Tropospheric scatter communications

Past, present, and future

An effective "gap filler," tropospheric scatter techniques
provide a means for radio communications at distances lying between
the short-range ultrahigh-frequency and superhigh-frequency
systems and the long-range low-frequency systems
Frank A. Gunther Radio Engineering Laboratories

In the 11 years since the first practicable operational
tropo systems were developed, there has been a
tremendous growth in their number and complexity.
This article describes the principles and applications
of tropospheric scatter communications and discusses
current development trends. Included is a table
listing practically all of the tropo systems installed
around the world, with pertinent technical data,
together with maps showing the geographic location
of most systems. The maps are keyed to the table for
easy reference.
Tropospheric scatter communication may be defined as
a method or system of transmitting, within the tropo-
sphere, microwaves in the UHF or SHF bands to effect
radio communication between two points on the earth's
surface separated by moderate distances of from 70 to
600 miles. Such a span or hop may be augmented by
other spans in tandem to permit end-to-end or through
circuits up to many thousands of miles. More specifically,
this method of communication is now generally under-
stood to embrace a radio system that permits communica-
tion over the distances indicated, with excellent relia-
bility and good information capacity, using relatively high
transmitted power, frequency modulation, and highly
sensitive receiving apparatus. The name "tropospheric
scatter communication" is now usually referred to in the
engineering vocabulary simply as "tropo."
Figure 1 is a conventional sketch of a tropo span. This
graphic representation is merely symbolic, and indicates
in a general way that the circuit utilizes high power and
large directional antennas, may be duplexed, can sur-
mount ground obstacles of considerable magnitude, and
will span a relatively large distance over the earth's sur-
face.
(Above) Three-branchtroporelaystationinSpain,forming
part of a large U.S. Air Force defense communications sys-
tem in Western Europe and the Mediterranean.

IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966 79

 -X*;-. .: .
.41
.~~,.*..
T ojsher~e
Transmitting and Transmitting and
receiving site receiving site
Fig. 1. Graphic representation of a tropo span.
With accuracy, tropo can be termed a "gap filler."
It provides a means of radio communications at dis-
tances not covered either by the short-range UHF and
SHF line-of-sight systems and the medium frequencies,
or by the HF and long-range LF systems. Figure 2 sum-
marizes the principal characteristics of "microwave"
communications as utilized today over the surface of
the earth, and indicates the relationship of tropo to the
other modes in the microwave band (70 MHz to 20
GHz). Satellite communications are intentionally omitted
from Fig. 2, as the propagation mechanism is somewhat
different in space.
Systems of multiple spans in tandem, composed of
tropo links and extending even to thousands of miles,
are now in operation in many areas of the world, provid-
ing reliable multichannel communications. Tropo is
also used in several special applications. The ability of
tropo to span hundreds of miles of inhospitable terrain
with circuits of relatively high traflic density insures a
continuing need for this type of transmission.
History
It appears fitting to give a short account of the history
of the early detection of the tropospheric scatter phe-
nomenon and to describe the events that led to the first
practicable operational systems in 1955.
Perhaps the first recorded investigation of tropospheric
scatter was made in 1933 by Marconi,' who described
550-MHz tests conducted in 1932, first aboard the yacht
Eletirct and finally over a 168-mile path at 550 MHz
from Rocca di Papa, near Rome, to Cape Figari, Sar-
dinia. These results were the culmination of many earlier
experiments, which had consistently demonstrated prop-
agation 50 to 75 percent beyond the optical horizon at
shorter ranges (15 to 50 miles).
Andre Clavier2 reports on tests performed in 1941 with
10 watts at 3000 MHz (10 cm). The tests were conducted
from Toulon, in southern France, to specially equipped
ships sailing on a course to remain within the trans-
mitted beam. These experiments duplicated those of
Marconi in some respects, but updated information gained
in Marconi's investigation, both in scientific refinement
and in achievable frequency.
80
It should be noted that these programs were limited in
range, by the low power available, to what is now known
as the diffraction field; in a few cases of longer ranges,
they were limited by anomalous propagation (possibly
atmospheric ducting).
- Tropo would probably still be a scientific speculation
but for the tremendous impetus given to the development
~~~~~~~~~~~~~of
high-powered microwave tubes during World War
I. Radar FM
experienced bracsts
reception beyondandthetevisio
distances brodat
that could albe
. explained by the "smooth sphere" theories of propagation
then current. In 1943 Terman3 noted a probable tropo-
spheric involvement in observations of propagation far
beyond the horizon unreported in the unclassified lit-
erature of that time.
By 1949 a "freeze" had to be imposed on the issuance
of licenses in the United States for new television sta-
tions because the cochannel interference caused by
propagation beyond expected boundaries had proved to
be much greater than anticipated.
The combined pressures of this nuisance factor and
the growing need for reliable communications on the
"Arctic perimeter" led, in the early 1950s, to the applica-
tion of serious effort on the part of many individuals4-6
and several organizations to unravel these mysteries.
Experimental data were relatively slow in accumulating,
because tests far beyond the horizon required high power,
large antennas, and relatively long and expensive testing
programs.
In 1952 Bell Telephone Laboratories, supported by
much theoretical speculation and a convincing amount
of empirical evidence, ventured to propose a practical
beyond-the-horizon communications system, which oper-
ated entirely in the tropo mode and became known as the
"Polevault" system. Armstrong,' in previously unreported
work, verified independently the existence of usable
fields in the 150- to 300-mile range from his laboratory at
Alpine, N.J., at about this same time.
The explosion of interest created by the success of the
Polevault system resulted in a special issue of the PRO-
CEEDINGS OF THE IRE in October 1955, with contribu-
tions from major segments of the scientific community.
It is to the credit of the U.S. Air Force that, based upon
the evidence and theoretical considerations presented, it
decided to take the risk and make the plunge into the
new field of tropo by embarking on the Polevault sys-
tem, rather than utilizing a line-of-sight system over a
stretch of difficult and unfriendly terrain with the accom-
panying logistic problems produced by a much greater
numberofstations.
The tropospheric propagation mechanism
As a result of experience to date, tropo has emerged as
a propagation mechanism that can endow communi-
cations systems with certain advantages not available
through any other means, particularly where other types
of systems are not practicable.
The phrase "tropospheric forward scatter" describes
a hypothesis that has been suggested to explain the mech-
anism that enables the propagation of usable microwave
radio signals well beyond line-of-sight distances. Dif-
fraction theory does not account for the substantial elec-
tromagnetic fields that are produced at these ranges,
nor does atmospheric ducting explain the time availability
of these fields. One of the hypotheses attempts to explain
IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966
 Useful
Propagation Equipment
Range Characteristics Comments

h
i --
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Low-cost,
high-performanice
wide-band system: replaces
tO~~~~ W ~~costly right-of-way mainten-
ance of coaxial or multiple
Line of sight cable or overhead wiring.
(LOS) -_ _

~~-~--
<~- Diffraction mode is very
Dilanefsurfaction 3 -;specialized form of UHF
( lanurface) used only rarely where
rugged terrain prevents use
.--i of direct LOS and permits
A ~~
:
~-~2 S~~~-- 3 W
,r
_
,' longer path with obstacle gain.

Diffraction --y. Great attention is being given

(knife edge) to refining propagational com-
putation in the diffraction
-
-\ region because of need for

Diffractionsutilization in tropo path predictions.

(rough surface)

~~~ 14k'
N(~~~~~i6 ~~~~~~~~~~~Only
- practical wide-band,
reliable ground-based method
of achieving 7d- to 600-mile hop
where unsuitable intervening
territory prevents use of
Go o=btacl Scatter cttranl LOS or diffraction modes.

h = height of antenna center Ao = obstacle absorption

Ns = obstacle
refractive index d = distance between stations
Go= gain e = scatter angle

Fig. 2. Principal ground-to-ground communication modes
utilizing microwave (70 MHz to 20 GHz) region of radio
spectrum; characteristically wide-band service (100 kHz
to 20 MHz).
these apparent anomalies as resulting from atmospheric
turbulence. This turbulence is thought to produce "blobs"
of atmosphere whose refractive indexes are sharply dif-
ferent from those of the surrounding atmosphere. When
irradiated by a microwave signal, these blobs reradiate
the signal, scattering it in all directions. Some of this
scattering is in the forward direction, which produces the
field at a receiving location. The entire process is thought
to occur in the region between the stratosphere and the
surface of the earth-that is, the troposphere. This
hypothesis forms the basis for the National Bureau of
Standards methods8 for predicting the strength and time
availability of beyond-the-horizon fields. Although the
hypothesis itself remains unproved, the method has been
widely accepted; the hypothesis combined with massive
empirical information ordinarily affords a usable solu-
tion to the problem of predicting performance.
Another promising hypothesis explains these fields as
being the products of mode propagation based on partial
reflections. The gravitational stratification of the atmos-
phere, where the lowest layer is the densest and each
succeeding layer is less dense, with sharp boundaries be-
tween the layers, is thought to be responsible. When an
electromagnetic wave is propagated through such an
atmosphere, ay- bending occurs and is accompanied by
partial reflections This hypothesis has been advanced by
Carroll and others 9-12
A third approach, long a subject of speculation by
many, has been formalized through a derivation by Bul-
lington.rst3 This concept is based primarily on the average
value and the standard deviation of the index of refrac-
tion at the earth's surface, both of which decrease ex-
ponentially with height. The result is a quantitative ex-
planation of tropospheric radio propagation, derived
without the use of arbitrary numerical factors.
Regardless of the true mechanism, much is known con-
cerning the characteristics of the microwave energy field
propagated beyond the horizon. It has been learned
through observation of a large mass of empirical data
collected from operational tropo links.
First, it is known that the average amplitude of the
field propagated beyond the horizon is greatly attenu-
ated with respect to the transmitted field. The amount of
attenuation can be calculated as a function of the angular
distance between the transmitting and receiving sites.
Angular distance is a parameter that takes into account
curvature of the earth, terrain configuration, and clina-
tology. For all but the most unusual circumstances, it is
closely related to the linear distance between the two
sites. This relationship is the basis for the general state-
ments that appear later regarding the traffic capacity vs.
distance capabilities of the tropo scatter medium.
Second, the amplitude of the received field varies sub-
stantially with time over a given path. The National
Bureau of Standards has gathered and analyzed a mass

