Chapter 6

Materials

Selection of materials is very important in structure design, because it directly

affects ship cost and strength. Hence, the structure designer should know well the
characteristics of materials, especially newly developed ones.

6.1 Hull Steel

Mild steel and higher-strength steel are used for hull structure because of their ex-
cellence such as high strength, sufficient ductility, and low price.
Fundamental strength evaluations of the steel are done by a tension test, which
is illustrated in Fig. 6.1.1 as a stress–strain curve. The line from O to A is called
the elastic zone, in which the stress is proportional to the strain, while B to E is
called plastic zone. B and C are called the upper yield point and lower yield point
respectively, and the latter is the nominal yield stress, which is 235–280 MPa for
mild steel in shipbuilding structures. Some materials have no dominant peak on
yield point, in this case the stress corresponding to 0.2% strain is assumed as the
yield stress. As shown in the figure, the elongation becomes much larger after yield,
and the stress reaches a maximum value at D, which is termed the tensile strength,
of 400–500 MPa for mild steel. After that, the strain becomes large and finally the
steel fractures at E or E’; D–E is for nominal stress using the original cross-sectional
area and D–E’ is for actual stress using actual cross-sectional area considering its
reduction.
If it is unloaded in the plastic zone, it goes from F to G in the figure, paral-
lel to O–A, and residual strain O–G remains, while in the elastic condition this
value is zero. If it is loaded again after the plastic deformation, the stress increases
again along G–F, hence, the yield stress is greater than B. This is termed work
hardening.
When a compressive load is applied, the stress–strain curve is symmetric around
point O of Fig. 6.1.1.
In the case of mild steel, strain at the beginning of yielding is 0.01–0.001, and at
failure is 0.3–0.4, therefore it retains some strength after yielding and before failure.
Hence it is assumed that mild steel is a superior material.

M. Mano et al., Design of Ship Hull Structures, DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-88445-3 6, 111


c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009
112 6 Materials

Fig. 6.1.1 Stress-strain curve

Many structural engineers often make the mistake that structural steel always
start with a zero stress condition at the beginning of a life of structures and the
stress goes along line O–A–B– in Fig. 6.1.1 during external loading. However, ac-
tual structure has residual stress initially as described in Sect. 6.8. Hence we have to
know stress and strain conditions at the initial state.

6.2 Grades of Steel

Since rivets were used to join plates and stiffeners in old steel ships before world
war II, cracks often stopped at a rivet hole. However, if a crack occurs in a more
recently built recent welded ship, it can propagate a long distance and it may cause
disaster. Hence, quality to arrest the crack propagation as well as weldability are
required for hull steel. Welded structure ships newly built in USA during World
War II sometimes broke in two under sail in winter with a loud bang. Almost all
of the failure section of the steel were crystalloid on the surface, therefore it was
concluded after the investigations that the failure was brittle fracture. Hence IACS
regulated the application of ship hull steel, categorized as A, B, C, D, and E in
accordance with the notch toughness.
Grade A steel is widely used. Rimmed steel is allowed to be used up to and
including 12.5 mm in thickness, otherwise killed or semi-killed steels should be
used. There is no requirement for the impact test of a specimen.
Grade B steel is killed or semi-killed steel. It has higher notch toughness than A
steel. Grade C is no longer used.
Grade D steel has much toughness as defined by impact tests. The value of ab-
sorbed energy is specified by whether cracks were arrested or not in previously
6.2 Grades of Steel 113

Table 6.2.1 Mechanical properties of hull steel

built ships. D steel is also killed or semi-killed steel up to and including 25 mm in

thickness.
Grade E steel is used as a crack arrester, hence it is highest grade. It is killed
steel.
Examples of mechanical properties and chemical composition from the NK rule
are shown in Tables 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 respectively. Impact tests are defined for both the

Table 6.2.2 Chemical properties

114 6 Materials

roll direction and the normal direction at each test temperature, because absorbed
energy by the impact test depends on the direction of the specimen and temperature
as shown in Fig. 6.2.1 [36]. Chemical compositions are defined by the percentage
of C, Si, Mn, P, S, etc. The larger the percent of carbon, the stronger it becomes,
but the ductility, toughness, and weldability become worse. Hence, the percentage
of carbon is restricted to within about 0.2%, and Si and Mn are added in lieu of it.
P and S are also limited within 0.04% each. In order to prevent welding cracks, the
carbon equivalent is defined by the following equation:

Fig. 6.2.1 Absorbed energy of mild steel

6.2 Grades of Steel 115

Mn
K or K32 : Ceq = C + (%) (6.2.1)
6

Mn Cr + Mo +V Ni + Cu
K46 : Ceq = C + + + (%) (6.2.2)
6 5 15

Application of the steel grade depends on the region of the of hull and plate
thickness. An example of a 60,000 DWT bulk carrier is shown in Fig. 6.2.2 [37], in
which high grade steels are used for the bilge strake, round gunnel, and hatch side
plate on the upper deck.

