ttr:rn """M9

»-:<,..,_..,,,.
.,
, .,,,,,m....,,..,,_,:s::::,,a~,~...___,.__,~.~•T.S,oUft.U~un'--...u.., .., . _ _ ~ - - • • . - - - . -- •· · ••- •-- - - --

CHAPTER XI
MULTIPATH AND FADING
Multipath

In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that

results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.
Causes of multipath include atmosphere ducting, ionospheric reflection and
refraction, and reflection from terrestrial objects, such as mountains and buildings.

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The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interferenc~, and
phase shifting of the signal. This causes Rayleigh fading, named after Lord
Rayleigh. The standard statistical model of this gives a distribution known. as the
Rayleigh distribution.
:Rayleigh fading with. a strong line of sight content is said to have a Rician
distribution, ·or to be Rician fa~ing.

In facsimile and television ~ission, multipath caus~ jitter and ghosting,

seen as a faded duplicate image to the tjght ofthe main image. Ghosts occur when
transmissions bounce off a mountain or othet large obje~t, ,vhile also arriving at the
ant~nna -by a shorter, direct route, \vith the receiver picking up two sig1:als
. separated by a·delay.

In radar processing, multipath causes ghost targets to appear, deceiving the radar
receiver. _T hese ghosts are particularly bo~ersome since they move and behave like
the nonnal targets (which they·ccho), and so the.receiver.bas difficulty in isolating
the correct target echo. These problems can be overcome by incorporating a ground
map of the radar's surrounding and eliminating all _echoes which appear to originate
below ~r0!-1!.19J>r.abo.ve a certain height. --··

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 Dig/to/ Communication (K.T.U) I Multipath and Fat;,,g
Ll,u]
ln digi'taJ rad'10 communications (such ns GSM) multipath ~n cause errors and
. 3. Spe~d of surrounding Obj«!cts - If objects in the radio channel are in
afJiect the quarty 1 o f communicahons.
. TIit errors are due to Inter Symbol
motion, they induce a time varying Doppler shift 00 multipath
Inten:crcnoc (ISi). Equalisers arc oficn used to rorrcct the JS I. Allematively,
components. If the surrounding objects move at a e:rcater rate than the
techniques such as orthogonal frequency division modulation and Rake receivers
mobile, then this effect dominate, fading.
may be used.
4. Tran~mission Bnndwidth of t he Signal - If the transminc·d radio signal
11.1. FADING bandwidth is greater than the "bandwidth" of the multipath channel
(quantified by coherence bandwidth), the received si~ will be
The tenn fading, or small-scale fading, means rapid flu ctuations of the distorted.
amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects ofelectromagnetic
short travel distance. This might be so severe that Jarge scale radio propagation loss
transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast
effects might be ignored.
communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater aroustic
Multipath Fading Effects rommunications to model the distortion caused by the water. Mathematically,

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In principle, the following are the main multipath effects: fading is usually modeled as a time-varying random change in the amplitude and
',I J. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time phase of the transmitted signal.
interval. SI.ow Vs. Fast Fading
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different
t:

?"":_;
I,
..
multipath signals.
3. Tune dispersion or e.chocs caused by multipath propagation delay~,
The tenns slo~ :ind fast fading _refer to the rate at which the magnitude and
~~ change irn1>9sed by the channel ~>n the signal changes. The coherence time is
a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change of the channel

f./
"".
~
11.2. FACTOR$ INFLUENCING FADING to become decorrelated from its previous value.

Slow fading arises when the coh~~ence time of the channel is farge relative to
// The following physical factors W]ucnce small-scale fading in the radio
the delay ronstraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude an.d phase ~hange
propag,ition channel. imposed by the. channel can be considered roughly ronstant over the period of use.
1. Multipath P'rop 2 gation :.. Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that
Slow fading can be caused by events su"h as shado~ing. Where a large
results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or m~re
paths. The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive obstruction such as a hill ot large building obsc.ures the main signal path between
the transmitter and the receiver. The amplitude change caused by shadowing is
interference, end phase shifiing of the signal.
often modeled using a Jog-nonnal distribution with a standard deviation according
2. Speed of the MobHe- The relative motion betwc~ the base stad~offin an~
the mobile results in random frequency modulation due to 1 ercn to the Log Distance path Loss Model.
Doppler ehifts on each of the m ultipath components.