Gunther--Tropospheric scatter communicationis 81

 of data on these variations, so that it is now possible to
predict the amplitude-time distributions for most paths
with a high degree of accuracy. For convenience these
amplitude variations are separated into short-term and
long-term distributions. Short-term amplitude-time dis-
tributions are those measured over periods shorter than
a few minutes. During such periods the amplitude varia-
tions are described by a Rayleigh distribution. The long-
term distribution represents the variation of hourly
median levels over a longer period of time-usually a
month, a season, or a year. If amplitude variations are
sampled over a period of one hour, an hourly median
amplitude can be found, and if the hourly median ampli-
tudes are observed over a longer period of time, the dis-
tribution becomes apparent. Since it has not yet been
possible to derive exact theoretical expressions for these
long-term distributions, empirical relations, based on the
large mass of available data, are used.
It must be emphasized that the short-term and long-
term distributions of signal amplitude vary considerably
with the season of the year and with geographical loca-
tion, and therefore when a system is being designed these
factors must be taken into consideration. Determination
of parameters and design are usually based on the worst
propagational month of the year-usually February or
March in the Northern Hemisphere.
Third, it is known that when a wide band of the fre-
quency spectrum is utilized for the transmission of in-
telligence, any existing multipath propagation introduces
a factor that is evidenced as a signal distortion. It is a
result of the phase differentials that appear across the
frequency band when signals are received over the longer
paths of the multipath routes as well as over the direct
path. This distortion places an upper limit on the band-
width that can be transmitted successfully. To date, no
generally accepted method of predicting the magnitude
and distribution of the distortion has been formulated.
Several researchers, including Medhurst," Booker and
de Bettencourt," Chisholm et al.,16 and von Baeyer,"
have studied the problem. Several others"l-2 have pub-
lished tentative methods for predicting its effects.
System considerations
All high-quality, long-distance, multichannel communi-
cation systems have two requirements: (1) reliability and
(2) delivery of a favorable SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) to
the customer. The signal components usually are ampli-
fied, as required, to overcome the various losses in the sys-
tem. The big problem for the communicator is the accu-
mulation of noise. Every time the signal is processed there
is some contribution to noise, which adds on a cumulative
basis. The result is that long-haul systems require sharp
attention to the details of noise accumulation if the re-
sulting SNR is to meet requirements.
Much thought has been given to this general subject and
international objectives of performance have been formu-
lated. This work has culminated in the CCITT standards,
for telephone/telegraph, and the CCIR standards, for
radio practice. In addition, the Defense Communications
Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense has formu-
lated specialized versions of these standards to apply to
the Defense Communications System.
Signal-to-noise ratio is a complex subject, and a tech-
nical discussion would be out of place in this type of
article. For a high toll quality on a telephone voice circuit
82
in a multichannel system, the Defense Communications
Agency prescribes that a minimum SNR of 45 dB be
delivered to customers at the termini of 6000-mile sys-
tems, with the noise contributions from individual
spans prorated on the basis of mileage as a percentage of
6000 miles. In commercial telephone systems one may
occasionally find an SNR of 33 dB, which is quite usable;
however, the ratio for toll quality is generally 39 dB or
better.
Tropo scatter links are frequently installed in tandem
to provide long-distance multichannel communication
circuits. Theoretically, the relay stations involved could
be termed "circuit drop-and-reinsert" stations, where
all or a number of circuits must be used at the stations
for local traffic requirements, or they could be called
"through" repeaters, where there are no traffic or control
requirements and the incoming signal could be hetero-
dyned to the frequency of the outgoing signal without
demodulation to baseband. In actual practice, regardless
of traffic requirements, all relay stations bring the signals
down to baseband, since it is necessary at least to utilize
the order wire channels for circuit control purposes.
Demodulation to baseband and subsequent remodulation
for transmission to the next station in the chain may pro-
duce some intermodulation and multiplex noise to be
added to the overall circuit noise. As a practical mat-
ter, however, equipment has long been available in which
radio equipment intermodulation and multiplex noise
have been reduced sufficiently that these factors in mul-
tiple span systems are no longer of major concern.
It was pointed out previously that tropospheric for-
ward scatter signals are subject to amplitude-time varia-
tions, separated into short-term and long-term distribu-
tions. In practice, the two types of signal fading are not
compensated individually, since the resultant fading is a
combination of both types, usually referred to a monthly
median level. Methods known as diversity techniques
have been developed to counteract this fading and afford
the prescribed propagational reliability.
Diversity can be defined as the utilization of more than
one independent and uncorrelated transmission path
over a single span of tropo to afford greater reliability
than that provided by a single transmitter and receiver
at each end. In each type of diversity now in common
use, certain additional equipment is required.
One of the most effective methods is known as space
diversity, in which two antennas, separated in space
by 100 wavelengths or more, are used to receive the signals
and reduce the effect of fading, since the signals sep-
arated in space by this distance show an almost complete
absence of correlation. Another method in wide use is
known as frequency diversity, wherein two frequencies,
separated by about one to ten percent depending upon
the frequency band in use, are transmitted over the span
from the transmitting to the receiving station. Here,
again, there is a minimum of correlation between the
signals received on the two frequencies. As an example, a
separation of 10 to 12 MHz at a frequency of 1000 MHz
should be adequate. Other types of diversity, which are
little used at the present time, include circular polariza-
tion and differences in azimuth orientation of antennas
(angle diversity).
Although space and frequency diversity may be uti-
lized independently (dual diversity), both may also be
used simultaneously to afford quadruple diversity. For
IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966
high-reliability circuit requirements and in applications
where the span length otherwise might produce a mar-
ginal circuit, quadruple diversity is the preferred solu-
tion despite the additional equipment necessary. It is
therefore used in the vast majority of fixed station sys-
tems installed to date.
To produce an optimum signal from a multiple re-
ceiver installation involved in either dual or quadruple
diversity, a "combiner" is provided for adding and effec-
tively utilizing the received signals. The combiner, into
which all the receivers are fed, may be operated at base-
band frequencies (postdetection combining) or at inter-
mediate receiver frequencies (predetection combining).
This subject will be discussed further in a later section.
Many variables affect any specific tropo path and, there-
fore, considerable engineering effort is usually expended
to extract the most favorable compromises for a pro-
posed system. Ultimately, system performance is traded
for cost, within limits imposed by the path loss and sup-
portable bandwidth of the propagation mechanism.
Path loss can be directly attacked by higher power and
greater antenna gains but there is a very real limitation
on supportable bandwidth, at least as systems are de-
signed today.
In many cases system design is not limited entirely
by the cost or investment factor, since the importance
of the system, its reliability, and its channel requirements
may be overriding. Many special systems exist today
in which the propagational reliability may vary from
99.9 to 99.99 percent for 120- to 300-voice-channel ca-
pacity over path lengths of 90 to 175 miles. There are also
systems of 48 to 96 voice channels with the same relia-
bility operating up to span lengths of 300 miles, and a few
circuits that span 300 to almost 600 miles but are limited
to 12 to 48 channels.
Tropo system parameters. The system parameters for
tropo are the same as for any other type of communica-
tion system; that is, the power available at the receiver
is equal to the transmitted power, plus all system gains,
less all system losses. The system design engineer must
consider all parameters (and there are many) in seeking
the best solution for any system, and select the best
possible values for these parameters within the physical
or cost limitations imposed by the problem.
At this point, instead of advancing the mathematical
presentation of the general system equation with ap-
propriate detailed treatment of all parameters involved,
the reader is referred to the National Bureau of Stand-
ards Technical Note 101, issued in 1965.8 This thorough
examination of all the parameters of a tropo circuit,
based upon an extensive mass of data gathered over
the years and embracing the frequency range of 40 to
10000 MHz, offers the most complete analysis known
on the subject. It is believed that the methods offered by
Technical Note 101 for the solution of tropo system
design and propagation problems are more widely used
than any others.
In the planning of any tropo system much time can be
spent in refining the values of the various controllable
parameters to provide a maximum of power at the re-
ceiver with an acceptable customer SNR. Nevertheless,
the overall path propagation loss is by far the most
serious loss in the system, and exceeds by a wide margin
the propagation losses in other types of radio systems.
The large path attenuation is overcome by transmitters
Gunlther-Tropospheric scatter communicationls
capable of high power output, extremely directional
antennas, and very sensitive receiving systems. The long-
term amplitude distribution of received signals is counter-
acted in the same way. The short-term variations, on the
other hand, usually are only partially offset in this man-
ner, because in most cases total compensation for the
wide excursions that characterize this distribution would
require inordinate amounts of power. Diversity tech-
niques, employing advanced signal combining schemes,
are used instead. Although it is undoubtedly true that
better understanding of the propagation mechanism
would yield more advanced techniques and equipment,
the tropo scatter mode can be utilized very effectively on
the basis of what is already known.
Modulation and detection techniques. Important
areas in which known techniques are readily usable in
the tropo mode are modulation and detection. Fre-
quency modulation (FM) is practically the only method
used in the transmission of tropo signals today because
of its superior performance when compared with single-
sideband suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation (SS-
BSC-AM, or simply SSB). It remains to be proved that
various schemes of pulse code modulation (PCM) for
some purposes may ultimately be better than FM.
The reasons for the recognized superiority of FM over
SSB are frequently misunderstood, or overlooked. First,
of course, is the fact that much higher SNR performance is
available from an FM system operating well above thresh-
old. The seldom-reproduced right-hand portion of Fig.
3, shows that the SNR values achievable at high signal
strengths are far greater with an FM system than with an
SSB system. In both cases the limiting factor is intermod-
ulation noise caused by equipment nonlinearities.
The second feature favoring FM can be seen if we
examine Fig. 4, which shows the distribution of energy
about the carrier frequency. It should be noted that these
occur in balanced pairs and that the process of detection
produces a summation of all the individual components.
Frequency-selective fading can alter the detected result
only slightly, thus providing a sort of built-in frequency
diversity action.
These features are obtained at the cost of increased
spectrum space required, but are unobtainable by any
other presently known means of achieving the extremely
high performance required for toll quality of transmission.
Current practice sets the FM index at about 3, requiring a
bandwidth of about eight times the highest baseband
frequency, although in most systems optimization of
deviation usually takes place after installation to achieve
best results.
In computing the SNR deliverable to a customer's
handset, many factors must be considered, such as:
Thermal noise
Highest baseband frequency
Peak per channel test tone deviation before
pre-emphasis
Channel top frequency
Watts per cycle of bandwidth
Receiver noise figure
Pre-emphasis improvement
Diversity improvement
