COMMUNICATION STUDIES

GATHERING AND PROCESSING DATA

MODULE 1
OBJECTIVES FROM CAPE COMMUNICATION
STUDIES SYLLABUS (2019)
Determine the appropriateness of data collection methods and instruments,
including the use of the Internet as an electronic resource;

Evaluate the effect of primary and secondary sources, context and medium (or
channel) on the reliability and validity of information;

Locating primary and secondary sources;

Defining key concepts (authority, reliability, validity, bias, fact, opinion):

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lecture, students should be able to;

● Determine the appropriateness of data collection methods

● Define key terms associated with the research process
● Identify different types of sources and provide examples of each
● Identify advantages and disadvantages of data collection methods
● Evaluate the validity and reliability of sources by examining the author,
context and text
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

“a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions about the relationship

between two variables (Tuckman, 1999). It is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon.

It involves the investigation of facts and then formulating a generalization based

on the interpretations of those facts.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE

Quantitative Research strives to be systematic, precise and accurate as it tries to

determine reliability, validity, objectivity and truth. It uses numbers and numerical
correlations to measure and analyse causal relationships between variables.

Eg. What is the relationship between gender and A level exam results among first
year students at MCC?
QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Research is interdisciplinary, interpretive, political and theoretical in
nature. It attempts to create a sense of the larger realm of human relationships. It
considers alternative notions of knowledge and is based on the premise that
reality is socially constructed

Social Construct - meanings, ideas placed on objects and events that are created
and accepted by people in a society.

E.g Why does domestic violence often occur among victims who depend on their
perpetrators for financial sustenance?
QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Statistical, Numerical in Nature Theoretical in Nature

Focuses on what can be counted or Focuses on what may be inferred and

measured deduced from observed behaviour

Uses a representative and large sample Uses a smaller, but informative sample

Describes data collected and makes Makes interpretations based on data

predictions based on this collected

Eg’s Descriptive Research, Relationship E.g Historical Research, Ethnography

Based Research, Comparative Research
SOURCES
Research resources are usually thought of as PRIMARY sources and SECONDARY
sources
TYPES OF SOURCES

PRIMARY SOURCES They are first hand records of an event. They are
written, created or recorded during the period under
investigation.

SECONDARY SOURCES They are usually written or produced after the event that they
purport to comment on.
EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
SOURCES
PRIMARY SECONDARY

● DIARIES ● LITERATURE REVIEW

● INTERVIEWS ● TEXT BOOKS
● WORKS OF ARTS ● MAGAZINES
● PICTURES ● JOURNALS
● OFFICIAL AND PRIVATE RECORDS ● NEWSPAPER
● ARTIFACTS ● DICTIONARY
● ORAN HISTORY` ● ATLAS
● ENCYCLOPEDIA
 ACTIVITY
GROUP THE FOLLOWING UNDER THE HEADINGS PRIMARY SOURCES AND
SECONDARY SOURCES;

❏ Mrs Alexander-Smiths’ Class Register

❏ ZJB News commentary of the Under 19 Cricket match last weekend
❏ CXC CAPE results data sheet on passes in Communication Studies for Montserrat
❏ Pure Mathematics Text Book
❏ Little Lenny reporting from Blake’s on the football match
❏ Survey conducted with MSS 5th formers
❏ An Interview with members of the Rastafarian Community on Montserrat about their life and
experiences
❏ A CAPE Student’s portfolio on the Soufriere Hills Volcano
 ACTIVITY
GROUP THE FOLLOWING UNDER THE HEADINGS PRIMARY SOURCES AND
SECONDARY SOURCES

❏ Mrs Alexander-Smiths’ Class Register PRIMARY

❏ ZJB News commentary of the Under 19 Cricket match last weekend SECONDARY
❏ CXC CAPE results data sheet on passes in Communication Studies for Montserrat PRIMARY
❏ Pure Mathematics Text Book SECONDARY
❏ Little Lenny reporting from Blake’s on the football match PRIMARY
❏ Survey conducted with MSS 5th formers PRIMARY
❏ An Interview with members of the Rastafarian Community on Montserrat about their life and
experiences PRIMARY
❏ A CAPE Student’s portfolio on the Soufriere Hills Volcano SECONDARY
EVALUATING SOURCES
ALWAYS USE SCHOLARLY SOURCES: Books, newspaper articles, journal
articles, government documents and reputable websites.

