Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Performance analysis of the water-injected centrifugal vapor

compressor
Haoyu Yin , Hong Wu , Yulong Li *, Jin Quan
National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero Engines Aero-thermodynamics & Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Aero-Engine,
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In industrial production, mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) technology is becoming more widely
Received 8 October 2019 used. The performance of MVR will be further enhanced, if it can be combined with the wet compression
Received in revised form technology. However, the water-injected vapor compression is different from the wet air compression. In
25 March 2020
addition, the working environment of the centrifugal compressor is more complicated, which has
Accepted 31 March 2020
Available online 9 April 2020
tremendous potential in the MVR system. In this paper, the performance of the water-injected centrifugal
vapor compressor was analyzed by adopting numerical simulation and experimental methods. Since the
injected water is atomized before entering the compressor, this study mainly analyses the impact of
Keywords:
Mechanical vapor recompression
atomization uniformity on the water-injected compression and proposes a method to improve atomi-
Water vapor compression zation uniformity only by changing the parameter of the system. The results showed that excessive
Heat transfer diameter of droplets after atomization affects the stable operation of the compressor and enhancing the
Mass transfer atomization uniformity can greatly reduce the outlet temperature of the compressor. Moreover,
Two-phase flow increasing the water-injection mass flow rate not only reduce the outlet temperature but also improve
atomization uniformity and compression performance, but the excessive water-injection mass flow rate
may cause the compressor to surge.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years, energy and environmental issues have become a
focus of concern around the world. The major energy consumption
in the world is supplied by fossil fuels [1], which leads to global
warming [2]. In order to protect the environment of the earth, it is
essential to find clean energy to achieve sustainable development.
Water has many advantages including environmentally friendly,
non-polluting, accessible, safe and stable. It is often used as a
refrigerant in air conditioning refrigeration, and heat pump tech-
nology [3e6]. The processes of evaporation and condensation are
widely used in industrial production, such as for the treatment of
wastewater [7,8], the desalination of seawater [9e12], and the
production of foods and medicines [13e15]. In these fields, vapor
plays an important role as the most common working fluid. In the
past, the discharged high temperature vapor was not treated, which
resulted in a large amount of energy consumption and low effi-
ciency. Mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) technology came
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liyulong1897@sina.com (Y. Li).
into being due to the utilization of vaporization’s latent heat [16]. In
the MVR evaporation system, the water vapor generated in the
evaporation process is not directly discharged. Instead, the steam is
further treated by a compression process to achieve higher tem-
peratures and pressures. The compression process enables the
water vapor to heat the evaporation medium, which achieves a
high thermodynamic efficiency [17e19]. As only the crystalline
material and liquid water are present after evaporation [20], no
latent heat is wasted in the process of vaporization. Therefore, MVR
has broad prospects for applications and tremendous potentials for
development in saving energy and reducing consumption.
In the MVR system, water vapor compression is the key process.
Experiments have shown that the energy loss during the process of
water-injected vapor compression is the most serious, and the
enthalpy loss of this process is about 37.5% [21]. In order to improve
the application of water and steam in industrial production, it is
urgent to research and develop water vapor compressors. At pre-
sent, the major water vapor compressors mainly include centrifugal
water vapor compressor, screw water vapor compressor and roots
water vapor compressor. There are also reciprocating and axial flow
type compressors [22e24]. Their development limits the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117538
0360-5442/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538
Nomenclature
l Thermal conductivity of the gas phase
g Spread parameter
rg Vapor density
d & de Particle diameter
dp Diameter of droplet
fp & f Molar fractions of liquid water and gaseous water
hfg Latent heat of vaporization
m Mass flow rate
mp Mass of droplet
p Pressure
psat Saturation pressure
t Time
application of the water vapor system [25]. Due to the physical
properties of water, an important issue with water vapor com-
pressors is the high exhaust temperature [26]. The method of
water-injection has been used in air compressors to cool down the
outlets of the compressors, which is often referred to as “wet
compression” [27]. Much systematic research has been conducted
to establish the air-liquid compression model [28e40], such as
theoretical models of air-liquid compression and performed
detailed thermodynamic analyses of different theoretical models.