Multiplex noise
Intermodulation distortion noise
Transmission-line echo distortion noise
Line loading factor
83
 Antennas and transmission lines. Because of the high
gain requirements encountered in tropo scatter trans-
mission, highly directional antennas must be used.
They usually take the form of large parabolic reflectors
with horn feeds. The larger the parabolic surface, the
higher the gain. However, a point of diminishing returns
is reached. Above a certain gain, depending upon the
particular radio path, the increase of gain with increasing
parabolic diameter proceeds at a slower and slower rate un-
til a practical limit on the maximum gain capability over
that path is reached, primarily because of the medium-to-
aperture coupling loss experienced in tropo scatter sys-
tems. This loss occurs only in the tropo scatter mode;
in the line-of-sight applications, gain is not affected in
this manner. The directly proportional relationship be-
tween gain and frequency limits the size of antenna that
can be used for any particular frequency. Furthermore,
since path attenuation increases with increasing frequency,
the optimum frequency for a particular path is a com-
promise between path attenuation and net antenna gain.
Another limiting factor to the size of antenna for a par-
FM. thr.eshold Iin both, the ultimate criterion is intelligibility. The two
I
t r n ji
I ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~to exist for all time. As a result, it is necessary to talk
Fig. 4.term distribution establishes the time availability, or
-..anes
| of equipment, expressed in terms of mean time between
0
Relative received signal power
Fig. 3. Comparative performance of FM and SSB.
Fig. 4. Relative distribution of energy in FM signal.
Third-order
Second-order
Balanced first-order components
'~~~~~~' ~~~~~~~~ ~~between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Even
I I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~though
II I I ~~~~~~ntenna directivity, and sensitive receiving systems, there
84
ticular frequency is the surface tolerance that must be
maintained in construction of the parabolic reflector.
This limitation, of course, applies to the other modes of
propagation as well.
The transmission lines used in tropo scatter work
are usually the best available, since they represent
only a small part of the total equipment cost and con-
tribute heavily to the performance of the system. Large-
diameter, rigid coaxial cable is normally used for trans-
mitting power from the transmitter to antenna, par-
ticularly at powers of 10 kW and greater. It has high
power-handling capability, low attenuation, and low-
voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). In many in-
stances, rectangular waveguide is used to provide even
better performance in these respects. The transmission
line from the antennas to receivers can be lighter, and
is usually flexible coaxial cable with low loss at low
VSWR. When transmitter output powers of one kilo-
watt or less are employed, flexible coaxial cable may also
be used.
System performance. In defining the performance of
any communication system, two features are of par-
amount importance: the quality of the communication
channels and the reliability with which this quality is
achieved. In voice communications, channel quality is
measured in terms of SNR; in teletypewriter and data
channels, it is measured in terms of binary error rate;
measures of quality may be combined under the single
~~~~~~~heading,
grade of service. In statistical communications,
which is what multichannel communications really are,
there is no absolute level of service that can be considered
about the time availability for a particular grade of serv-
ice.
When these definitions of system performance are
applied to the tropo scatter situation, it is possible to
separate grade of service and reliability on the basis of
the two amplitude-time distributions of the received
field. Since grade of service has been defined as voice-
channel SNR or binary error rate, it can be related to the
Ashort-term distribution. Then, it follows that the long-
reliability,
ha
term
of the grade of service resulting from the short-
distribution.
Reliability has another facet, too. It is the reliability
~~~~~~~~~~~~failure
(MTBF). Although much complicated circuitry
is involved in tropo scatter equipment, the state of the
art with respect to components and circuit design per-
mits very good MTBF values, certainly as high as any
that can be realized in other communications media.
And new, transistorized equipment provides even better
MTBF values.
Like all communications media, tropo scatter has cer-
tain limitations, which in this case restrict the number of
channels that can be transmitted and the distances that
can be spanned. The two most stringent limitations en-
countered in tropo scatter transmission are the large
path attenuation and the bandwidth of the medium.
The first, as we have seen, is related to angular distance
it is mitigated by the use of high radiated power,
is a range beyond which the combination of the utmost
IEEE spectrum SEPTEIMBER 1966
capabilities of these devices is not adequate to provide a
signal level above the system threshold. It is perhaps too
obvious to mention that the traffic capacity of a system is
maximum at the minimum range and decreases to mini-
mum capacity at the maximum range. The second major
limitation, the bandwidth of the medium, is not well
understood. It is thought that the bandwidth restrictions
that have been observed over tropo scatter paths are a
result of frequency selective fading caused by multipath
propagation of the signal. This theory is partially borne
out by the ability of highly directive antenna beams to
reduce the multipath effects-that is, to increase the
phase-coherent bandwidth. It has also been observed
that multipath effects increase with increasing path length
and, further, that they are inversely proportional to the
RF carrier. In any event, the net effect is to limit the RF
bandwidth that can be successfully transmitted and, con-
sequently, to limit the traffic capacity of the system.
A less serious limitation, though one still worthy of
consideration, results from choice of a less than optimum
frequency. It has already been pointed out that optimum
frequency is the result of a compromise between path
loss and realized antenna gain. But in most cases another
factor, spectrum availability, is involved in frequency
selection. Often a frequency that is not optimum for a
particular path must be used, with a consequent reduction
in received signal strength. This situation, of course,
limits the amount of traffic that can be transmitted with a
specified performance.
In addition to these technical limitations, cost and size
represent two other factors that limit system capability.
The cost factor needs little explanation. If a system with a
certain capacity is considered too expensive, one of re-
duced capacity or less reliability must be considered.
Physical size of equipment is usually only a limitation
when it conflicts with the intent of the system. It rarely
ever imposes any restrictions on a fixed-plant installation,
but if an installation must be made transportable, or at
least mobile, then very definite limitations are imposed.
These usually dictate the maximum transmitter power
output that will be available, and the maximum antenna
sizes and order of diversity that can be used. And when
really tactical transportability is required, such as a
helicopter lift requirement, size and weight are the most
important of all limitations.
To reiterate, the factors that limit tropo scatter system
performance are path attenuation, bandwidth, frequency
allocation, number of tandem links, physical size, weight,
and cost. Nevertheless, the effects of these factors are
offset to a remarkable degree by the skillful utilization,
with necessary compromises, of engineering techniques
and advanced equipment designs, including the use of
FM, low-noise receivers, diversity reception with maxi-
mal-ratio combining, -threshold extension techniques,
high-power transmitters, diversity transmission, high-
gain antennas, low-loss transmission lines, and ap-
propriate siting of stations. These enable the system en-
gineer to exploit the tropo scatter medium, imperfectly
understood though it may be.
Typical tropo equipment
The development and subsequent experience with
tropo during the past 11 years has tended to "standardize"
to a great extent the equipment used today on these cir-
cuits, regardless of point of manufacture. Frequency
Gunther-Tropospheric scatter communications
modulation is used almost exclusively on tropo circuits
because of its inherent capability to produce a greater
SNR. There are very few proponents of amplitude mod-
ulation. At this time, it appears unlikely that AM will
receive further attention in the foreseeable future.
Almost all of the tropo circuits utilize an output power
of one kilowatt or greater, and in practically every case a
klystron power tube is used. With the continual develop-
ment of more efficient and larger klystrons, output powers
up to 100 kW are now being used. With the advent of
high-power traveling-wave tubes additional flexibility in
equipment design may be forthcoming.
Diversity equipment configurations
In dual diversity, either space or frequency diversity is
usually employed. Referring to Fig. 5, it should be noted
that for dual space diversity, in theory only one trans-
mitter need be provided per terminal. However, in the
event the transmitter goes down, communication is lost.
It may, therefore, be practical to provide a second trans-
mitter, maintained in a standby condition to take over
immediately and automatically in the event the other
transmitter fails. Thus, for this type of dual diversity,
there would be available both the two regular receivers
with combiners and two transmitters to insure continuous
communication, even though one receiver or one trans-
mitter is down and the resultant circuit reliability is some-
what less than that designed. This arrangement also per-
mits regular preventive maintenance on receivers or trans-
mitters without complete loss of communication. In the
dual space diversity arrangement (Fig. 5), the advan-
tage of frequency diversity is not available; but space
diversity is more conservative of the frequency spectrum.
In the case of dual frequency diversity (Fig. 6), the
desired redundancy of equipment is provided, even though
the advantage of space diversity is gone, since only one
antenna is required. Although there appears to be a drift
toward the use of dual space diversity rather than dual
frequency diversity, there are occasions where the latter
is the only practicable solution at the present state of
the art, as in the case of a ground site or shipboard site
that does not permit the employment of two antennas
spaced at a distance of at least 100 wavelengths apart,
or where cost factors are overriding.
Figure 7 shows a typical configuration of a quadruple
diversity terminal. Obviously, this type of diversity of-
fers the maximum in equipment redundance and system
performance, assuming proper design. Also, it is obvious
that quadruple diversity is more costly, both in initial
capital outlay and maintenance. But a reference to Table
I will show that nearly all of the systems in which a prop-
agational reliability of 99.9 percent or greater is desired
utilize quadruple diversity. Its use is practically mandatory
in long systems and when digital data transmission is
required with low error rate.
Figure 8 demonstrates a typical dual diversity terminal
using predetection combining, which is now being em-
ployed on a few systems, as can be seen from an inspection
of Table I. In the example shown, it is evident that if the
demodulator or baseband amplifier were to experience a
failure, the circuit would be down and would remain so
until repairs were effected. This lack of equipment re-
dundancy has been recognized, and it is understood that
the latest dual diversity equipment employing this method
of combining provides for the addition of a back-up
85
 demodulator and baseband amplifier. They would nat-
urally be eliminated in the case of quadruple diversity
terminals using this method of combining.
Figures 5 though 8 indicate certain optional equipment,
to be employed when the system designer determines that
the equipment is desirable or essential to produce the
required RF carrier-to-noise ratio. Depending upon the
improvement needed in the receiver, a low-noise pre-
amplifier can be inserted between the preselector and
down converter. It can take the form of a parametric or a
tunnel diode amplifier, although transistor amplifiers
are now becoming practical. Generally speaking, most
modern tropo receivers have a basic noise figure of about
8 dB. The use of a tunnel diode amplifier can bring this
figure down to about 4.5 dB, and the use of a good para-
metric amplifier can improve the figure to about 2.5 dB
or even somewhat lower.
Figures 5 through 7 also show optional equipment
labeled "threshold extension demodulator" for use on
marginal circuits and where a very high degree of relia-
bility is necessary. This device usually takes the form of
an FM feedback demodulator connected in parallel with
the regular demodulator, with provision that this threshold
extension device will automatically take over when the
signal approaches the receiver threshold. Althoughi some
additional distortion takes place in the threshold ex-