(.gov, .edu. org)

 EVALUATING SOURCES
TAARPP
TIME The date of the article and the timeliness of the information

AUTHOR Credentials of the author

Reference made to other reputable authors/bodies in the text who have authority on or
AUTHORITY knowledge about the topic

RELEVANCE Does the article relate to your topic?

PERSPECTIVE Writing should be unbiased and provide other reputable views on the topic

PURPOSE The reason the writer has chosen to write the piece (intended/desired effect on audience)
EVALUATING SOURCES
● There should be evidence that research was conducted for the paper and this
should be acknowledged through the use of a bibliography or reference list at
the end.
● Also present should be the date of publication.
● You should assess whether or not there is evidence of bias.
● Check to see if the site is reputable
 ACTIVITY
Davaine, a fifty-five year old man witnessed an accident and gave the
following report to the police;

I was on my way to church with my wife and children when i saw the
car speeding at about 90 miles per hour. The driver lost control and
slammed into the Toyota driving in the opposite direction. Myself and
two other passers-by assisted the driver and his wife and two children
from the car. We rushed them to the hospital.
Which of the following could NOT be a source of
data about the accident?

a) Davaine’s wife
b) The driver of the Toyota
c) The Police Officer
d) The passerby
Which of the following could not be a source of data
about the accident

a) Davaine’s wife
b) The driver of the Toyota
c) The Police Officer
d) The passerby
Davaine is a source of information about the
accident because?
a) He is an eyewitness
b) He is a Christain
c) He rushed the driver to the hospital
d) He knows how fast the driver was driving
Davaine is a source of information about the
accident because?
a) He is an eyewitness
b) He is a Christain
c) He rushed the driver to the hospital
d) He knows how fast the driver was driving
 RELIABILITY, CREDIBILITY, VALIDITY

RELIABILITY CREDIBILITY VALIDITY

● Can be ● Can be believed ● Evidence is

relevant to the
depended on to
● Can be accepted issue
on to be
consistent. ● Can be supported

● Can be trusted ● Convincing,

logical and
irrefutable
CONTEXT
This is the circumstances out of which the writing emerges. Also the context is the
aspect of culture or current events that affects the author’s attitude or audience’s
perception.

When you evaluate the context think about;

❖ Where - The Place of publication

❖ When - During what time period
❖ What - The situation which would have occurred during the period when the
piece was created.
OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS
DATA

This refers to the information researchers obtain on subjects related to their

research. It is a collection of facts such as numbers, words, measurements,
observations or just a description of things.

INSTRUMENT

These are measurement tools designed to obtain data on a subject of interest

(research topic)

INSTRUMENTATION

Process of constructing research instruments that can be used for gathering data
CONCEPT QUESTIONS
In a recent discussion among 6th form College students, the issue
of social media as a source of information came up for debate.
Some of the members of the group felt it wa sa new and useful tool
while others warned against its danger.

Source: School’s not out TVJ Cape Communication Studies Lecture

Which of the following would best characterize the information which a researcher
may get from FACEBOOK and TWITTER.

a) ACCURACY
b) RELIABILITY
c) CREDIBILITY
d) CURRENCY
Which of the following would best characterize the information which a researcher
may get from FACEBOOK and TWITTER.

a) ACCURACY
b) RELIABILITY
c) CREDIBILITY
d) CURRENCY
Which of the following would affect the VALIDITY of any information gathered from
social media?

i) Posts are opinionated

ii) Posts may be about past events
iii) Posts may be written by non experts

a) i and ii
b) ii and iii
c) i and iii
Which of the following would affect the VALIDITY of any information gathered from
social media?

i) Posts are opinionated

ii) Posts may be about past events
iii) Posts may be written by non experts

a) i and ii
b) ii and iii
c) i and iii
d) I, ii and iii
 EXERCISE 2
Extracted from Page 122

Read the following statements and discuss which you would identify as a feature of the quantitative
research approach and which is associated with the qualitative research approach.