At the beginning of this century, Bracco’s team [33,34] carried out a
detailed theoretical analysis of the thermal process of the air wet
compression on the basis of previous studies. Their research
showed that wet compression process is mainly restricted by
environmental factors. In addition, they found that wet compres-
sion could increase compression efficiency by 17% through theo-
retical calculations.
Mohan [35] pointed out that the compression work required for
the air compression process is positively correlated with the tem-
perature of the working fluid and the compression work can be
reduced by lowering the temperature of the working fluid. Based on
this theory, Mohan reduced the working temperature by air-
injection spray and obtained the compression efficiency at
different evaporation rates of intake spray. In addition, he pointed
out that the compression efficiency was almost unaffected by the
compression process speed.
Kim, another scholar at the same time as Mohan, also studied
the wet compression process. Kim’s team not only analyzed the wet
compression process of air in detail but also studied the possible
influencing factors in the wet compression process such as the
diameter, the quality, temperature, and other factors of the intake
spray [36e38]. Yang and Zheng [39] investigated the effects of wet
compression on a transonic compressor with CFD three-
dimensional numerical simulation. Sun [40] used the spray the-
ory to analyze the droplet wall interaction and compare the 3D flow
simulation results of elastic and inelastic collision models. It has
been found that the droplet-wall interaction model is important for
wet compression studies.
However, these models all focus on the wet air compression
process in the gas turbine field and they are all air-based and lack
systemic research on the water vapor environment. The water-
injected vapor compression is the heat transfer and phase change
processes of the same material. The vaporization of droplets in-
creases the mass flow rate of the main fluid and thus changes the
operating conditions of the compressor and affects the perfor-
mance of the compressor. In addition, the physical properties of
water vapor are different from those of air. As the working fluid in
the compression process, water vapor is more likely to liquefy and
a,b,n,C1,C2,C3 Coefficient
Cl Specific heat
D10 & D90 Integral distributions
D(4,3) HERDAN mean diameter
Dg Vapor diffusion coefficient
M Mass
Mg Mass of water vapor
Mm Mass of main stream
Nu Nusselt number
R Mass fraction
Sh Sherwood number
SMD Sauter mean diameter
T Temperature
Tp Droplets’ temperature
become tiny droplets suspended in the gas. This makes the process
more complicated in a theoretical analysis and causes the essential
differences in heat and mass transfer characteristics between the
water-injected vapor compression and wet air compression. In
recent years, there has been more research on the water-injected
vapor compression in the MVR system. Shen [41] proposed an
MVC system using a water injection screw compressor. The system
performance was studied by establishing a model to find that this
method can reduce compressor power consumption and com-
pressed steam temperature. Shen [19,42] conducted an experi-
mental study of a water-injected twin-screw compressor. It was
found that the method of water-injection could eliminate the su-
perheat, and the compressor performance is more affected by the
compression speed and the mass fraction of water injection than
the compressor inlet temperature. Hishiki’s team [43] found that
the injecting water could lower the temperature of the outlet at any
pressure ratio, the conditions for which were 10 mm for droplets’
diameter and 2% of the outlet mass flow rate for inject-water mass
flow rate.
Nevertheless, these studies have mainly concentrated on twin-
screw steam compressors [25] and little work has been done to
research studies on the centrifugal compressors. The centrifugal
water vapor compressor has the advantages of large flow and good
dynamic balance, but it also has the disadvantages of high single-
stage temperature, low pressure ratio and small application field.
The major challenge in wide applications is to lower exhaust
temperature while maintaining pressure ratio and ensuring the
safety of long-term operation [44,45], which becomes a major
research direction in the field of the centrifugal water vapor
compressor. Moreover, its mass flow rate is adjusted according to
the actual evaporation amount of the system to maintain the stable
operation of the evaporation system, which makes the operating
environment more complicated. In order to use centrifugal com-
pressors more widely in the field of water vapor systems such as
the MVR and the heat pump, it is necessary to study the mechanism
of the two-phase flow, heat and mass transfer and phase change
during the water-injected vapor compression of centrifugal
compressors.
In this paper, CFD software was adopted to simulate the water-
injected vapor compression process in a centrifugal compressor
and the heat and mass transfer mechanism in the process was
analyzed. Through theoretical and experimental methods, the ef-
fects of atomization uniformity on the vapor compression perfor-
mance with droplets were analyzed. The droplet atomization
experiments were used to study the parameters affecting droplet
atomization and verify the calculation results.
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538 3