. ----Standby transmitter equipment --.-

R FfRFI F lK

1 t S~~~
Baseband

f2 IF

polarized Parabolic reflector antennas

feed hrseprated by at least 100
BB 1g $;~B 0

> IF _ __ ti 1 l~ ~I

RF
RF~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
equipment
Optional
tHpower amplifiers of l kW or greater

Fig. 5. Typical dual space diversity terminal.

Fig. 6. Typical dual frequency diversity terminal.

17 77Heat -Int

f|j RFt Baseband

Parabolic eo tar
oC reflector
antenna

777 °Optional equipment

Rpct~t2r. Heat exchanger required for
power amplifier of 10kWor greater

86 IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966

 p

fed
.-

Duaid rpolarized

Farabolic refl

feed horn

Dual
~~~RF

Pa~~~RablcFR
9~ ~ ~ ~ B
tension mode, the device is highly useful in maintaining
communications on marginal circuits, particularly when
propagation conditions are unfavorable. Since thermal
noise usually controls system noise under these condi-
tions, increased equipment noise is of no consequence.
In Fig. 8 it can be seen that predetection combining
is performed at intermediate frequencies. For a number
of years a controversy has existed over the relative merits
of postdetection and predetection combining. A discus-
sion of the detailed technical claims of the oppos-
ing sides is beyond the scope of this article. However,
it is brought to the reader's attention that this contro-
versy still exists, even though years of field experience

Heat
frnRF

D
I

etor antennas
ctrI

Fig. 7. Typical quadruple diversity terminal (space and frequency).

Fig. 8. Typical dual frequency terminal using predetection combining.
|ulti le
would appear to give postdetection combining the edge.
Regardless of the merits of the claims made for both
types of combining, two obvious facts should be con-
sidered. First, from theoretical analysis and laboratory
controlled experiments, combining of diversity signals
on a voltage basis at IF seems to have a distinct advantage
over postdetection combining, which occurs after the
inherent power loss in the detection process. However,
the requirement that the signals to be combined at IF
must be held accurately in phase with each other, in
both voltage and frequency, has not been proved prac-
tical in the field for any substantial percentage of time for
signals randomly scattered by the tropo mechanism.

BsBan
xie

rnoftl ~

B
or ~

BB
pwr mliiroflkWrgrax

a imdsnal equipment
Gunther-Trmpolpheric cifieor oftlOWor greater

Dp°oladrized ( )reflector _a i

f4

RF| ury 0or|

A-- 2'aeac Optional equipment

Gunther-Tropospheric scatter communications 87
 Second, insofar as the writer is aware, no multispan
system (spans in tandem) that uses predetection co-nibining
has yet afforded operation of the quality and reliability
required for toll circuit performance, particularly for
data transmission. A few short single-span systems have
evidently afforded satisfactory results for voice and tele-
typewriter circuits. From information at hand, no prop-
erly engineered system using postdetection combining
has failed to offer results meeting rigid military or toll
circuit requirements for both voice and data. The reader
is referred to Table I, which shows the relative extent of
use of postdetection combining versus predetection com-
bining.
Advantages of tropo
Tropo has been developed over the past ten years into
a highly successful method of radio communication,
which offers certain advantages not possessed by other
modes:
1. It provides a high-grade multichannel service over
distances between 70 and 60() miles in a single span,
thus reducing the number of stations or terminals re-
quired in a line-of-sight system.
2. With a properly designed system, it will offer a cir-
cuit of high propagational reliability on a year-round
basis. This reliability compares very favorably with that
of line-of-sight circuits, and is generally far superior to
that alforded by current high-frequency techniques.
3. It can be utilized in rugged or otherwise inhospi-
table terrain where it is impractical or impossible to pro-
vide other means of communication.
4. It provides a high degree of spectrum utilization
while simultaneously minimizing frequency allocation
problems incident to radio interference in a high-density
location.
5. It offers a relatively high degree of security as com-
pared with other methods of communication. Radio inter-
ference, deliberate or otherwise, is reduced to a minimum
unless the interfering transmission is within the beam and
range of any one station in the tropo system. Further,
there are in a tropo system fewer stations that are sub-
ject to jamming or link impairment. From a physical view-
point, the surreptitious destruction of a tropo link is more
LOS Diffraction } Tropo scatter
10( _ _ _ _ __
f 800 MHz
___ _ _____
15( l___ _ _
K\Relative loDss - 2.0 ,
'O
_0_ s
0 _0_
_ l-_ .0 _ use of frequencies principally in the 900- or 2000-MHz
20 _ bands; and the employment mainly of quadruple diversity
251 ___ ___ ____ _ __
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Path distance, miles
88
difficult than the cutting of a submerged cable or unat-
tended line-of-sight span. As for security obtained in a
tropo link versus that obtainable in a satellite circuit, it
remains to be seen whether or not the latter can be de-
veloped to the point where destructive radio interference
or radio interception can compare with the security
achievable on tropo systems.
Undeniably, and under certain conditions, tropo offers
certain overriding advantages. When the cost of a tropo
system is considered, these advantages must be weighed
against the cost of other systems that may lack the ad-
vantages peculiar to tropo.
Discussion of Table I and the maps
In Table I an attempt has been made to list all of the
tropo systems or projects from the first ones completed
in 1955 up to July 1, 1965, plus a few additional systems
scheduled to be completed beyond that date and which
are a matter of public knowledge. Unquestionably other
systems, both military and common carrier, are in the
planning, design, or implementation stages, but at pres-
ent information is not available in suiricient detail to
include these in the table.
Although a strong effort was made to make the table
as complete and correct as possible, undoubtedly there
are some errors in the data accumulated on a worldwide
basis. Apologies are extended for such errors or any omis-
sions. The reader will also note a number of blank
spaces in the several columns where the information was
either not readily available, or it was not feasible to
expend additional time in further attempts to obtain it.
The table is a compilation and condensation, contain-
ing the most important data for each system. An attempt
was made to accord due credit to all companies or or-
ganizations involved in each project, but no assessment
has been made of the overall success of each system,
since official field operational test reports are very dilfi-
cult to obtain for obvious reasons. From the writer's
personal knowledge, however, most, but not all, of the
listed systems have been quite successful, and it is a credit
to the engineering profession and to the manufacturing
capabilities of the various producers that nearly all of the
successful systems installed, including many of the earliest
vintage, are still operating with a very satisfactory per-
formance.
It is interesting to note from a study of Table I that
most of the systems installed until the last few years were
designed primarily for defense purposes. Now, many of
the newer systems are utilized exclusively as common-
carrier circuits, or in some cases, as a combination for
0.1 .2 government and common-carrier services. Common car-
0.2 E riers and certain government telecommunication agencies
0.4
. li
have now recognized the importance of tropo systems,
a i .c;particularly where other systems are unsuitable or im-
a l possible to utilize.
, ,Other notable facts from Table I include the prepon-
4.0 *
derant use thus far of fixed stations for the various systems
as compared with transportable or mobile types; the
20.0 - particularly in systems with fixed stations, to achieve
40.0 maximum reliability. With few exceptions, the power
70.0 (D amplifier tube is a klystron with an output power of one
kilowatt or greater. Frequency modulation is used on all
systems with one exception.
IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966
 Maps 1 and 2 should be viewed in conjunction with transportable equipment now used as fixed stations, the
Table I, since the system numbering is identical. They following figures are derived:
indicate the general distribution of tropo systems through- Average route miles per system 642
out the world. In practically every case, the various in- Average voice channel miles per system 33 000
dividual systems with maps have been published over the Average number of tropo spans
years in public prints and technical journals, although per system 4.1
technical details or specifications of equipment have gen- Average length per span (miles) 157
erally been omitted in the interest of brevity or under the
assumption that technical features lack public interest. Tropo costs
In Maps 1 and 2, used with Table I, an effort has been It has been loosely stated for years that where a choice
made to consolidate the worldwide picture of tropo to exists as to the utilization of tropo over line-of-sight,
provide a comprehensive view of what has happened dur- submarine cable, or any other means of communication,
ing the past 11 years in the free world, and since the in- tropo costs more. This statement requires examination.