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 Digital Comm1111icot/on (K.T.U)
st Multipath nnd FIJding
Fa Fading or.cur,: when lhc ("-Ohercncc time of the channel is small relative to
the delay constraint of the clumnel. Jn this regime, the amplitude and phase change
imposed by the channel vari~ considerably over Lhc period of use. -11.4. PROPAGATION EFFECTS

11.3. FLAT Vs FREQUENCY-SELECTIVE FADING
As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in
amplitude will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the minimum separation
in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fad~g.
The use of mobile radio in built up areas are due to lhe fact that lhe antenna of a
mobile ~nit may lie well below the surrounding building which leads to major
propagatton problems.
At that point, there is no "line-of-sight" path of the base station. Following
figure illustrate the mechanism of radio propagation in urban areas.

ln flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than band~dth
Direction to
of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the elevated
same magnitude of fading. base station

Obstructed
In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the .channel is time~l-sight

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path
smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the
signal therefore cxperienc.e decorrelated fading. ·
In a frequency-selective fading channel, since different frequency compo~ents
of the signal are affected independently, it is highly Wll~ely that all parts of the
signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes
Fig. 11.1. llllistrating the mech,anism of radio propagation in urban areas
such as OFDM and CDMA are \Yell-suited to employing frequency diversity to
provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many· slowly 11.4.1. STATIC MULTIPATH ENVIRONMENT

modulated narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat ·fading rather than
frequency selective fading. This can be combated by m~ f:)f error coding; simple
equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference· _is avoided by
i~troducing a guard interval betwee11 the symbols. CDMA uses the Rake receiver to
deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective facling channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy
associated with ~h symbol is spread 9ut in time. This causes transmi.tted symbols
that are adjacent in time to interfer_e with each other. F.qualizers are often deployed
in such channeis to compcnsa_te for the ef_fects of the ~tersym~l i~terference. , .
To understand the nature of the multipath phenomenon, -consider a static
multipath environment involving a stationary receiver and a transmitted signal that
consists of a narrowband signal. ·
Let it be assumed that two attenuated versions of the transmitted signal arrive
sequentially at the receiver.
The effect of the differential time delay is to introduc~ a relative phase shift
between any two components of the received signal.
❖ The relative phase shift is zero, in which case the two components add
con~ctively. . -·

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 .. . . _' I " \ - I t T',/\. • \)~

. "•t•·
Digital CommWJication (K.T. U) ' ·~~:~
Multipath and Fading •,:•

- u.1:f}I
Directpathsignal ~ ·!• Phaso
r representation of C-Onstructive and destructive effects of
multipath, as shown in the following figure.

Refleded signal

~~, ~II
representing
Ph-
" " representing ""- ~II~ ""'=
direct-transmission reflected representing representing
signal signal direct-lransmr..sioo rellected
Composite signal signal Signal

Phasor Phasor
Tome

(a)
representing
composite t representing
C0mp0si1e

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signal . signal
1
Fig. JJ.2 (a) Construdive phenomenon for sinusoidal signals
❖ The ;elative phase shift is I 80°, in which case the two components add I
destructively. This ph~cal phenomenon is refers to as 'Slow fading' • (a)
(b)
Fig. 11;3. Pl,asor reprtsaitaticns of (a) construCJive and
(h) destructive forms ofmultipath ·~
.'
Direct path signal
11:4.2. -DYNAMIC MULTIPATH ENVIRONMENT

Consider a 'dyn~c• multipath environment in which the receiver is in motion

and two versions of the transmitted nairowband signal reach the receiver ~a paths
Reflected signal of different lengths.

Owing to motion of the receiver, there is a continuous change in the lengths of

each propaga~on path.

Composite slgnal
Hence, the relative phase shift between the two compo~ents of the received
signal is a function of spatial location of the receiver.
Time
As the receiver moves, the received amplitude is.no longer constant, it varies
(b) with distance, as illustrated in the below figure.
·
Fig. 11.2. (h) Destructive · usoidal sig,ials
p!,e11omeno11 fior sm .
I
- .
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·- -.. -•~A••·- -.. : ..or.,....__..,_....,,._..,.,,,,_ •..,..,.,........,..,..,,....,n-rn,.....-.,,.,........_.,....,.,...,..,,.,.,.....,.~""-'"''''''~"'-."'·"c . ,...,..~••n ,a,__.,.x.,., WWW
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 - --------- ------ -·-·····--·- '"·- .. ·--· -·--