2. Models and methods

In this paper, we used a three-dimensional numerical simula-

tion to study the flow and mass and heat transfer of the water vapor
compression in the centrifugal compressor. The influence of spray
parameters on the water vapor compression performance was
analyzed.

2.1. Physical model

The physical model used in this study is based on the CC3

centrifugal compressor designed by NASA [46,47]. The CC3
compressor was originally designed by Allison Engine Company as
a high-efficiency (peak total e total adiabatic efficiency of 85%),
1.66 kg/s compressor with a total pressure ratio of about 4. It was
subsequently scaled to 4.54 kg/s to provide a test article suitable for
detailed diagnostics. The CC3 stage consists of an impeller with 15
main and 15 splitter blades with blunt, constant radius trailing
edges, and a 24-bladed wedge diffuser that exits into an annular
radial-to-axial bend. The specific parameters are shown in as
Table 1.
The CC3 compressor has detailed experimental data. After cal-
culations and comparisons, the calculated data and the experi-
mental data are basically consistent. Therefore, the model it can be
used as an example of CFD to improve the reliability of the calcu-
lations. Although the working fluid designed is air, this model can
still be used acceptable because the molecular weights of water and
air are quite similar. This method is used in the water vapor field
[48] and our previous research.
A multi-block structured grid of about 1,873,000 elements
(Fig. 1) was applied to discretize the computational domain. The
H&I grid was used and the total number of grid layers was 73. The
minimum skewness angle was 16.419, and the maximum expan-
sion ratio was 6.570.
For the flow field calculations, CFX was used for numerical
simulations under no-slip, adiabatic boundary conditions,
including the total temperature, total pressure required by the inlet,
and the average static pressure required by the outlet. The rotating
boundaries were specified by blades and hubs, and the stationary Fig. 1. Grid structure.
boundary was specified by diffuser and shroud. Periodic boundary
conditions existed on both sides of the domain. The turbulent
discrete format adopted the first-order upwind style and the k
ε rate equation and heat transfer equation and combining the NeS
turbulence model with scalable wall function was selected. Every equations of fluid mechanics.
residual converged to 10
5. The results with air as the fluid are The mass equation’s source term is the change of droplets’
shown in Fig. 2. The grid independence was verified first with air as quality, as shown below:
the working medium. The results are shown in Table 2.
According to the results, the grids essentially have little effect on dmp
M¼ (1)
the performance and the error is within the acceptance range. dt
Considering the calculation speed, we selected about 1.873 million. Droplets’ evaporation rate is given as follows [49,50]:


2.2. Control equation dmp Mg 1
fp
¼ pdp rg Dg Sh log10 (2)
dt Mm 1
f
To investigate the water-injected vapor compression, the heat
and mass transfers in the two phases need to be considered. With in whichrg is the vapor density; Dg is the vapor diffusion coefficient;
the phase of water changes, the mainstream control equations are Mg and Mm are the molar masses of water vapor and the main
no longer conserved. stream, respectively; fp and f are the molar fractions of liquid water
In this paper, a 3D numerical model was established to simulate and gaseous water, respectively; and Sh is the Sherwood number.
the water-injected vapor compression by adding the evaporation The energy equation’s source term is the heat absorbed by the

Table 1
CC3 design parameters.

Main blades Splitter blades Diffuser blades Rotational speed/(rpm) Pressure ratio Design mass flow rate/(kg/s) Efficiency %

15 15 24 21,789 4 4.54 85
4 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Fig. 2. Air performance verification.

Table 2
Grid-independence verification.

Number Rotor grids/million Diffuser grids/million Pressure ratio Design mass flow rate/(ks.s
1)

1 1.303 0.570 2.215 1.6640

2 1.675 0.608 2.214 1.6695
3 1.180 0.357 2.215 1.6643
4 1.897 0.535 2.214 1.6510

droplets and given as: operation. The centrifugal nozzle was adopted to provide the spray
required for the experiments.
dTp   dmp In the process of fuel atomization, under the conditions of
mp Cl ¼ pdp lNu T
Tp þ h (3)
dt dt fg constant flow and constant physical parameters, the following re-
lations exists between the mass flow rate and the pressure differ-
in which mp is the mass of droplets; Cl is the specific heat; lis the ence of the centrifugal nozzle:
thermal conductivity of the gas phase; hfg is the latent heat of
vaporization; Tp is the droplets’ temperature; and Nu is the Nusselt
number. pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Due to the phase change in the process, it is necessary to sup-
m_ ¼ C1 Dp (5)
plement the Antoine equation [51] to determine the saturation When the flow and pressure difference are constant, the spray
pressure (Pa) as follows: SMD is given by:

log10(10-5psat)¼A-B/TþC-273.15
in which A is 5.11564; B is 1687.54 K, and C is 230.23 K.
3. Experiments and methods
The experiments were divided into two parts: the droplet at-
omization experiment and the experiment of the water-injected
vapor compression.
3.1. Atomization experiment theory
Before measuring the particle size parameters of the spray, an
atomizing nozzle was utilized to produce a stable, uniform spray.
There are many similarities between the atomization of liquid
water and fuel. Therefore, this paper drew on the fuel atomization
when selecting a nozzle. The centrifugal nozzle is convenient and
only needs to reach the opening pressure and mass flow rate to
work. The use of air atomizing nozzles and oil thrower nozzles is
more stringent and requires high-speed fluid movement during
(4)
SMD ¼ C2 m_ a Dp
b (6)
in which SMD is the Sauter mean diameter.
In combination with the formula above, it can be concluded that
the SMD is only related to the mass flow rate and the nozzle model,
which can be written as follows:
SMD ¼ C3 m_ n (7)
in which a, b, and n are all coefficient.
In fact, after the mass flow rate of the centrifugal nozzle is
determined, the SMD of the spray is determined and the particle
size parameters of the spray and the flow state of the spray system
become constant. According to this theory, the experiments
measured the pressure differences, the particle size parameters,
and the flow state at different mass flow rates by controlling the
mass flow rate. The relation between various parameters and the
change of water-injection mass flow rate was observed.
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538
3.2. Atomization experiment designs
The experiments were designed to achieve two purposes: 1) a
stable and continuous spray effect and 2) measurement of the
particle size parameters of the spray. The experimental system
consisted of an OMCC DP-02 spray particle size analyzer, an LZB-4
glass rotor flow meter, a Y-200 general pressure gauge, and a DJL10/
1.0 mechanical diaphragm pump and atomizing nozzle. The pipe-
line connection of the experiments is shown in Fig. 3.
The OMCC DP-02 spray particle size analyzer used a HeeNe
laser as the emission source. The measurable particle size ranged
from 1 to 1500 mm, and the reproducibility error was less than 3%.
The Y-200 general pressure gauge used in the experiments had a
measurement accuracy of 1.6%. The mechanical diaphragm pump
used in the experiments was a model DJL10/1.0, where 10 repre-
sents the mass flow rate of 10 L/h at full load and 1.0 represents the
pressure of 1 MPa at full load. The power was 60 W at full-load
operation. The nozzle used in these experiments was originally
used to inject atomized diesel into boiler equipment. The spray
shape of the nozzle was a solid cone with spray angles of 60 and
80 . According to the parameters of the pump, the experiments
finally selected an atomizing nozzle with a design mass flow rate of
2 USgal/h and a design pressure of 0.7 MPa.
A safe flow range was set in the tests to ensure that the water
pressure was always within the acceptable range of the pipeline.
Taking into account the loss of water pressure during the flow, the
measurement position of the pressure gauge was close to the
nozzle to avoid interference caused by the external light source to
the measurement of Malvern instrument.
Table 3 shows the accuracy of the measurement system and the
uncertainty under experimental conditions.
3.3. Experiment of the water-injected vapor compression
To study the influence of the water-injected vapor compression
on an MVR evaporation system in industrial production, these ex-
periments were carried out in an MVR evaporation system for the
treatment of electroplating waste. The water vapor compressor has
been retrofitted and the specific modification method is shown in
Fig. 4.
After the spray-generating device added to the inlet of the
compressor, the experimental system (as shown in Fig. 5) was
Fig. 3. Experimental process.
5
Table 3
Accuracy and uncertainty of instrument.
Instrument Accuracy Uncertainty
Spray particle size analyzer ±3% ±10 mm
Glass rotor flow meter ±1.5% ±0.0975 L/h
divided into two parts: a spray system (as shown in Fig. 6) and a
system of the water-injected vapor compression. The spray system
included temperature measuring instruments, pressure measuring
instruments, rotor flowmeters, and chemical centrifugal pumps,
whose functions were spray generation, control, measurement, and
others. The compression system included a centrifugal water vapor
compressor, a plate heat exchanger, a main circulation pump, a
chemical centrifugal pump, measuring instruments, a separation
instrument and a salt pool, which functioned to maintain the stable
operations of the systems. To ensure that the water vapor inlet
mass flow rate was constant, the working conditions of the water
vapor compressor were controlled by adjusting the mass flow rate
of the inlet spray. The export parameters were measured and the
variations of working conditions of the water vapor compressor
under the influence of the intake spray were listed.
The centrifugal water vapor compressor was a model
S00600301. In stable operations, the corresponding speed of the
compressor was 38,013 rpm, the power was 75 KW, and the mass
flow rate was 1000 kg/h. Under design conditions, the water vapor

parameters at inlet were 47.4 KPa and 80 C, and the parameters

were 87.7 KPa and 96 C at the outlet. Due to the high temperature
of the working fluid, it needed to be cooled during use. The heat
exchange area of the plate heat exchanger was 10 m2, which

theoretically can withstand at least 1.0 MPa and 150 C. The specific
working conditions corresponding to the experiment were 1.3 MPa

and 130 C. The main circulation pump was a model ZWQKMZ-250-
B1-1470 with a speed of 1470r/min. At a full-load operation, the
required power was 22kw, and the mass flow rate at outlet was
500 m3/h. The chemical centrifugal pump was a model 1HK25-25-
160-2900 with a speed of 2900r/min. When fully loaded, the
required power was 3kw, and mass flow rate at outlet was 1 m3/h.
The temperature measuring instrument was a model SBWZ-131
 
with a range of 0 Ce150 C. The accuracy of the temperature
measuring instrument was 0.5%, which satisfied the requirements
of this experiment.
6 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Fig. 4. Mvr system retrofit.

Table 4
Accuracy and uncertainty of instrument.

Instrument Accuracy Uncertainty

Pressure gauge ±0.5% ±0.07 KPa

Rotor flow meter ±1.5% ±0.75 kg/h
Temperature measure ±0.5% ±0.65  C

The flow measurement used a rotor flow meter model LZZ-25/

R4/M9/L to measure the mass flow rate at a mass flow rate of
300 kg/h, which was highly accurate.
Table 4 shows the accuracy of the measurement system and the
uncertainty under experimental conditions.