ception of this type of radio communication. Due to First, it is true that in tropo large values of propaga-
world political conditions, most of the tropo equipment tional path losses must be compensated by higher power
manufactured since 1954 has been destined for military transmitters, very sensitive receivers, and relatively large
use, and the locations of the various military systems antennas. This may involve greater initial capital outlays
around the world as shown on the maps confirm that for equipment. However, as a matter of interest in con-
these defense systems have been in consonance with sidering costs per channel mile for any proposed system
political policy and military deployment of forces. Maps it is interesting to study Fig. 9, which reveals that the
1 and 2 do, however, also show the various common- relative loss in dB per mile for tropo is quite low when
carrier or commercial circuits installed before July 1, compared with diffraction path and line-of-sight prop-
1965, and, in addition, some late ones not yet cut over. agational losses. This in itself does not indicate that tropo
The following figures derived from Table I may be of is cheaper to use than other modes of communication for
interest. Although approximate, they are considered any particular situation. There are many factors involved
fairly accurate, based on data received. The figures do in a cost comparison and, for a specific system, all must
not include transportable equipment, particularly that be considered. They include:
made for defense purposes, since data on such circuits . .
.itsinstallation required for the systemqnot just the
are not available and vary widely depending on military
deployment. It is estimated that approximately 500 000 its itallatio eequired th
channel miles are in use by the military on transportable
eqimet 2. ofethe
cs rado ent.
Whether or not the terrain is such that systems other
than tropo can be utilized.
3. Cost of construction, including building, access
Rotalroute
Total route ofstropolashofeJuy
miles
miles established since
1
e
1roads, antenna towers, protection features, etc.
4. Estimated maintenance costs, including allowances
1955,
1955,including experimental circuits 53 600 4'.tmtdmitnnecot,icuigalwne
for spare parts, power, fuel, repairs, inspections, tests,
Operational system route miles transportation, and living quarters and salaries of oper-
installed or under installation 51 300 ating and maintenance personnel.
Operational system route miles dis- 5. The necessity for security of communications-
mantled 1 200
interception, disruption, jamming, vandalism, and
Operational system route miles now sabotage.
saoge
Tnotalmexprimentaorotein minles
in commission or being installed
establexperished
50 100
50
6. Traffic studies, which can predict the volume ten
tal 2out300ilesyears hence and thus the prospective revenues.
7. Whether or not the circuit can be considered per-
Experimental route miles dismantled 700 manent in nature or a temporary expedient.
Experimental route miles now in
commission 1 600 In general, it cannot be said categorically that tropo is
either cheaper or more expensive over the long-haul
Voice channel miles of tropo period than any other mode of communication. It all
Total channel miles installed since depends on the conditions surrounding any individual
1954, including experimental circuits 2 687 000 project. These conditions vary widely with each project,
Operational system channel miles particularly with respect to construction and logistic
installed or in process of installation 2 600 000 problems, not to mention the grade of equipment em-
Operational system channel miles dis- ployed. Any average figure for cost per tropo channel
mantled 30 000 mile that might be derived from financial records of com-
Operational system channel miles in pleted projects would be meaningless, and thus should
commission or being installed 2 570 000 not be used even for budgetary purposes for future proj-
Total experimental channel miles es- ects. It is to be hoped that with the advent of solid-state
tablished 87 000 tropo equipment, which will replace the tube types, the
Experimental channel miles dismantled 27 000 initial cost of tropo radio equipment may eventually
Experimental channel miles in commis- 60 000 be reduced considerably. However, this cost reduction
sion would have no overriding effect on total system cost.
It is practically impossible to compare tropo channel
Using the above data in conjunction with Table I and mile costs with those of other types of communications,
counting only operational systems using fixed stations, or since no firm basis for comparison exists. For a given

Gunther-Tropospheric scatter communications 89

 length of span or circuit and where, for topographical
reasons, tropo is the only tool that will do the job,
there is no comparison if modern reliable multichannel
communications are required. Again, where a long
span of multichannel service is desired in an unde-
veloped area where intermediate channel drops are
unnecessary, tropo may be the cheapest solution.
It is reiterated that in any decision involving the use of
tropo versus some other mode of communication, every
factor must be thoroughly considered. It may well be
that any higher initial cost of tropo radio equipment may
be overshadowed by the higher costs of construction,
maintenance, and security for other modes. The future
development of lower-cost solid-state tropo equipment
for commercial and common-carrier use, will go far to-
ward furnishing a more definitive answer to the cost prob-
lem. It is believed possible that with the small size
of solid-state tropo now being developed for com-
mercial use (having a less stringent reliability factor than
that involved in militarized equipment) there will be
not only a reduction in initial capital outlay for equip-
ment, but also a resultant sizable reduction in construc-
tion, maintenance, and power supply costs.
Current equipment trends
Very soon all tropo equipment purchased for future
systems will be solid-state except for the power ampli-
fier; and even in the case of the latter, future develop-
ments may be able to offer more efficient klystrons or other
power tube types. Otherwise the evolution from the older
tube types to solid-state is virtually complete. This change,
of course, results in new equipment approximately 80
percent smaller in volume and weight, with commensu-
rate reduction in the size of building or shelters and sta-
tion main power requirements, along with improved and
cheaper maintenance and logistics.
Frequency utilization in the UHF spectrum during the
past ten years has risen sharply, particularly because of
many line-of-sight installations, radars of all types,
space satellites, and other defense and scientific endeavors.
Considering propagational reliability, the size of radio
equipment and antennas, and the state of development in
power tubes available, 900 MHz was long considered
the optimum frequency for most areas of the world. But
in view of the increased use of this band in many regions,
equipment was developed to use the 2000-MHz band,
although in some cases it was employed to obtain better
antenna gain using parabolic reflectors of standard sizes-
such as 12, 15, 18, 20, 30, and 60 feet in diameter-than
could be obtained on 900 MHz despite the better prop-
agational characteristics of the latter. Even so, there exist
some areas where 2000 MHz is unacceptable because of
interference problems. Tropo equipment is now avail-
able in the 4000- and 5000-MHz bands; and although it
can use smaller antenna structures, it lacks the propaga-
tional advantages of equipment on the lower frequencies.
Higher frequencies restrict its use mainly to shorter spans.
Since the advent of solid-state tropo equipment, and
even before, the trend has been toward the modulariza-
tion of the different units of the equipment. This practice
tends to simplify the maintenance and operations prob-
lems, as well as problems of field modifications that may
prove desirable at a later date. Coupled with the trend
toward modularization is the greater and greater use of
fault indicator circuitry and lights to display to the opera-
90
tor or tehlnician precisely which circuit or circuits in the
equipment have failed.
For some years efforts were directed toward increasing
the bandwidth or the number of voice channels that could
be used over a tropo circuit. For a conservatively designed
system, with moderate lengths of spans, equipment is
now available to provide for 300 channels. The present
consensus appears to be that the tropo propagation
mechanism will not support a greater number of chan-
nels, at least at the present state of the art. There are
occasions when a much greater channel capacity is
needed, and it remains to be seen whether our de-
velopment engineers will be able to solve this problem.
Until the present, the utilization of tropo by the military
has generally been in the form of fixed stations or in the
form of mobile- or air-transportable units used as fixed
stations and considered to be strategical in nature. Now
there is a growing need for small tactical equipment-
easily transportable by military planes and helicopters-
housed in the standard military types of shelters, where
space is at a premium. Although several types of such
equipment have been or are under development, none
appear to be the answer to all military requirements for
this class of equipment.
In addition to compromises in channel capacity,