1. There is a need to confirm a theory by testing it.

2. Generalization of findings is made from specific cases to the wider population.
3. Requires greater interpersonal skill by the researcher in the collection of data.
4. Requires in depth investigation.
5. Generalizations of findings are made from large number of cases to specific cases.
6. There is a specific phenomenon that can be measured.
7. There is no need to explore behaviour.
8. It is likely to be more expensive for the researcher.
 EXERCISE 2
Extracted from Page 122

Read the following statements and discuss which you would identify as a feature of the quantitative
research approach and which is associated with the qualitative research approach.

1. There is a need to confirm a theory by testing it. Quantitative

2. Generalization of findings is made from specific cases to the wider population. Qualitative
3. Requires greater interpersonal skill by the researcher in the collection of data. Qualitative
4. Requires in depth investigation. Qualitative
5. Generalizations of findings are made from large number of cases to specific cases. Quantitative
6. There is a specific phenomenon that can be measured. Quantitative
7. There is no need to explore behaviour. Quantitative
8. It is likely to be more expensive for the researcher. Qualitative
PRIMARYRESEARCH
PRIMARY RESEARCH is that which is original. It is research that the researcher
designs and carries out using surveys and or focus groups.

SECONDARYRESEARCH
SECONDARY RESEARCH depends on accessing information that has already
been research and can be found in books, other publications and expert sources.
PRIMARY SOURCE - An article or other document written by the actual
researcher of a study or creator of a theory.

SECONDARY SOURCE - An article or document written by someone who did not

actually do the research or formulate the opinion or theories but who has pulled
together relevant sources.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

In Primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as
interviews and questionnaires. The key point is that the data you collect is unique
to you and your research. There are many methods of collecting primary data and
the main ones include;

- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Focus group interviews
- Case studies
- Diaries
 RESEARCH/DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Questionnaire

A Questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. Questionnaires can be conducted in person or
delivered to the persons concerned by post, requesting them to respond to the questions and return the
questionnaire.

Informants are expected to read, understand the questions and respond in the space provided on the
questionnaire.
 QUESTIONNAIRE
Advantages

● The cost of administering questionnaires is reasonable when one considers the amount of information
gathered (some online surveys are free).
● A large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of people.
● Questionnaires are not constrained by geographic boundaries; they can be conducted almost anywhere.
● Uniformity - all respondents see exactly the same questions
● Free free from bias of the interviewer, as the respondents answer the questions in his own words.
● No interview bias.
● Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent

Disadvantages

● The rate of non-response is high

● The risk of collection of inaccurate and incomplete information is high, as the question may be written in a
manner that is difficult for the respondent to understand.
● The wrong respondent may be included in the survey (telephone, mail and telephone)
DISADVANTAGES

- Assumes no literacy problems

- No control over who completes the questionnaire
- Not possible to give assistance if required
INTERVIEWS
Technique primarily used to gain and understanding of the underlying reasons and
motivations for people’s attitudes. Personal interviews, also called one-on-one interviews,
usually involve inviting a respondent to a field service location or a research office, and
sometimes interviews are conducted at a person’s place of work or home. There are two
basic types of interviews: structured and unstructured. There is also semi-structured
interview. In a structured interview, standardized questions are asked in a predetermined
order; little freedom is given to interviewers.

In an unstructured interview, broad questions are asked that allow interviewers freedom to
determine what further questions to ask to obtain the required information.
INTERVIEWS
Advantages

● It is the most flexible means of obtaining information because the face-to-face situation lends
itself easily to questioning in greater depth and detail.
● Can ascertain information on the respondent’s body language and facial expression through
observation.
● the interviewer can develop a rapport with the respondents and may be able to elicit replies
to sensitive questions that would remain unanswered in a a questionnaire.
● The identity of the respondent is known.