4. Results and analysis

In this section, the numerical results and experimental results

were analyzed separately, and the effects of spray factors on the
water-injected vapor compression were evaluated.
Fig. 5. Mvr system.

4.1. Spray atomization uniformity analysis

In this paper, water vapor was treated as the water ideal gas
[52,53]. The performance curve of the CC3 compressor was calcu-
lated by using water vapor as the fluid to determine the operating
conditions, as shown in Fig. 7.
Centrifugal compressors are sensitive to particles injected into
the compressor. Therefore, we studied the droplets of different
diameters at the inlet. The spray boundary conditions were 1, 5 and
10 mm for the diameter, 1% of the inlet vapor flow rate for the water-
injection mass flow, 215 KPa for the pressure and the uniform in-
jection. The results are shown in Fig. 8.
On the horizontal axis, the range of 0e1 represents the rotor
area, and the range of 1e2 represents the diffuser area. The tem-
perature of the compression without injection at the outlet of the
compressor diffuser was 454.04 K. When the diameter of the
sprayed droplets was 1 mm, the outlet temperature was lowered to
442.35 K. The temperature difference at the outlet was reduced by
Fig. 6. Spray system. about 12 K. The effect of cooling was very obvious. As the diameter
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538
Fig. 7. CC3 compressor performance curve based on water vapor.
increased to 5 mm, the cooling effect of the droplets in the rotor
section deteriorated. However, the final temperature was basically
the same, which was 442.57 K. When the diameter was increased to
10 mm, the cooling effect of the droplets on both the rotor and the
diffuser was reduced, which the final temperature was 445 K. The
reason was that the evaporation time of large diameter droplets
was longer than the small diameter. When the diameter was
increased to 15 mm, the inlet flow violently oscillated. The calcu-
lation stops eventually and the compressor enters surge.
The above calculation results show that the diameter of the
spray droplets affects the effect of water-injected vapor compres-
sion. Cooling effect is stronger when droplets are small. However,
the particle size is not uniform during the actual compression
spray, which contains both large and small droplets. If we consider
the particles as completely uniform, we will ignore some factors
such as the effect of atomization uniformity. The particle size dis-
tribution is based on the Rosin Rammler distribution, referred to as
the RR distribution [54]. An RR distribution can be used to deter-
mine the distribution of the mass flow among particle sizes. The
Fig. 8. The relation between droplets diameter and total temperature.
7
mass fraction, R, above a given particle diameter, d, is was calcu-
lated from

g 
d
R ¼ exp
(8)
de
in which de is a measure of the fineness and is equal to the
diameter at which R is 1/e or 0.368.
The spread parameter, g, is a measure of dispersion of particle
sizes, a lower value indicating a wider dispersion. A typical value of
g for pulverized fuels is 1e1.3 and for sprays is 1.5e3.0. For a nearly
mono-sized distribution, g may have a value of 10e20.
The spray boundary conditions were 5 mm for the diameter, 1%
of the inlet flow rate for the mass flow, and 215 KPa for the pressure.
The water-injected vapor compression was calculated under the
conditions of g ¼ 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, and 5, and the results are shown in
Fig. 9.
The larger the g, the higher the total temperature at the inlet of
the compressor domain, according to Fig. 9, but the total temper-
ature of outlet was lower. When g ¼ 1 and 5, the total outlet
Fig. 9. The relation between RR distribution and total temperature.
8 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Fig. 10. Rr distribution of the calculation.

 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538 9

temperatures were 443.12 K and 442.5 K, respectively. The reason

was that the larger the g, the more uniform the atomization. When
g ¼ 1, the proportion of the particles below 5 mm was more than
g ¼ 5. Small particles evaporated faster, so the above phenomenon
occurred at the inlet. However, there were more particles above
5 mm at the same time as shown in Fig. 10, and the final result was
still better. Compared with the uniformly distributed droplets,
when g ¼ 5, the temperature at the outlet of the compressor was
substantially the same as the case where the diameter was 5 mm.
When g ¼ 1, the compressor outlet temperature was higher than
the uniform distribution. Atomization uniformity affected the
cooling effect due to incomplete evaporation of large droplets.