Fig. 6.2.2 Application of steel grade

116 6 Materials

6.3 Higher-Strength Steel

Higher-strength steel is recently widely used in main hull structures, because of de-
creasing material costs and hull steel weight, resulting in increased dead weight and
ship speed. At first, it was expensive and the welding procedure for it was difficult
and complicated, however it is now not so expensive and is easy to weld thanks to
improvements in the steel making process. Hence its application has expanded the
extent that 60–70% of total hull steel uses it in recent merchant ships.
The newly developed higher-strength steel is termed CR (Controlled Rolling)
or TMCP (Thermo Mechanical Controlled Process) steel, which improves notch
toughness and weldability by the treatment of rapid water cooling using control
cooling technology during steel making. The plate has a finer grain size than that of
conventional higher-strength steel, and hence increases strength.
Classification societies regulate scantling reduction formulas for higher-strength
steel by using a coefficient k based on yield stress criterion. Coefficient k is a ratio
of yield stresses such as 0.78 for K32, 0.72 for K36 as examples of the NK rule.
In general, the plate thickness is multiplied by the square root of k and the section
modulus of stiffener multiplied by k. For example,
√
Bulkhead plate in deep tank : th = k(tms − 3.5) + 3.5 (6.3.3)
tms : thickness for mild steel
3.5 mm means corrosion margin
Stiffener in deep tank : Zh = kZ ms (6.3.4)
Zms : section modulus for mild steel
On the other hand, the fatigue strength of higher-strength steel does not increase
proportionally with yield strength, therefore it is necessary to take care of design
details and working procedures, especially stress concentrations around the welding.
In addition, consideration of deflection and buckling strength are necessary, because
plate scantlings decrease relative to the yield stress.

6.4 Steel Sections

There are steel sections as well as steel plates in hull steel materials, having several
shapes as shown in Fig. 6.4.1; angle, bulb plate, and flat bar. Angle steel is widely
used for longitudinals, of 100–350 mm depth. Sectional geometry of the angle is
standardized in steps. Therefore welded built-up sections, using combinations of
web plate and face plate, are applied for large sized sections.
Usually the steel sections have higher toughness and strength compared with the
built-up section, and are easy to work with because of less assembly welding.
6.6 Scattering of Material Properties 117

Fig. 6.4.1 Steel sections of stiffener

6.5 Other Materials

Cast steel is used in a part of the stern frame, rudder, propeller bossing, hawse pipe,
etc., where the shape is complex and strength is needed. Compared with cast iron,
its ductility, strength, and weldability are excellent. It is necessary to pay attention
to avoiding high residual stress due to the welding of connecting parts to the steel
plate. If needed, annealing or other stress relief process will be carried out. The stern
frame was once made by the cast steel wholly, but now a combination of built-up
steel is used.
Forged steel is used for rudder stock, rudder pintle, etc., where the shape is simple
and strength is needed.
Aluminium alloy is used in high-speed boats and tank structures for liquefied
gas, because of the advantage of light weight, excellent corrosion resistant, and its
strength regarding brittleness toughness in the cold. The specific gravity of the alu-
minum alloy is one third of mild steel, and the yield strength is two thirds, therefore
it is favorable in saving ship weight. However, special tools or facilities are neces-
sary for the fabrication and assembly of it.