weight, reliability, output of power, and order of diversity,
one of the most grievous problems for the tactical set
involves antennas. The size of the parabolic reflectors
can be reduced somewhat with the use of frequencies in
the higher UHF or SHF ranges. However, still to be
solved is the problem of devising an antenna system that
is collapsible, light in weight, easy to stow or pack, and
that can be set up in the field in less than 30 minutes,
including orientation of the dish to the proper azimuth.
The necessity for the concentration of the RF signals
in a narrow beam has so far precluded the successful
use of other types of antennas. A number of develop-
ment efforts have been undertaken to provide a tactical
tropo antenna meeting the foregoing requirements, but
none are considered completely satisfactory. No doubt
further efforts are in order, and will be made, to solve this
problem, but some new and radical approach is needed.
Another important development concerns the applica-
tion of digital forms of multiplexing and modulation on
tropo systems. Generally, these are variants of time-
division techniques, with PCM4 being most prominent.
They appear to be most promising to the military
who are concerned with secure communications. In
addition, the use of digital techniques allows operation
with lower signal-to-noise ratios and therefore, on some
systems, PCM can provide a better grade of service than
FM. However, the propagational characteristics of
tropo make the advantages of PCM obtained on the
cable and line-of-sight systems more difficult to realize.
With increasing demands for tactical military tropo,
and concomitant requirements for smaller size and weight
of equipment, further efforts in development appear to
be in order. Tropo equipment can now be considered
to be nearly solid-state, the chief exception being in the
power amplifiers. This situation leads to efforts in:
1. Reduction in size of klystron tubes, traveling-wave
tubes, or other power-tube types and their necessary
power supplies.
2. Development of solid-state devices to a level where
they can replace the power tubes in the power amplifier
IEEE spectrum SEPTEMBER 1966
stage or modulator-exciter output stage, if used in the
latter.
3. Reduction in size of packaged units, consonant with
rcquired heat dissipation.
4. Development of microminiature integrated circuits
where these can be used to replace present solid-state
circuits.
At the present time, development of these integrated
circuits has reached a point where certain substitutions
are possible. Any or all of the foregoing advances could
lead to material reductions in size, weight, and cost.
Reference to Table I shows that the world is becoming
increasingly aware of tropo for use in commercial or
common-carrier systems. It is, therefore, desirable to
develop commercial or common-carrier tropo equip-
ment, based to a great extent on CCIR and CCITT speci-
fications, and with a voice-channel capacity from 4 to
200 channels for this type of service. It may be necessary
to divide this approach into two or more separate de-
velopments because of the wide variances in channel re-
quirements and power outputs. Any such developmnent
should, of course, be confined to solid-state equipment,
and should be capable of installation in a modest-size
trailer or shelter when the requirement may be of a tem-
porary nature, such as a mining exploration project, far
removed from the headquarters in overall control but
where ordinary commercial communication facilities
are not available.
To summarize the present trends in the current develop-
ment of tropo equipment, we can list the following:
1. Completion of transformation of all tropo equip-
ment from tube types to solid-state, though still retaining
power tubes in power amplifiers.
2. Further elTorts to decrease size, weight, and main
power requirements for solid-state equipment. These
elrorts include development of relatively high output

I. Tropo systems or projects completed from 1955 to July 1, 1965,

plus additional systems, already announced publicly, scheduled to be completed at later dates
E
x
a, E ~~~~~~~~~~~N di
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N.Y.-Baltmore-Exp
* Nutley-Southampton, ITT 1 91 Var F 900 Var Var WS ITT KENN 28 Var 8 D A
1955, New York Expi
B Texas Towers prototype, PAGE 2 210 15120 80 F 900 72 72 REL LENK KENN 30 10 6 T B
1956, Massachusetts' Expi 130 NRC
C AN TRC-43 (XW-1), 1957, WEST 1 268 F 900 Var WEST WE PROD 28 10 9 N c
Verona, N.Y.-Baltimore Expi
D Denhe/der-Domburg, NPTT N
WPTT 1 90 90 F 900 1 PHTE 16 80W 94 D
1958-59, Engla nd '
1957, Netheraandsb Expl
Expi
E Kinmount-Sugarpoint, CWES 2 270 6 480 100 T 5000 24 120 CWES STRC PMS 16 2 9.5 D E
1958 Ontario!' Expi 170 12
F Lannion-Conches, 1958, CFTH/CNET 1 200 12000 F 2000 60 CGDT CGDT 40 10 10 D F
France Expi CFTH
G West Beckham-Domburg, N PTT/GPO 1 112 112 F 900 1 PHTE 16 100W 9 D G
1958, U.K.-Netherlands" Expi
H South England Tropo, MARC 1 206 4 944 F 900 24 MARC 30 10 D H
1958-59, Englandf Expi
J AN/FRC-53/54, 1959, WEST 1 171 4 104 F 2000 24 72 WEST KENN 28 10 10 D J
Northern New York Expi PROD 1
K Paris-Nancay, 1959, CGE 1 103 9 682 F 900 94 33 2 8 D K
Franca, Expi
L AN/GPA-35 (XW-1), 1960, WEST 2 244 976 121 F 5000 4 WEST LENK KENN 2 9 Q L
Florida Expi 123
M AN/TRC-66, 1960, WEST 3 209 10 032 56 T 5000 48 WEST LENK WEST 14 1 4 Q M
Carolinas Exp' 93
N Radas Experimental, 1962, MART 1 100 4 800 T 5000 48 OWES MART 12 D N
Florida" Expi
0 Radas Experimental, 1962, MART 1 210 10 080 T 5000 48 OWES MART 12 D 0
Florida' Expt
1 Polevault, 1955, BTCC 9 1609 57 924 130 F 900 36 36 REL STC KENN 60 10 9 D 1
Canadal" Def2 228
2 Anchorage-Kodiak, 1955, PAGE 2 190 1 140 65 F 100 6 12 REL WE PAGE 30 1 4 D 2
A!aska'l CC' 125 WEST

Gunithier-Tropospheric scatter communicatioil~ 91

 E

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a ~
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4 arina-inrc,
~ ~ Def
~ ~ E0 0

12
97, ir 124 144 800 6 3 IT IT 6 0.

6 Mid-Can South. 1957. BTCC 4 ~~~~-69 2142 9 90 36 36 NOC GELDCL 6 1

Eastern
Canada Def' 180~~~~6
0 a 10

3 ASTn"r01a 1957, Span-IT 2T8 738 1 900 36 48 CTT LENK KENN 60 10 D 7

8 PuartdiRico-Diominican57 ITT! T 1 240 1 440 F 900 6 36 ITT LENK KEN 62 1 D 8

Mdtrepoan1957 Caiba' CC3
9 Blougida-Cba,Masor,197,ACTHT 1 50 12005 F 450 241 240 CFTH CFT BCFT 18 10 6 DQ9
A.loerida-HvnfCC3
10 Quebe-Labradort, 1958, BTCC 5 65701
6400 80 F 900 48 48 NOEC NGECL DBCL 2804 1 7 D 10
Eastern Canada Comb' 1501222A80 10 2.
11 TST-orit, 1958, CRCn-IT 8 738
T 1 900 4,61 248 CRC CRC CRCN 15 1 8 Q 11
Noospcifc loainDef' 245RE
12 DuewtLine,D1958,cAlaska-GWE 29 2695 646840 F 900 24 24 CRC LENK BKCN 30 1 8 D 12

Northern Canada Domb, 120 19 5 C 60 1

13 Northern Telephone Co., CRC 1 91 364 TF 900 4 12 CRC CRC CRC 15 1 8 D 13

1958, Kenora-Redlake, Can. CC'
14 Venezuela Scatter System, CRC 2 344 8 256 110 TF 900 24 24 CRC PHTE TAC 28 1 8 Q 14
1958, Venezuela' GCmr5.6 234 CRC KENN
15 White Alice, 1958, WE 23 3135 413 820 70 F 900 132 132 REL WE BKC 30 1 8 DQ 15
Alaska Comb' 170 60 10
16 Polevault. "Dog-Legs," RCA 6 440 1 760 46 F 900 4 4 REL KENN 28 1 8 D 16
1958, Lab.-Newfoundland Def'- 95
17 Iceland Tropo, 1958, RCA 3 650 2 600 167 F 900 4 4 REL KENN 28 10 8 DQ 17
Iceland:' Def' 270 60
18 Texas Towers, 1958, RCA 3 310 22 320 81 F 2000 72 72 REL LENK KENN 28 10 8 Q 18
East Coast, U.S.', Deft' 124
19 Hot Line, 1958, ITT 3 525 18 900 100 F 900 36 ITT 28 10 Q 19
Norwayh Def 2 235 2000 NRC 60
20 Constantine-Tebessa, CFTH 1 66 1 584 F 450 24 24 CFTH CFTH CFTH 18 1 D 20
1958, Algeria CC3
21 AST-102, 1959. CRC T 2000 4.12 24 CRC CRC CRC 15 1 9.5 D 21
No specific location Det' 24
22 Libya Tropo, 1959, HEPC 2 340 4 760 120 F 900 14 72 REL GECL KENN 28 1 7 Q 22
Li bya CC' 220 60 10
23 Orinoco Mining Co., 1959, CRC 1 324 1 620 F 900 5 24 CRC CRC TAC 28 1 8 D 23
VenezueWla Cmr6
24 Blue Grass, 1959, WE 8 1395 100 440 80 F 900 72 72 REL WE BKC 20.60 1.10 2 Q 24
Alaska Comb4 410 120 50 8
25 Berlin-Torphaus, 1959, SIEM 1 118 14 160 F 2000 120 132 SIEM SIEM SIEM 33 1 8 D 25
West Germany CC4
26 AEC, 1959. Eniwetok- HAN 1 350 8 400 F 900 24 24 LNP LENK 26
Kwajalein G

27 Florida-Bahama Tropo, ATT/ITT 1 186 6 696 F 2000 36 72 ITT WE BKC 30 10 10 DQ 27

1960, S.E. U.S.-Bahamase CC' KEN N
28 Gulf Missile Range, PHIL 1 180 4 320 F 2000 72 PHIL 60 10 Q 28
1959, Gulf of Mexico Det'
29 Medea-Laghouat, 1960, CFTH 3 181 4 344 25 F 450 24 24 CFTH LTT CFTH 18 100W 6 0 29
Algeria CC' 91 30 1W
30 Dew Drop, 1960, Thule- GE 1 625 7 500 F 400 1, 12 24 GE LENK KENN 120 3 2 Q 30
Cape Dyer' Def2 24 10
9? IEEE spectruni SEPTEMIBER 1966
 0 CL U) 2~~~~)

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02 . >' .% X tE E
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Algeria
S 4)0 ~ ~
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~ *.Ei~~~- o a
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35 Snow Lake-Thompson, RCA 1). 2120

1960, 3 600
oanitoba, Canada F 450 4~30
a,.CCa 48) RCA LENK 0ENN 28 1 6 35>
Eastern Canaa
to 0> >xZ
Alasha
Frnc-Agei
33
E-E. Caribbean
Gem 0 TV TR
>C- 2~ 40
-
185C F C 400 4
Vie ie 0
RTT - -u4)1 E
0W 9 D 33
4) n0y0-Be
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m
217 C
1960,~~~~~ , .-
31 34 East
Pacscat, Reay 190
-os1960, CR
PAGE 68
11~ 114 2816
736 FF 900 120
200 24 1372 R
REL GER C
TAC 188 11 88 Q
Q 331
Hawaii Def2
32 Laghouat-Ouargma, 1960, CFTH 2 203 4872 101 F 450 24 24 CFTH LTT CFTH 30 1 6 D 32
Algeria CC' 102
France-Algeria
33 37~~
0rnddBabds TV, 191 TRT
AC 12 402
25 246 185 FF 75 Video
4000 12 Video
6 TRT
MAC TE TRT
AR 30 500W
18 1 109 QD 33
37
1960, France-Algeriai G' 217