4.2. Water-injection flow effect analysis

As mentioned above, atomization uniformity affects the per-

formance of water vapor compression, and thus improving atomi-
zation uniformity can help to lower the temperature of the outlet. It
is an important direction to minimize the droplet diameter after
atomization. However, atomization below 10 mm is difficult and
expensive to achieve. To maintain the atomization equipment in Fig. 11. Fitting relations.
the existing system, it is essential to find a way to adjust the at-
omization uniformity by adjusting the system parameters.
Water-injection mass flow is an important tuning parameter and the RR distribution.
during water injection. The effect of water injection flow on at-
omization will be discussed below by atomization experiments.
4.2.1.1. Danfoss 60 solid nozzle data. In the experiment, six
representative data points were selected to describe the atomiza-
4.2.1. Atomization experiments tion process of the Danfoss 60 solid nozzle as shown in Table 5.
The measurement report on the output according to the OMCC The relations among the mass flow rate, and the corresponding
DP-02 spray particle size analyzer includes the diameters from typical particle size parameters of the six data points were analyzed
differential distributions, the diameters from integral distributions by including SMD, HERDAN mean diameter, D10 and D90. The re-
and the RR distribution. sults are as Fig. 11. The detailed results measured by Malvern in-
According to the instrument manual, the diameters of the two strument can be seen in Fig. 12.
differential distributions are D (3,2) and D (4,3), respectively. D (3,2) With computer fitting, the final conclusion is as follows. The
is also called SMD that can ensure that the total volume and total relation between SMD and mass flow is:
surface area are consistent with the real situation. Number 3 rep- SMD ¼
2:2277Q 3 þ 36:325Q 2
197:51Q þ 418:66. The
resents the volume and reflects the total mass of the tiny droplets to goodness of fit is: R2 ¼ 0:9998
be evaporated. Number 2 represents the area and reflects the The relation between the average diameter of HERDAN and the
evaporation speed of the tiny droplets. So, the SMD diameter affects mass flow rate is.
the actual evaporation process of the spray. D (4,3) is called the Dð4; 3Þ ¼
2:9618Q 3 þ 48:69Q 2
265:98Q þ 547:84. The
average diameter of HERDAN and is mainly used for combustion goodness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9999
balance. The diameters of the integral distributions are D10 and The relation between D10 and mass flow is:
D90. In the data analysis below, they are analyzed. D10 ¼
1:4915Q 3 þ 23:244Q 2
121:17Q þ 256:83. The
A comparison of the differential distribution of the particle size goodness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9983
shows the relative relation of the droplets of different diameters, The relation between D90 and mass flow is:
which indirectly reflect the atomization uniformity. If the differ- D90 ¼
4:5411Q 3 þ 75:866Q 2
419:76Q þ 852:7. The good-
ential distribution of particle size shows a distinct state in which ness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9997
the center is high and both ends are low, this means the atomiza-
tion uniformity is better. The slope of the curve can be directly
analyzed to get the atomization uniformity of the spray by the RR 4.2.1.2. Danfoss 80 solid nozzle data. In the experiment, six
distribution. If the RR distribution of the particle size is steep, this representative data points were selected to describe the atomiza-
means that a certain diameter of droplets accounts for the vast tion process of the Danfoss 60 solid nozzle as shown in Table 6.
majority of the total amount of droplets and the atomization uni- The relations between the mass flow rate, and the correspond-
formity is good. In this paper, the atomization uniformity was ing typical particle size parameters are analyzed, and the latter
analyzed by measuring the differential distribution of particle size includes SMD, HERDAN mean diameter, D10, and D90. The results
are demonstrated in Fig. 13. The detailed results measured by
Malvern instrument can be seen in Fig. 14.
Table 5 With computer fitting, the final conclusion is as follows. The
Danfoss 60 solid nozzle data.
relation between SMD and mass flow is:
Data point 1 2 3 4 5 6 SMD ¼
1:6529Q 3 þ 28:07Q 2
165:07Q þ 399:85. The
Mass flow (L/h) 1.9 3.0 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.4 goodness of fit is R2 ¼ 0:9997.
SMD (mm) 159.27 92.87 64.50 61.65 59.56 58.80 The relation between the average diameter of HERDAN and the
D（4,3）(mm) 197.84 108.52 69.26 65.91 64.76 63.55 mass flow rate is:
D10 (mm) 100.51 61.53 48.08 46.36 43.46 43.13 Dð4; 3Þ ¼
4:003Q 3 þ 65:497Q 2
361:56Q þ 744:09. The
D90 (mm) 297.48 155.1 89.07 84.12 84.87 82.75
goodness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9998.
10 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Fig. 12. Results measured by malvern instrument.

Table 6 The relation between D10 and mass flow is:

Danfoss 80 solid nozzle data. D10 ¼
0:912Q 3 þ 14:392Q 2
80:218Q þ 208:41. The good-
Data point 1 2 3 4 5 6 ness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9981.
Mass flow (L/h) 2.0 3.5 4.6 5.2 6.0 6.5
The relation between D90 and mass flow is:
SMD (mm) 168.74 95.25 73.88 67.10 58.45 64.09 D90 ¼
7:7849Q 3 þ 127:22Q 2
695:97Q þ 1364:3. The
D（4，3）(mm) 251.07 108.57 79.00 71.17 67.53 62.31 goodness of fit isR2 ¼ 0:9996.
D10 (mm) 98.19 65.05 55.38 51.03 49.61 43.96 By comparing two different atomizing nozzle experiments, we
D90 (mm) 419.35 151 100.96 89.78 84.00 79.35
concluded that:
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538
Fig. 13. Fitting relations.
(1) The mass flow rate is the only factor that causes changes in
nozzle operating conditions for centrifugal nozzles. Different
particle sizes decrease with the increase of the flow rate.
When the flow rate is gradually increased, the change in the
particle size be comes stable. The cubic polynomial of the
mass flow rates has a high degree of consistency to the
particle size for the two nozzles.
(2) Within the measured flow range, the differential distribution
of the droplets gradually narrows with the increase of the mass
flow rate, and the RR distribution of the droplets gradually becomes
steeper with the increase of the flow rate as shown in Figs. 12 and
14, respectively. This shows that the larger the mass flow rate, the
more uniform the particle size distribution becomes. When the
flow rate increases, the change in flow rate will no longer affect the
specific degree of atomization uniformity.
4.2.2. Numerical simulation
It was found that increasing the water-injection flow rate could
improve the uniformity. However, it is not known whether the
increase in the water-injection flow rate has effect on the water
vapor compression of the centrifugal compressor. The above
problems will be studied by numerical simulation below. The basic
settings of the gas phase and the liquid phase have been mentioned
above.
The pressure of 215 KPa was selected as the standard working
condition. The gas phase setting was as described above. The liquid
phase was set to Particle Transport Fluid. It is assumed to be uni-
formly mixed with the gas phase at the inlet. The droplet boundary
conditions are 1 mm for the diameter and 288.15 K for the tem-
perature. The water-injection mass flow rate of droplets varied
from 1% to 10% of the mainstream at inlet. The total temperature
change was calculated from the inlet to the outlet of the domain as
shown in Fig. 15. As can be seen, when the water vapor was nor-
mally compressed, the temperature at the outlet of the domain was
close to 460 K. After the water was sprayed at the inlet, the tem-
perature of the outlet was lowered to 440 K, and the temperature
difference was nearly 20 K. As the inlet water-injection mass flow
rate was increased further, the temperature decreased. When the
water-injection mass flow rate was 5%, the temperature of the
outlet was lowered to 400 K. When the mass flow rate was
11
increased to 7%, the general temperature curve was different.
Increasing the mass flow rate, the total temperature changed sin-
gularity and the fluctuation range was severe. By checking results at
the inlet, the vapor mass flow rate fluctuated drastically, which
means that the compressor began to enter the surge state.
When the water-injection mass flow rate was 1% and 10%, the
latter was almost in the low velocity zone in the blade domain, and
a significant shock wave appeared at the leading edge of the
diffuser domain as shown in Fig. 16.
According to Fig. 17, when the water-injection mass flow rate
was 10%, the low-velocity fluid between the main blade and the
splitter blade domain was highly blended with both sides of the
blade, which exacerbated separation. In summary, there is a limit to
the increase of water-injection mass flow rate. An excessive water-
injection mass flow rate will cause unstable compressor operations
as well as surges.
When the initial diameter of the droplet was increased to 5 mm,
the result was similar to the result of 1 mm. But the regularity was
not exactly the same, according to Fig. 18. The total temperature of
the compressor in the diffuser domain was substantially constant at
a diameter of 1 mm, which means that no droplets were evaporated.
In comparison, the temperature at the diameter of 5 mm still
changed in the diffuser, which indicates that the larger droplet
diameter did not completely evaporate in the rotor stage. There
were still droplets in the diffuser. When the water-injection mass
flow rate was increased to 3%, the inlet mass flow fluctuates
violently and caused the calculation to terminate. Therefore, if the
spray atomization effect is not desirable, the diameter of the spray
droplets increases. This can result in unstable compressor opera-
tion when the water-injection mass flow is relatively large.
As the water-injection flow rate was increased, the vapor mass
flow rate at the inlet and the pressure ratio were also increased. But
the margin was smaller (Fig. 19).
This verifies prior conclusions that increasing the flow rate will
improve the performance of the compressor, but it will adversely
affect the operation of the compressor.
Combined with the above experimental results, increasing the
flow rate by increasing the droplet quality of the phase change will
reduce the temperature and affect the atomization uniformity,
which can promote the droplets to participate in heat exchange
better. But the water-injection mass flow rate is not as large as
possible. Excessive water-injection mass flow rate will cause surge
in the centrifugal compressor. which is a problem that needs to be
avoided.
4.2.3. Experiment of the water-injected vapor compression
In order to verify whether the above conclusions are true for an
MVR system with a centrifugal compressor as the working core, we
conducted experiments in an industrial operation MVR system. Due
to the high cost of centrifugal compressors and the lack of air
compressors directly applied to the experimental study of water
vapor compression, we cannot use numerically simulated impellers
for experiments. The experimental system is an MVR device
applied in a factory. Although the fineness of the laboratory cannot
be achieved completely, some of the conclusions drawn are still in
good agreement with the theoretical analysis and are meaningful.
The experiment was carried out on the MVR industrial equip-
ment described above. The vapor mass flow rate of the equipment
operation was 500 kg/h, and the water-injection mass flow rate was
10% of the vapor. Fifteen minutes after the start of the experiment,
the water vapor compressor entered a surge and the experiment

was stopped. The outlet temperature was maintained at 103 C and
the pressure fluctuated between 2 KPa and 4 KPa. The change with
time of the parameters is shown in Fig. 20 and Fig. 21, respectively.
The variations of the experimental data in Fig. 20 are consistent
12 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

