Server

 DNS Server

 Fax Server

 File Services

 Hyper-V

 Network Policy and Access Services

 Print and Document Services

 Remote Desktop Services

 Web Server (IIS)

 Windows Deployment Services

 Windows Server Update Services

Features in Windows Server 2008

In addition to the roles and role services, Windows Server 2008 R2 also has the
ability to add features. Features are typically supporting components that are
independent of the server role, but might provide support for a role or role service.
For example, a domain controller is configured with the Active Directory Domain
Services role. However, in some organizations, the domain controller will also
serve as a Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) server. WINS is a feature in
Windows Server 2008 R2.
There are many different features in Windows Server 2008 R2, including the
following:
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 NET Framework 3.5.1 Features
 Background Intelligent Transfer Service (BITS)
 BitLocker Drive Encryption
 BranchCache
 Connection Manager Administration Kit
 Desktop Experience
 DirectAccess Management Console
 Failover Clustering
 Group Policy Management
 Ink and Handwriting Services
 Internet Printing Client
 Internet Storage Name Server
 LPR Port Monitor
 Message Queuing
 Multipath I/O
 Network Load Balancing
 Peer Name Resolution Protocol
 Quality Windows Audio Video Experience
 Remote Assistance
 Remote Differential Compression
 Remote Server Administration Tools
 RPC over HTTP Proxy
 Simple TCP/IP Services
 SMTP Server
 SNMP Services
 Storage Manager for SANs
 Subsystem for UNIX-Based Applications
 Telnet Client
 Telnet Server
 TFTP Client
 Windows Biometric Framework
 Windows Internal Database
 Windows PowerShell Integrated Scripting Environment (ISE)
 Windows Process Activation Service
 Windows Server Backup Features
 Windows Server Migration Tools
 Windows System Resource Manager
 Windows TIFF IFilter
 WinRM IIS Extension
 WINS Server
 Wireless LAN Service
 XPS Viewer

Installation of Windows server 2008

 You need to boot from Windows server 2008 CD/DVD and from the first
screen select language and keyboard input click next
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 Next screen shows you welcome screen click install now.
 If you have the product key enter and click next.
 Select your windows server 2008 product version and check box at the bottom
of the screen click next.
 Accept the license click next.
 You need to click on custom installation
 Next you need to create you hard drive partitions
 Installation process will start.
 Windows server 2008 installation process completed now it will automatically
reboot your server.
 After rebooting you will be asked administrative password.
 Enter administrator password two times and click on arrow mark –>

To create a new computer account using the Windows interface

1. To open Active Directory Users and Computers, click Start, click Control
Panel, double-click Administrative Tools, and then double-click
Active Directory Users and Computers.
2. In the console tree, right-click Computers.
Where?
o Active Directory Users and Computers\domain node\Computers
Or, right-click the folder in which you want to add the computer.
3. Point to New, and then click Computer.
4. Type the computer name.

To delete a computer account using the Windows interface

1. To open Active Directory Users and Computers, click Start, click Control
Panel, double-click Administrative Tools, and then double-click
Active Directory Users and Computers.
2. In the console tree, click Computers.
Where?
o Active Directory Users and Computers\domain node\Computers
Or, click the folder in which the computer is located.
3. In the details pane, right-click the computer, and then click Delete

Group Policy
Group Policy is an extremely powerful Microsoft technology, which allows
network administrators in charge of an Active Directory domain to impose
configuration options on computers and users on that domain. Amongst the
capabilities of Group Policy are:
 The ability to deploy software to computers or users automatically
 Apply startup and shutdown scripts to computers, and logon/logoff scripts to
users.
 Deploy printers to users or computers
 Redirect system folders (such as My Documents) to a network location
 Apply password and security policies to machines or users
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 Enforce any of thousands of different configuration options relating to
Windows, Explorer, the Start Menu, the Desktop, as well as specific software
packages such as Microsoft Office.

Group Policy is a fully hierarchical system, with policies implemented at lower

levels inheriting settings from those defined above. Administrators can apply
policies to Active Directory sites, domains and organizational units, and configure
filtering by security group or WMI query to specifically target users or computers to
apply policies to.

Create a new organizational unit

 Open Active Directory Users and Computers.
 In the console tree, right-click the folder in which you want to add an
organizational unit.
Where?
 Active Directory Users and Computers/domain node/folder
 Point to New, and then click Organizational Unit.
 Type the name of the organizational unit.

Delete an organizational unit

 Open Active Directory Users and Computers.
 In the console tree, right-click the organizational unit in which you want to
delete.
Where?
 Active Directory Users and Computers/domain node/organizational unit
 Click Delete.

Install a DNS server

1. Open Server Manager. To open Server Manager, click Start, and then click
Server Manager.
2. In the results pane, under Roles Summary, click Add roles.
3. In the Add Roles Wizard, if the Before You Begin page appears, click Next.
4. In the Roles list, click DNS Server, and then click Next.
5. Read the information on the DNS Server page, and then click Next.
6. On the Confirm Installation Options page, verify that the DNS Server role will
be installed, and then click Install.