34 East Coast Relay, 19601 CRC 1 68 8160 F 2000 120 132 CRC CRC AC 28 1 8 Q 34
Maryland, Def2
35 Snow Lake-Thompson, RCA 1 120 3600 F 450 30 48 RCA LENK KENN 28 1 6 D 35
1960, Manitoba, Canada CC3
36 ADcOM 11, 1960, CWES 1 T 5000 24 48 CWES LENK AC 10 9.5 Q 36
Eastern Canada Def2
37 Trinidad-Barbados, 1961, MARC 1 205 2460 F 750 12 60 MARC ATE MARC 30 1 10 Q 37
S.E. Caribbean CCo
38 BMEWS-Alaska, 1961 WE 7 855 164 160 100 F 900 192 240 REL WE BKC 60 1 2 Q 38
Alaska Comb4 180 10
39 Schonfeld-Flobecq, 1961, SIEM 118 7 080 F 2000 60 132 SIEM SIEM KENN 28 1 8 D 39
Germany-Belgium Def2
40 Flobecq-Martresham Heath, SIEM 1 141 85460 F 900 60 REL SIEM KENN 28 1 8 Q 40
1961, Belgium-England Def2
41 Polevault Rebuild, 1961, WE 5 955 78840 150 F 900 72 132 REL WE BKC 30,60 1 2 Q 41
Canada CombV 228 108 VICK 120 10
42 R.S.A.F., 1961, CWES 4 610 29280 200 F 5000 48 120 CWES LENK PMS 16 2 9 Q 42
Sweden Def2 100 10

43 Manicougam, 1961, CWES 1 115 2 760 T 5000 24 120 CWES STRC PMS 16 2 9.5 D 43
Quebec CCo 12
44 Ft. Wadsworth, 1961, ITT 1 45 540 T 2000 12 24 ITT GE AC 15 1 8 D 44
S.E. New York Def2
45 Jasdaf, 1961, NEC 13 1708 61488 91 F 1800 12 NEC 33 100W 45
Japan DeA r 145 48
46 Makpo-Cheju, 1962, MARC 1 98 21176 F 750 12 60 MARC ATE MARC 30 1 10 Q 46
Korea CC'
47 1ndocom, 1962, PHIL 1 260 6240 F 900 24 24 PHIL CRC AC 28 1 8 Q 47
Indonesia Comb4
48 Atlantic Missile Range, PAGE 1 382 9 168 T 900 24 72 REL GE KENN 60 10 2 Q 48
1962, Caribbean Comb'
49 B.C. Telephone Co., 1962, LENK 2 345 16 560 155 F 900 48 252 REL LENK WEBR 60 10 2.5 Q 49
British Columbia-Alaska Comb' 190
50 Colomb Bechar Hammaguir, CFTH 1 71 2 556 F 500 36 CFTH CIT CFTH 30 1 6 D 50
1962, Algeria Def2
51 Philippine Tropo, 1962, BEND 3 425 5100 105 F 900 12 12 REL LENK ASI 28 1 8 Q 51
Philippines Def2 185
52 Back Porch, 1962, PAGE 5 820 59050 106 T 900 72 72 REL LENK ASI 60 10 2 Q 52
South Vietnam DefG2.5 224
53 Taiwan-Philippines, ITT 1 310 3 720 F 450 12 24 ITT KENN 60 10 Q 53
1962, West Pa CifiCk Def2
54 Dew East Nars, 1962, WE 10 2420 203 280 120 F 900 84 84 REL WE Var 30, 60 10 2 Q 54
North Atlantic Comb4 450 120 50
55 U.K.-Spain-Morocco, 1962, PAGE 4 1230 29 520 209 F 900 24 24 REL SIEM BKC 60 10 2 Q 55
Western Europe Def2 515 400 72 RAD 120 50 8
56 Alberta Govt. Telephone, CWES 1 90 2 160 F 5000 24 120 CWES LENK AC 28 5 4.5 Q 56
1963, Alberta, Canada CC'
57 Okinawa-Miyako Jima, PAGE 1 176 2 112 F 2000 12 72 REL GE TAG 30 lOW 8 Q 57
1963, Okinawa Del)
58 Navy Philippine Tropo, USN 1 45 540 F 900 24 24 CRC LENK 30 10 9 Q Ss
1962, Philippines Def2

Gunther-Tropospheric scatter communications

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59 Thin Route
Tropo, G~~~E
FT 40 11EE G AC 22W Q5
Atlantic Coast Def' C
250~~~~~6 30
1963, Mozambique CC' 273)CL
Algeria CC' 143~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ CFTHa.C
Thigh
63Ac 1963Top, SHAE 40652300 15 FT 900 36 60 REL GTC ITEC 33 10 8 DQ 63
Europe3 VrosDefCm20r00 6A1
YEKRU
64 Coknawa-apan,919, USNEC E 9 1705r 402 800 ar F 20400 24 602 NEC LNEC 601 10 3.5D 64
JAplanti CatDef 45003
65 PacificoMissilesRaneir, BEND 1 2 18 4 F 5000 32 12 CRCH CRC CRC 10 1 25 65
1963. Coalioriau Def FEC

663c
Bangko-aio,1963 . PHILE 10 4750 1430800 F 2000 24 60 PHIL GEC ITEN 60 10 8 Q 66
SEurpAi'Def2 5 0 YEKU 61
67 Okinawa-Tapwan, 1963, CRC 2 6701 14424 192 F 9000 24 24 CRC GEC BK 60 10 2 5 67
Westen PcfcDef' 4090C 2
aii
68 Yuko-Barer Isande, WEN 1 23 20 F 900 36 72 REL WEC BKC 120 50 2 68
1963, Calaskrna CombFE
69 Condkor-Saigon1963 3,USN/RL 1 458 139M0 2000 24 48 REIL LENKEAC 30 10 8 Q 69
SpEAsin "
Def2
670 TukeyawaTropan,19633,PAGE 8 0179 42829 782 FM 900 24 24 CREL GIEM AKC 60 1 32 Q 670
Weturke PcfcDef2 268 A 28 1

71 AondMrC/9, 1963, BENDRE 16 T832 M 9000 24 252 REL LENK ATE 28 10 2 Q 671

No specific location Def2

72 Rokaf, 1964, ITT 3 445 32 046 110 F 5000 24 240 ITT ITT KENN 6, 15 1 DQ 72
South Korea" Def2 175 120 30. 40
73 Big Rally 11, 1964, ITT 6 1200 28 800 150 T 400 24 24 REL MOTO ASI 30 1 2 Q 73
Southern Europe Def 2 300 10
74 AN/TRC-80, 1961-64, CRC T 5000 1 1 CRC CRC BIRD 8 1 9 D 74
Various Def'
75 AN/TRC 90, 90A, 90B, 90C, CRC T 5000 1.12 24 CRC CRC CRC 10, 15 1 5.5 DQ 75
1962-64, Various Def2 24 48 NORC KENN 29 9
76 Antigua-St. Lucia, 1964, MARC 1 220 10 560 F 900 48 72 MARC TMC KENN 30 1 2 Q 76
Caribbean CC' REL
77 St. Lucia-Barbados, 1964, MARC 1 112 8 064 F 2000 72 72 REL TMC KENN 20 5W 8 Q 77
Caribbean CC'
78 Bahama Telecom, 1964, PAGE 4 380 9 120 65 F 2000 24 60 FEC LEN K ASI 1 5 78
Bahama Islands CC' 125 SIER FEC AC
79 CNT-Northwest Tropo, PAGE 3 640 16 640 190 F 2?000 26 72 NOEC LENK DBCL 60 1 2.5 Q 79
1964, N.W. Canada CC' 240
80 Bangkok-Ubon, 1964, PHIL 2 310 7 440 155 F 2000 24 60 PHIL GE KENN 60 10 8 Q 80
S.E. Asia Def2 155
81 AMR, 1964, Cape Kennedy- PAGE 1 170 12 240 M 900 72 72 REL LENK ASI 60 10 2.5 Q 81
Grand Bahama Island NASA
82 Wet Wash, 1964, PAGE 1 180 12 960 M 900 72 240 REL LENK ITE 30 10 2 Q 82
South Vietnam Def2
83 Saida-Colomb Bechar, CFTH 3 270 9 720 57 F 500 36 60 CFTH CFTH 30 1 6 D 83
1964, Algeria CC' 123
84 Phil. Cable Extension, GTE 1 70 9 240 F 2000 132 240 REL LEN K 30 1 2.5 Q 84
1965, Philippines CC'
85 Philippine Telecom, 1965, ITT 3 415 29 880 100 F 900 72 240 REL ITT ROHR 1 8 Q 85
Philippines CC' 180 10
86 Phil-Taiwan Improvement, PAGE 1 310 7 440 F 600 24 48 ITT CRC KENN 60 10 2 Q 86
1965, Philippines, Def2 FEC BKC 120
 E
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87 Thule-Fox, 1965. Canada- PHIL 1 590 7 080 F 400 12 72 REL LENK DBCL 120 100 2.5 Q 87
Greenland Def2
88 LL-176, 1965. ATT 4 54 000 F 2000 132 300 REL WE Q 88
United States CC:
89EMT, 1965, ITT 18 3267 235 224 68 F 2600 72 120 REL RAY BKC 30 1 2.5 Q 89
South Europe Def2 282 60 10
90 Antigua-Tortola, 1965, MARC 1 220 17 600 F 2000 300 REL 1 2.5 Q 90
Caribbean CC:
91 France-Portugal, 1966, CFTH 1 293 10 548 F 900 36 120 CFTH CEI 90 10 2.5 Q 91
West Europe CC3
92 Fayal-Flores, 1966, CFTH 1 170 2 040 F 900 12 12 CFTH CEI 30 150W 2.5 D 92
Azores CC3
93 ET-A, 1966, ITT 18 2080 114 930 50 FT 5000 24, 36 120* ITT GE KENN 6, 15 1 DQ 93
West Europee GDef2,5 240 60, 72 30, 40 10
94 AN/TRC-97, 1966 RCA T 5000 24 24 RCA 8 1 4.5 D 94
Various"' Def2
1 Experimental d World's first system designed for ! The only system utilizing amplitude
2 Defense operational traffic modulation
3 Common carrier e Predetection combining j TV service-predetection combining
4 Combination f When operating in dual diversity, cap- k Predetection combining (being up-
5 Government ab~le of handling 1 TV channel and 120 grd)
6 Commercial vinge chnesrdtcincmi- m Phase-lock threshold ext.
b Unidirectional
a
Unidirectional
Dismantledin.nadovde
~~~~g
~~~h Under retrofit
Now part of Ace High (see System No. nado ie
c Radas tests 63) * Also present capacity on some spans

Key to companies and agencies listed in abbreviated form in this table

AC Andrew Corp. MARC The Marconi Co., Ltd.
AEC Atomic Energy Commission MART The Martin Marietta Co.
ASI Antenna Systems. Inc. MOTO Motorola Inc.
ATE Automatic Telephone & Electric Co. (England)
ATT American Telephone & Telegraph Co. NASA National Aeronautical and Space Administration
NEC Nippon Electric Co., Inc.
BEND Bendix Corp. NOEC Northern Electric Co., Ltd.
BIRD Bird Air Structures NORC Northern Radio Co.
BKC Blaw-Knox Co. N PTT Netherlands Postal, Telephone &
BTCC Bell Telephone Co. of Canada Telegraph Bureau
NRC National Radio Co.
CEI Compania Elettronica Italiana, S.p.A.
CFTH Compagnie Francaise Thomson-Houston PAGE Page Communication Engineers, Inc.
CGDT Compagnie General de Telegraphie Sans Fil PHIL Philco Corp.
CGE Compagnie Generale d'Electricit4 PHTE N. V. Philips Telecommunicate Industrie
CIT Compagnie Industrielle des Telecommunications PMS Precision Metal Spinning, Ltd.
CNET Compagnie Nationale Etudes de PROD Prodelin, Inc.
Telecommunications PYE Pye Telecommunications. Ltd.
CNT Canadian National Telecommunications
CRC Collins Radio Co. RAD Radiation, Inc.
CWES Canadian Westinghouse Co. Ltd. RAY Raytheon Co.
RCA Radio Corp. of America
DBCL Dominion Bridge Co., Ltd. REL Radio Engineering Laboratories
FEC Farinon Electric Co. ROHR Rohr Corp.
GE General Electric Co. SAT Socidt6 Anonyme de Telecommunications
GECL General Electric Co., Ltd. (U.K.) SHAPE Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers, Europe
GPO General Post Office (U.K.) SIEM Siemens & Haiske, A.G.
GTE General Telephone & Electronics Corp. SIER Sierra Electronic Div., Philco Corp.
STC Standard Telephones & Cables, Ltd.
HAN Holmes and Narver STRC Stromberg-Carlson Corp.
HEPC Hycon-Eastern Co. and Page Communication
Engineers, Inc. TAC Technical Appliance Corp.
TMC Telephone Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
ITE
ITT
I-T-E Circuit Breaker Co.
International Telephone & Telegraph Corp.
TRT Telecommnunications
Telephoniques
Radio-Electriques et
KENN D. S. Kennedy Co.
KRUP Friedrich Krupp, GMBH USN U.S. Navy
LENK Lenkurt Electric Co., Inc. VICK Canadian Vickers Co. Ltd.
LINC Lincoln Lab.
LNP Lincoln Lab., National Radio Co.. WE Western Electric Co.
Page Communication Engineers, Inc. WEBR Western Bridge Co.. Ltd.
LTT Lignes Telephoniques et Telegraphiques WEST Westinghouse Electric Corp.

Gunither-Tropospheric scatter commiunications 95

 1650 180° 1650 1500 1350

A R C T I C 0 C E A N

750

. ,, . ; F O rTrS
8BE AU SEA~~~~~~~~~

70' )8-

) -sax CHUKCHI SEA 4) 4 | S

X > L A E | ~~~~~~

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55. - - - DISM{ALESKANS

NORTH ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~O

OCEA N~ A N
~~~~EISTINGLESPANS I
40°- NXINTRIPG SPANS tI
PA CI F I C *---------*NNRP PN
45o- .-PROPOSED SPANS