Fig. 14. Results measured by malvern instrument.

with the numerical simulation analysis. The inlet spray effectively which reduces the corresponding process work.
reduces the outlet temperature of the centrifugal water vapor Although the inlet spray can reduce the compression work,
compressor. The thermodynamics shows that this causes the curve there is a corresponding upper limit to the value of the water-
of the water-injected vapor compression to move downwards, injection mass flow. When the mass flow rate of the spray is too
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538 13

Fig. 15. The relation between inlet-outlet total temperature and water-injection mass
flow.

Fig. 17. S1 section velocity vector at 0.95 span.

Fig. 16. The relative mach number distribution of S1 section at 0.95 span.

large, droplets can’t completely evaporate in a short time, which

destabilizes the working state of the compressor and then a surge
occurs.
This phenomenon will reduce the service life of the compressor
and cause the MVR evaporation system to malfunction. The
Fig. 18. The relation between water-injection and total temperature at a diameter of
experimental water-injection mass flow rate is 10% of the inlet 5 mm.
mainstream mass flow. This just verifies the conclusion of the
14 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538

numerical simulation: when the spray flow is too large, the

compressor is in an unstable state and begins to enter the surge
state.

4.3. Comparison with the results from previous studies

Although the experimental research and the numerical simu-

lation object were not exactly the same. However, the experimental
results still verify and supplement the conclusions of numerical
simulation. We chose some conclusions that are compared with
previous literature results, as shown in Table 7.
We compared the conclusions with those of the two papers
[43,52] and the results were highly consistent. Hishiki’s team [43]
found that the temperature of the outlet decreased by approxi-
mately 22  C at any pressure ratio, in which the conditions were 10
mm for droplets’ diameter and 2% of the outlet mass flow rate for
water-injection mass flow rate. In this paper, the outlet tempera-
ture decreased by approximately 20  C, in which the conditions
Fig. 19. The Relation between Performance Curve and water-injection Flow.
were 2% of the inlet mass flow rate for the water-injection mass
flow rate and 5 mm for the diameter. The results were basically
consistent with Hishiki et al.‘s experimental results.
Halbe [55] observed that the evaporation rate depended on the
droplet size, and he pointed out that the larger the droplet diam-
eter, the faster the evaporation in the gas. In this paper, we found
that large-diameter droplets can exacerbate the effects of spray
flow on unstable compressor operation.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, the influence of water-injection mass flow rate and

spray atomization on the water-injected vapor compression was
studied and analyzed through the numerical simulation of cen-
trifugal compressor, atomization experiments of centrifugal nozzle,
and the experiments on MVR industrial equipment. Based on the
investigation, the following observations can be made.
The water-injected vapor compression can reduce the temper-
ature at the outlet of the centrifugal compressor thus reducing the
compression work. This cooling effect is affected by the two spray
parameters of atomization uniformity and mass flow rate. Calcu-
lations and experiments results show that the atomization unifor-
mity is positively correlated with the cooling effect. Increasing the
Fig. 20. Water vapor compressor outlet temperature-time relation.
mass flow rate greatly improves the cooling effect of the water-
injected vapor compression, and the atomization of the centrifu-
gal nozzle is directly affected by the mass flow rate. As the mass
flow rate increases, the atomization is more uniform and the
cooling effect is better., but the choice of spray flow has limitations.
Excessive flow can cause a compressor surge and affect equipment
life. By comparing the simulation and experimental results, 1% of
the inlet flow is a suitable value.
There are some deficiencies in the research. The variable control
of experiments on industrial equipment is difficult, and the ex-
periments in this paper require further adjustment. In the future,
we plan to build a precise water vapor compression test bench with
water-injection in the laboratory.

Declaration of competing interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing

financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Haoyu Yin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Data

Fig. 21. Water vapor compressor outlet pressure-time relation. curation, Writing - original draft. Hong Wu: Writing - review &
 H. Yin et al. / Energy 200 (2020) 117538
Table 7
Comparisons of the results from previous studies.
Influencing factors Numerical simulations
Mass flow rate As the mass flow rate increases, the temperature of the outlet is
lower and the cooling effect is better. Excessive mass flow rate
will cause unstable compressor operation and further cause surge.
Atomization uniformity Improving the atomization uniformity can reduce the
temperature
of the outlet and enhance the cooling effect.
editing. Yulong Li: Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Project
administration. Jin Quan: Investigation.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Na-
tional Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.51706009).
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