COMMUNICATION STUDIES

SPEAKING AND WRITING MODULE 3

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
GENERAL

- demonstrate knowledge of the major forms of communication (oral, written,

non-verbal) and assess their appropriateness for use in specific
communication situations;
- Identify the specific features of verbal and non-verbal communication and
appropriate contexts of use;

SPECIFIC

Facilitators and Barriers to effective communication

Forms of Communication (Verbal and Non-Verbal)
The Context of Communication
COMMUNICATION
Communication is an everyday process and is performed for a number of
purposes. However, in the process of communication we may face problems. For
example, somewhere between the encoding and decoding of a message, it may
get lost. There may be chances of misunderstanding between the sender and the
receiver. This can result in a breakdown of the communication process. The
reasons behind the hurdles occurred in communication are referred to as
Communication Barriers.

A Communication Barrier is any obstacle or problem in the process of

Communication.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
COMMON BARRIERS

1. Physical or Environmental Barriers

2. Language Barriers
3. Educational Background
4. Socio-Cultural Barriers
5. Psychological Barriers
 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Physical Barriers

Barriers in the surrounding or the environment where the communication act is taking
place.

Language Barriers

These occur due to differences in languages, word meanings or pronunciations which

can create confusion among people.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Psychological Barriers

Psychological barriers arise in the minds. Due to status, old age and ego
problems.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Educational History

This can occur when there is a difference in the level of

education between the sender and receiver.

Socio-Cultural Barriers

Culture is a way of life, value and principles. Cultural

differences between people such as differences in
religious practices, language, styles of dress and food.
FACILITATORS
Physical Barriers

● Avoid communicating in areas prone to high levels of noise.

● Prepare ahead of time to avoid disruptions in communication systems
● Always have an alternative plan

Language Barriers

● Have respect for any language prior to learning

● Learn the proper pronunciations, accents and improve your vocabulary
● Choose to communicate using a familiar language
FACILITATORS
Psychological Barriers

● Accept your mistakes and limitations.

● Understand that the sender (encoder) and receiver (decoder) are not always
in a proper frame of mind

Socio-cultural Barriers

● Make an effort to learn new cultures, observe people and respect their
cultures.
● Develop an open mind.
● Understand that no two cultures are the same.
 CONTEXT OF COMMUNICATION
In the process of encoding a message, the sender
has to consider two main things.

1. The context
2. The Audience (receiver)

These factors influence the choice of channel/

medium. In other words, the medium and channel
are directly influenced by the purpose of the
message and the intended audience.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

VERBAL NON VERBAL

SPEECH BODY LANGUAGE, STYLE OF DRESS

WRITING FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, SPACE

EYE CONTACT, GESTURE, POSTURE,

SMILING, GAZING, WAVING
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This form of communication is characterised by oral
and written language. In this form of communication
words are used to bring across a message. Human
beings communicate verbally mainly through speech
and writing. However, speaking, writing, listening and
reading are the four ways in which we use verbal
communication.
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This occurs when information is transferred from the sender to the receiver without
the use of words. In other words, it relies on elements other than speech and
writing. However, it is as important as verbal communication.

Leather (1992) defies non-verbal communication as “the use of interacting sets of

visual, vocal and invisible communication systems to convey and interpret
meaning.”

Non-verbal communication may be used to enhance communicative behaviours.

But in some cases may affect your message.
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION CATEGORIES
Vocalics or Paralanguage - Tone or Voice used when we speak or write. The use
of volume, rate or pitch.

Proxemics - The use of space to communicate

Artifacts - Items of Jewelry or clothing can communicate a message about your

personality or beliefs

Posture and Movement - The body used to convey messages in the form of
posture, gestures, facial expression and eye contact.

Time/Chronemics - The way you use time or chronemics can communicate

attitudes or status

Senses - Messages can be sent through smell, sight, touch, taste.

FUNCTIONS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Substituting - This is where we use non verbal communication to replace verbal.

Reinforcement - This is used to complement or reinforce our verbal communication.

Regulating - Used mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages.

Contradiction - We sometimes use this to contradict our verbal communication.

Managing Impressions - We often manage impressions through the use of non-

verbal communication

Establish Relationships - Formalize bonds, in the case of a marriage.

RECAP Barriers To Communication
What are the main barriers to effective communication, and what can be done to
mitigate these barriers?

What are the forms of communication?

What are the categories of non-verbal communication?

What are the functions of non-verbal communication?

 CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
The context is the circumstances or environment in which the communication act is
taking place. The context influences the type of verbal and non-verbal
communication we use. In determining the appropriateness of the context, we ask
ourselves the following questions.