6.6 Scattering of Material Properties

It is very important to know well the characteristics of hull steel in order to evaluate
the structural strength. Even for mild steels the values of yield stress and ten-
sile strength vary widely in accordance with their grade, specification, size, tem-
perature, steel making company, rolling conditions, and even part in one plate.
Higher-strength steel also has a scattering in its strength. Table 6.2.1 only shows
the lower limit or range of the strength and the actual value is not always the same.
Figure 6.6.1 is an example of a mill sheet, which is the inspection certificate of each
steel plate, describing actual mechanical properties and chemical compositions. The
specified yield point of this plate is 235 MPa, but it is observed that actual yield point
of this plate is 309 MPa.
Figure 6.6.2 shows the scattering of the yield stress and the tensile strength of
mild steel, obtained from the mill sheet on delivery to the shipyard, in which the
stress varies over a range of 100 MPa. These histograms seem approximately to
have a normal distribution, shown as the curve in the figure. The standard deviation
is 15–20 MPa
 118
6
Materials

Fig. 6.6.1 Example of mill sheet

6.6 Scattering of Material Properties 119

Fig. 6.6.2 Scattering of strength of mild steel

Strength differs also with the roll direction (L) and the normal direction (T), usu-
ally that of the L direction is higher than that of the T direction. The difference
in the tensile strengths of L and T is now not so large, but that of toughness is
larger. Hence, plates of longitudinal strength members must be arranged longitudi-
nally along the L direction. The strength of a plate in the thickness direction (Z)
is less than that in the in-plane direction. Therefore, if the tension force along the
Z-direction is loaded through a rib or stiffener, tearing inside the plate may occur,
which is termed lamellar tearing (Fig. 6.6.3).
120 6 Materials

Fig. 6.6.3 Examples of lamellar tears

Material properties depend on temperature, and Fig. 6.6.4 shows temperature-

dependent characteristics of Young’s modulus, yield stress, and coefficient of linear
expansion [38]. Steel reduces in strength beyond 400◦ C and loses it at about 700◦ C,
and the coefficient of linear expansion increases gradually in accordance with the

Fig. 6.6.4 Temperature dependency of material properties

6.7 Scattering of Physical Properties 121

Fig. 6.6.5 Fracture stress in lower temperature

temperature. On the other hand, for temperatures below 0◦ C the strength increases
with temperature decrease; however, it decreases sharply when materials have de-
fects or residual stresses caused by welding as shown in Fig. 6.6.5 [39]. These cause
brittle fracture at low temperature.

6.7 Scattering of Physical Properties

Plate thickness also varies depending on the roll condition in accordance with the
steel maker, material properties, nominal thickness, etc., and the classification so-
cieties regulate the minus tolerance in plate thickness being 0.3 mm. The plus er-
ror will be no problem, but we should pay attention to the minus error, because it
causes a reduction in strength. Figure 6.7.1 shows measurements of actual thick-
ness before fabrication in a shipyard [40]. It is known that the error spreads over a
wide range. The plate thickness may be reduced due to the press bending with sharp
angle.
Reduction of the plate thickness by corrosion is well known; it also causes cracks
or buckling. Figure 6.7.2 shows a statistical analysis of the plate thickness reduction
for both deep tank and water tight bulkheads as an example [41]. It is necessary to
know the actual plate thickness in the case of damage analysis.
122 6 Materials

Fig. 6.7.1 Scattering of plate thickness

6.8 Residual Stress [42]

In accordance with the recent prevalence of computer hardware and software due
to lower price and easy operation, hull structure design has become more reliable
and accurate by applying direct calculation methods. This is especially true when
structural analysis becomes more precise by using FEM analysis. If the structural
FEM model is more large and fine, the stress will be calculated more precisely.
On the other hand, it is well known that structural materials have some resid-
ual stresses from the heat process of steel making and assemble processes (cutting,
bending, welding, straightening, etc.), and these affect the ship hull strength. It is
necessary to consider the residual stresses in structure design in order to evaluate
6.8 Residual Stress [42] 123

Fig. 6.7.2 Frequency distributions of annual corrosion rates

the strength more precisely, while these are usually not considered in FEM calcula-
tions so far because the stresses are not exactly known.
Higher-strength steel such as TMCP (Thermo-Mechanical Control Process) steel,
in conjunction with controlled rolling and controlled cooling, has been widely
adopted recently in hull structure. It is said that the TMCP steel plate as rolled
has greater residual stress around the plate edges, and also the stresses is distributed
intricately inside the plate.
When constructing a ship’s hull, residual stresses occur during surface prepara-
tion such as shot blasting, and also occur at various stages. The plastic deformation
results after the heat treatment such as welding, cutting, straightening, and line heat-
ing. Residual stress occurs due to mechanical processing such as press bending, and
the self weight and outside forces.
The residual stresses are thought to affect the hull strength as follows;
• buckling in the skin plate
• fatigue cracks from welding beads
• brittle fractures in the vicinity of butt welding