25°~ ___________
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

20'- 31

10'-

5°- H I ISLANDS
65' '80° 165' 1500 135'
 1200 105° 90° 75° 60° 45°

4 g ~MtELVILLE ISLAN§1S 0
9t 7 ^ n / 1 7 0 C | t DEVON ISLAND /
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56 BAY a \L
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BAY 1 SEA
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GUATEMALA HONDURAS CARIB N SEAWND

COSTAWRICA
30I
PANAMA COLOMBIA VENEZUEA R T H 34N0
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0 > N D U R A S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~HAITI 9 UERT O _

: GUATEMALA ,,~~~~~~~~~HONDURAS CA RIB|B E AN SEA 25°-

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120° 105° 90° 75° 60° 45°

 ;\(R)<LSr~ ~ ~ REPUBLICS(. SR)
30° 150 0o 150 300 45°

G R E E N L A ND S E A

__________ __________ ___________ ________ _ __D B A R E N T S- 750

< :;: :4 0 0 : ~~~~~~~~S

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50° 50° 0° 15° 30° 45°

 900 1050 1200 1350 150°
_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I I I IIII1f - I I I i I I I I I I I I I I 121I
M 0 N Go L I A r;A
45- 4_. -___,,, --'_________

.
4 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

_ C I N A 9 A T o X <N_
30'~~~~~~
-
~ ~ ~ C _______________I'______00 040
_'<0 S ,ll i 0;0it4 -S _

30° -- ,__ , '

t CHINA '0
_ i EAST 00 0_ igp;i100;-0000
00 xEAST
01l;0l
330"s
e-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i

Ie D 0jk0g0EISTUSPN
_, t7- 0_

_~~~~ 7~ ,.' , of ; 00 . PN
BANGKOK V ~ ~ ~~~WA

9 1050
00 2 135_ 1
ANGK0K, 01500

poe tubet\s. 9. Deeomn of a lihwegt RNEasiy transportable

4.p Invesigatons)Tofovariousnew tproecsoftowrouhu

thbs bebyrlalxlutypesof helioters.aiicae)

5.weDueveopen ofcepradlgtratna, 1. Development of a rliablweih,relativly cheanptyeortal

patcualfditorntanspveormetabl rdueieand rtepaeqip
tacicl tyopesofteropoa equipment,tonorin ores
m ore lesscatouie
mlient, wher weiht,strowague. Uizandieas of tassemlying-the ments and CCIT mltrecommendations cand capableu ofth
tubeld are pawr amount. heeecnmia.i incopoatomintmmofntional communieatioytrnspsystem
6. Investigations of valtrnaives towtparaboliaoertuens. without dgadationeof theli systems.

7. Advances in further modularization of solid-state
equipment, including use of integrated circuitry, to
reduce size and weight and increase accessibility,
X. Further development of automatic fault indicator
and performance monitoring equipment to facilitate
11. Further studies and investigations of the tropo
propagation mechanism to determine its exact nature and
behavior, and thus afford designers a stronger base for
development of improved equipment and perhaps better
bandwidth for increased channel capacity.

Gunther-Troposplicric scatttcr communicaltionIs 99

 The future of tropo
In the years ahead, what will be tne position of tropo
in the world of modern communications? Many persons
may say that it will be more or less eliminated from the
picture wlth
with thehe cdevelopment
eve oment oft com
communication satel-
unlcalon ste. ~ Marconi
lites. At the beginning of this article, tropo was termed a
"gap filler" between radio facilities that provide short-
range and long-range communications. This iS a fairly
accurate description. Probably tropo will be complemen-
tary to satellite systems rather than competitive with them.
At this moment, several nations are reluctant to exercise
their rights of satellite access for a number of reasons-
stemming principally from economic considerations and a
lack of operational control. Whatever satellite ground
stations the various nations may establish, these com-
munication centers must have feeder circuits to handle the
domestic relays. Although various modes of effecting
these feeder systems are possible, tropo scatter may be
used in many cases where other means are impracticable
For commerciabll
and where reliability is required.
For commercial or common-carrier
common-carrier purposes,there
purposes, there
appear to be many nations that are beginning to realize
the value of tropo in places where the nature of the ter-
rain presents obstacles and, in addition, where there is no
need for circuit drop reuirment
needfor ircut
drp requirements at nterediae ponts
at intermediate points
between stations. As this is written, aside from the systems
being installed (see Table I and maps), a number of others
are under consideration or in the process of procurement.
It can be assumed that during the next ten years there will
be a steady, if limited, demand for common-carrier tropo
systems. Where planning is done properly, these systems
will provide for expansion of channels as requirements
increase with economic progress and the population ex-
plosion.
The continued and additional employment of new and
advanced types of tropo for military purposes will, of
course, depend upon the international situation. As
pointed out previously, the accent is now on develop-
ment and procurement of light tactical types for utiliza-
tion in jungle, guerrilla, or amphibious warfare, with some
additions or upgrading of existing or planned strategic
systems.
We can take steps to produce better tropo equipment
by proceeding with the developmen'ts listed in the pre-
ceding section. To these might be added improved low-
noise receivers, preamplifiers, and threshold extension
devices.
There is no doubt that tropo is here to stay, and will
occupy its own niche in the array of various types of
communications systems. Under certain conditions its
employment is now
ditio indispensable;
ns t hevue
the may we
future may well
add to these conditions to augment its value to later use
in both worldwide and domestic communications. Its
first 11 years of development have been impressive and
fruitful. The further enhancement of tropo will depend
upon the effort and vision of our engineers.
A nuber frms,at onsierale iconeniece,suppied
valuable data and comment on various aspects of tropo scatter
communications, including the equipment involved. The author is
indebted to these companies, listed below, and extends to them
his sincere appreciation for their generous assistance and co-
operation,
American Telephonle & Telegraph Company
Bell Telephone Company of Canada
Bendix Corporation
Collins Radio Company
Compagnie Franlcaise Thom1pson Houston
100
Compagnie Generale d'Electricite
Electric Company
General Telephone
General & Electronics Corporation
International Aeradio Limited
International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation
Company Limited
Martin Company
N. V. Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken
Page Communication Engineers, Inc.
Pye Limited
Radio Corporation of America
Siemen-s & Halske, A.G.
Telecommunications Radioelectriques et Telephoniques
Western Electric Company
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
The author also desires to express his warm thanks and ap-
preciation to certain members of the staff at Radio Engineering
Laboratories who assisted in the cormpilation of data and in the
preparation of illustrations and manuscript.
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Gunther-Tropospheric scatter communications