1. Who is our audience/recipient of the message?

2. What is the attitude of the receiver(s)
3. Where is the communication act taking place?

Communication context occur along a scale from FORMAL to INFORMAL. Formal

Communication is dictated or influenced by social norms. There are no constraints
on behaviour and communication in informal comms.
INTRAPERSONAL
Communication with oneself. This occurs when we are stimulated by our own thoughts.
Often this ability is manifested in the things that give us pleasure such as fantasizing
and daydreaming. Additionally, body physically mechanisms signal pain, hunger and
pleasure.
Forms of Intrapersonal Communication
❏ Internal discourse - thinking, analysis, daydreaming,
contemplation and meditation.
❏ Solo vocalising - Speaking aloud to oneself
❏ Solo writing - unpublished writing such as diaries, notes to self
and writing of goals.
INTERPERSONAL
This involves one on one interaction with another individual, but may involve
more than two persons. E.g Interviews, Dialogue and Conversations.
Six Styles of Interpersonal Communication
These styles are particularly for the workplace but are also observed in other
contexts.

1. Controlling - one way type communication - Giving directives.

2. Egalitarian - Encourages feedback and mutual understanding/agreement in
the decision making process.
3. Structuring Style - Following rules and regulations
4. Dynamic Style - Use of persuasive techniques to motivate the receiver
5. The Relinquishing Style - Gives control to the receiver. Allows the receiver to
take control of the decision making process.
6. Withdrawing Style - Characterised by lack of interest/leadership
GROUP COMMUNICATION
This is characterised by leadership, equal sharing of ideas, roles and
norms, focus on a common goal and often occurs face to face. The small
group is one of the most important communication systems. Egs are the
family, interview teams, business groups, and groups constituted for the
purpose of work, decision-making or problem solving.

When groups become too large, noise can affect the communication
process.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
This can also be referred to as institutional or organizational
communication. It is the exchange of information for the purpose of
advancing the goals, objectives and profitability of an organization. It is
a specialised area that can incorporate interpersonal, small group,
public and mass media. It is especially important to business,
government, and educational institutions and accounts for what
happens to messages as they travel up, down and around a large
collection of individuals.
Types or Patterns of Communication in a Business

1. Vertical - Downward/
Upward
2. Horizontal - Across the
organisation
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
This takes place where one person communicates with others in a public setting
and where the person is the dominant focus of the communication act. It is
characterised by a speaker or speakers and an audience. The speaker(s) is/are
the primary sender(s) of messages, while the others function as receivers of that
message.

➢ Seminar
➢ Public Consultation
➢ Political Rallies
➢ Concerts
ACADEMIC CONTEXT
Communication occurring in a learning institution (College,
Universites). Aural, Oral and written communication are all part of the
academic communication process.

Academic communication is used by students and lecturers

MASS COMMUNICATION
This occurs where a message needs help to get from point A to point B – from its
source/sender to its destination/receiver. It means communicating from one
person/small group or business to a large heterogeneous group of people. Some
form of mechanism is needed to connect the sender to the receivers. These
include print (newspapers or magazines), electrical (radio, television or video), or
electronic (computer modems). There is usually some delay in sending and
receiving. There is also some delay in the feedback, if any, that the sender gets
from the receiver.
Activity 1
Describe the type of interpersonal communication style:

1. A mother instructs her child to complete his, or her

homework and then go to bed.

What type of business communication is demonstrated in the

scenario below:

2. Your colleague at work meets you outside the office and

says the following, “Did you know the company is going
through financial challenges and may not be able to pay staff
this month? They are trying to fix it before month-end”.
Communication Strategy
The plan of action/approach to achieve a/your communication goal and objectives.

Factors influencing your communication strategy:

1. Goal/Intention - What are you trying to achieve?

2. Audience (age, gender, culture)
3. Context - (The environment-Where? Or Situation).
INTERCULTURAL CONTEXT
This is also referred to as cross-cultural communication and describes what
occurs when the sender of a message is from a different cultural background than
the intended receiver. It may be found in any other context of communication
whenever one individual speaks to another individual from another country. It is
important to take into consideration the differences in cultures in order to ensure
successful cross-cultural communication.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlsWtHx1L9s
Understanding Intercultural Communication
Leaflet discussion:

● Culture and Intercultural Communication.

● Theories of Intercultural Communication
● Barriers to Intercultural Communication
● Factors that foster Intercultural Communication
Who am I and how
would you communicate
with me?
Who am I and how would you communicate with
me?