Disadvantages
● Time and costs are the major drawbacks to the personal interview technique
● There is a potential potential for interviewer bias.
● The physical appearance, age, race, gender, dress, nonverbal behavior, and comments of the
interviewer may prompt respondents to answer questions untruthfully.
● Some level of training and practice is required to conduct interviews. This is not the case for
other data collection procedures.
OTHER COLLECTION METHODS
FOCUS GROUPS

Focus groups are designed to allow participants to discuss the questions and
share their opinions. This means people can influence one another in the
process, stimulating memory or debate on an issue. A moderator leads the
discussion and the main purpose is to gain insights. The advantage of focus
groups lies in the richness of the information generated. The disadvantage is
that findings can not be generalized. You would not be able to apply your
findings to the entire population.
CASE STUDIES
This refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a
small group of people or a single company. Case studies involve measuring what
is there and how it got there. In this sense it is historical.

Advantages

- Enables rich information to be gathering from which useful hypotheses can be

developed.

Disadvantages

- Can be time consuming

- Inefficient when researching situations which are already well structured and
where important variables are already known.
DOCUMENTS AND RECORDS
Record or document review involves systematic data collection from existing records. These include Financial
reports, Monthly reports, Activity Logs and Presentations. Official records can include local government sources
such as the government Ministries, departments, law enforcement, school records. Primary documents are eye
witness accounts written by people who experience a particular event or behaviour. Secondary documents are
those compiled by people who were not present but received the information necessary by examining primary
documents and questioning eyewitnesses.

Advantages

● Low Cost to Access (economical)

● Allows research on subjects which the research does not have easy physical access
● Ease of Data Collection

Disadvantages

● Data may not be up to date.

DIARIES
A DIARY IS A WAY OF GATHERING INFORMATION ABOUT THE WAY
INDIVIDUALS SPEND THEIR TIME ON PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES. THEY
ARE NOT ABOUT RECORDS OF ENGAGEMENT OR PERSONAL JOURNALS.
DIARIES CAN RECORD EITHER QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE DATA.

Advantages

- Useful for collecting information from employees

- Researchers are not personally involved.
- Can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing
- Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited
Disadvantages

- Diarists need to be of a certain educational level

- Confidentiality is required
- Time consuming
- Coding needs to be predetermined
EXERCISE
A group of geography students from Sheng Yeng Secondary School is conducting
research on ocean pollution in the Little Bay area. They plan to use the
questionnaire and two other forms of data collection to gather information for
their research.

1. Identify two other methods students can use?

2. Outline one strength and one weakness of the methods identified?
3. State two ways in which the questionnaire can be administered?
IN CLASS TEST REVIEW
DATA COLLECTION METHODS

● Questionnaires
● Interviews
● Focus Groups
● Observations
SURVEY RESEARCH
In survey research, the two data collection methods that are used
are;

1. Questionnaires - Research instrument consisting of a series of

questions for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
2. Interviews - Formal conversation that occurs between the
Interviewer/Respondent
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaires can include two basic types of questions.

1. Open Ended - requires respondents to generate their own

answers.

2. Close Ended - respondents select answers from a list provided

by the researcher
 OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
Examples:

What could your favourite ● Open Ended questions give

radio station change so respondents an opportunity to
provide detailed, in-depth
that you would listen
responses.
more? ● Can be found on questionnaires,
Why do you subscribe to more commonly used in interviews
● Suggest possible relationship
the Daily Record?
between other answers or variables
 CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS
Examples:
Local television stations ● Answers are easy to quantify and can
have good content in the provide greater uniformity in responses
evenings?
● Responses are easy to analyse
_____agree
● A disadvantage however, is that
_____disagree researchers often fail to include important
responses. One way to solve this is by
including an “other” response.
_____I don’t know
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRES

❏ Make questions clear

❏ Keep questions short
❏ Remember Purpose of research
❏ Don’t ask double barrelled questions
❏ Avoid leading questions
❏ Avoid biased questions
❏ Do not ask questions that ask highly detailed information
❏ Avoid potentially embarrassing questions
Which of these categories include your households total
income?

___ Under 25k

___ 25k - 29k

___30k - 39k

___40k or more
CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS

Yes/No or Agree/Disagree

Do you like to eat mangoes?

____yes

____no
CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice questions allows the respondents to
choose an answer from several outcomes.

Television commercials tell the truth

____All of the time

____Most of the time
____Some of the time
____Rarely
____Never
Close ended questions should be mutually exclusive, i.e only one response
option per question

What is your favourite network?

___ ABC

___USA

___LIFETIME

___BRAVO
SELF ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES
❏ Make questions self-explanatory
❏ Limit the questions to close ended
❏ Use a limited number of question forms
❏ Layout questions clearly and uncluttered
❏ Limit number of instructions
 QUESTIONNAIRE ORDER
All surveys flow best with simple or warm up questions at the
start of the questionnaire.

● Demographic questions
● Personal Questions

Place sensitive questions at the end. Questions on similar

topics should follow each other.
 LAYOUT
Physical design of the questionnaire can determine response
rate. A badly typed, poorly reproduced questionnaire would not
attract many respondents.

Long questionnaires can cause fatigue, low completion rates

and must be avoided. Shorter questions generally guarantee
higher response rates.
PRETESTING
To determine whether a research instrument is adequately
designed, test it.

This is a mini study using a small sample that would help you to
refine questions, remove areas of confusion and
misunderstanding.

Self administered - Pretesting is done with respondents that

would participate in your research.

Telephone Survey - you would call individuals and test questions

PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
Structured Interview - Standardized questions

Unstructured - Broad questions, more flexible, leading to

conversation.

Semi-structured - Researcher starts with list of questions

but allows for flexibility in questions
STEPS FOR CONDUCTING QUESTIONNAIRES
● Select Sample
● Construct the Questionnaire
● Pre-test Questionnaire
● Collect Data
● Analyse Data
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
❏ Instead of using a questionnaire as your instrument, you would
use an interview guide.
❏ Responses can be recorded in a written form or by using a
recording device
❏ Similar to administering questionnaire, purpose of the research
and length of time to conduct interview must be clear before the
questions are asked.
❏ Interviews should sign a form given permission for data to be
used in research
STEPS FOR CONDUCTING PERSONAL INTERVIEW

● Select a Sample
● Construct your questions (Interview Guide)
● Collect Data (2-3 weeks)
● Call Back/Visit, if necessary
● Transcribe Interview
● Analyse Data
CONDUCTING RESEARCH - Sampling
To conduct research, researchers will need to identify the
population that he or she wants to study.

Population- A large collection of individuals or objects who

share a common characteristics, and is the main focus of your
research.

A researcher will find it impractical or even impossible to canvas

the views of everyone in a given population. He/She has to then
ensure that he takes a sample of the total population. The
results from the sample can then be applied to the entire
population.
Sampling
● The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study
in such a way that they represent the larger group from
which they are selected.

● The sample is a portion or fraction or subset of the total

population. It is assumed that the sample is homogeneous
and that the characteristics found in the sample may
reasonably be expected to be found in the whole.
Selecting An Appropriate Sample
What constitutes a well-selected sample?
It must satisfy two basic conditions:

1. It must be numerically large enough to correctly reflect the

views of the whole population in other words; it must be
sufficient or adequate.

2. All segments of the population indicated by relevant variables

such as sex, age, social class, occupation etc. are to be
proportionately included in the sample in other words, it must
be representative.
Three Basic Steps To Sampling

1. Identify the Population

2. Determine the required
Sample Size
3. Select the sample using
sampling methods
Two Types of Sampling

There are two types of sampling, probability and non-probability

Probability sampling, each population member has a known, non-zero
chance of participating in the study. Randomization or chance is the core of
probability sampling technique. In other words, subjects of the population
get an equal opportunity to be selected as a representative sample.

Non -Probability sampling, sample group members are selected

non-randomly; therefore, in non-probability sampling only certain members of
the population has a chance to participate in the study.
Sampling Methods
ACTIVITY

Which of the following explains the difference between probability and non-probability sampling?

1. In a probability sample, the participants are chosen randomly, while in a non-probability sample the
participants are chosen non-randomly.

2. In a probability sample, the participants are chosen by using judgement, while in a non-probability sample
the participants are chosen using a computer program.

3. In a probability sample, the participants are chosen using a convenience sample, while in a non-probability
sample the participants are chosen by flipping a coin.

4. In a probability sample, the participants are chosen through an interview selection process, while in a
non-probability sample the participants are chosen using a random number generator.
Sampling Methods - Probability

1. Simple Random Sampling - Each element of the population has an equal

chance of being selected.
Basic Steps of simple random sampling:

a. Prepare a comprehensive list of all the units in a population of interest

b. Design a method where all the units get equal chances to be selected as a

Sample;

c. Ensure a systematic process of selection where one unit of selection has no

impact on the chances of selecting another unit.

Sampling Methods - Probability

2. Stratified Sampling - Choosing a unit using the simple random method

from each group within a population. In other words, the total population is
divided into smaller groups or strata to complete the sampling process.

Basic Steps of stratified sampling:

1. Define the population
2. Separate the population into strata
3. Decide on the sample size of each stratum
4. Randomly sample from each stratum
Sampling Methods - Probability

3. Cluster Sampling - The sample is obtained by creating clusters (groups)

from the population on the basis of simple random sampling.

Researchers divide a population into smaller groups known as clusters. They

then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.

Basic Steps to Cluster Sample:

1. Define your population

2. Divide your sample into clusters
3. Randomly select clusters to use as your sample
4. Collect data from the sample
Sampling Methods - Probability

4. Systematic Sampling - The initial choice is made randomly and then, using
evenly spaced intervals, the other choices are selected.

Basic Steps of Systematic Sampling:

1. Define your population

2. Decide on your sampling size and sampling interval
3. Select the sample and collect data
ACTIVITY

1. Amanda is putting a sample together for a study. Her colleague,

Dean, suggests she uses probability sampling. What type of sample is
Dean suggesting Amanda use?

a. Random
b. Non-random
c. Quotas
d. Self-selection
ACTIVITY

2. Amanda is trying to put a sample together for her study. Her colleague,
Dean, suggests that Amanda use probability sampling to create a sample.
Amanda agrees and decides to use a simple random sample. Which of
the following methods could Amanda use to ensure that she is creating a
simple random sample?
a. Flipping a coin
b. Choosing every 300th name in a phone book
c. Choosing people from different segments of society
d. Looking at subjects' profiles and choosing the best participants
Visual Aid - YouTube Video

Youtube video reinforcing and providing more information on Probability

Sampling.
NON-Probability Sampling

Non -Probability sampling, sample group members are selected

non-randomly; therefore, in non-probability sampling only certain
members of the population has a chance to participate in the study.
Samples are selected based on the researchers discretion.
NON-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience - The researcher selects the sample for

his/her study at his own convenience.
In other words the sample is easily available to the
researcher, based on the researchers personal discretion.
NON-Probability Sampling Methods

2. Judgement Sampling / Purposive Sampling - The researcher may

exercise his own judgment or uses the judgment of an expert in
selecting cases. In purposive sampling the researcher never knows
whether the cases, selected represent the population.

Purposive sampling is suitable to select unique cases when the

researcher knows that they might be providing relevant and valuable
information that he or she requires
NON-Probability Sampling Methods

2. Snowball Sampling - the researcher starts collection of data from

the person who is known to the researcher, then asks for contact
information for another respondent who can give relevant
information regarding the area of study.

Snow ball sampling is more useful when there are small possibilities to get
the information regarding the population or the population is unknown.
ACTIVITY

1. Purposive sampling is choosing subjects completely at random.

a. True
b. False
ACTIVITY

2. If I conduct an experiment, and choose for my sample whoever walks

by in the mall, that is an example of which of the answer choices?
a. Convenience Sample
b. Systematic Sampling
c. Snowball Sampling
d. Purposive Sampling
ACTIVITY

3. Convenience sampling is using, as a sample, whatever people you

happen to find.
a. True
b. False
ACTIVITY

4. Which of the following is not a type of non-probability sampling?

a) Snowball sampling
b) Stratified random sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Convenience sampling
ACTIVITY

4. Which of the following is not a type of non-probability sampling?

a) Snowball sampling
b) Stratified random sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Convenience sampling