Multipath and Fading

Digital Communlcat/011 (K.T.U)
Let 6t denote the time taken for the receiver to move from point A to A'.
111c incremental change in the path length of the radio wave is deduced to be,
tJ = dtOS ljl

\ = - V 6.t cos 'V

where IJI is the spatial angle subtended the incoming radio wave and the
direction of motion of the receiver.
Correspondingly, the change in the phase angle of the received signal at point A'
with respect to that at point A is given by,
2n
Distance
6.~ = -:;: t:J

Fig. 11.4. 11/llSlrating how the envelopefade.s as two incoming signals -2 n Vt. t

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= A cos 'II
combine with difftrent phases
where X is the radio wavelength. The apparent change in frequency or the
Doppler Shift
Doppler shift, is therefore defined by,
Consider the situation illustrated in the following figure.
s v =-lM
,,,,-~ ............... '21t t.t
,,,-~ \
,,,,,- ' ........
V
,,--·
____________ \\ ··-.........•-;..__ = i cos 'I'
\ ,:....__ '••--... . _,,,- ljl'
\ / ~ ............../ The Doppler Shift V is positive, when the radio waves arrive from ahead of the
,, \ / 61 ..................
mobile unit and it is negative when ~e ~dio waves arrive from behind the mobile
I \i\ :j - ~ ·x unit
\ : .
\f d ·.

- A~ _: 11.5. JAKES MODEL

Direction
of motion To illustrate fast fading due to a movmg receiver, consider a dynamic multipath
Fig. JI. 5. 1/lustraJing the CDlculaJion of!)oppier ~hi.ft environment that involves N fixed scatterers surrounding such a receiver.

. The receiver is assumed to be moving along the line AA' ~th a cons~t · Let the transmitted signal be the complex ·sinusoidal function of wut amplitude
and frequency fc, as shown by, . ·
velocity V. It is also assumed that the received signal is due to a ~dio wave fr~~ -~
S(t) = exp (j2nfJ)
scatterer labeled S.
...
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 ......

J)ij:lfol Comm1111imr1on (K.T .lJ)

1beu, the c-omposite signnl oh.<:<"n't'<i :it the moving receiver, including relative
M11/rlp<ul, and Fading

❖ The Doppler shlf\ V,. is proportional to the cosine of the angle 'I',.
'\
·: •'\
. ·( i\
.', ~

...
~
..
~
~r'.\
~
effects of a Doppler shift, is given by. subtended between the incoming radio wave from \\1e nth scatterer and .,
Xo (1) = L
N
A" c.xp [i2n lfc ·I V ,.)r + j O,.]
the direction of motion of the receiver. i
We can write
" - I
V,. "" V,,,... cos 'V,. n = l,2, ... N
i
where the nmplitude A ,, is contributed by the ntlo scatterer,

V,, is the corresponding Doppler Shift

8,. is same random phase

where V max is the mnximwn Doppler shift that occurs when the incoming
radio waves propagate in the same direction as the motion .of the
'
receiver,
TI1e complex envelope of the rcceiv\:d signal is time vmying, as given by,
We may write,
N .
Xe, (t} = L A,. exp U2nV,. r + j 8,.] P i_ E[ex_p (j21tV mar• cos ('I',.))) ifm = n
" • I ~- (T.)
0
= {
011
1
O
Correspondingly, the auto correlntion function of the complex envelope x-: (t) is
where the multiplying factor,
defined by,

KTUStudents.in
N

I
Rx
o
(I) ~· ~ +
= E[x 0 (t) X0 (t t)]
.
P0
.
= "LJ
" - l
A211
.
is the average signal power at the receiver i.t?put. : ~

where E is the expectation operator with respect to time t

❖ All the radi~·wavcs arrives a,~ the receiver from a horizontal direction .
•
the asterick ( *)in ;'0 (t) denotes complex conjugation. ❖ The multipath is uniformly di'stnouted over the range {-?t, 1tJ.
The autocorrelation function R;- (t)
0
11.6. CLASSIFICATION OF MULTIPATH CHANNELS
ifm = n
(i) Coherence Bandwidth lBcohuenct:l
ifm ~n
Coherence bandwidth is a measure of the transmission bandwidth fot which
Here we make two observations signal distortion across the channel becomes noticeable.
❖ The effects of small changes in distance between the moving receiver A multipath channel is said to _be frequency selective if the coherence bandwidth
and the ndr scatterer are small enough for all n. of the channel is small compared with the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
E [A; exp (i2 1t V,. -r)] == E [A! J E [exp (/2n V n t)] In this situation, the channel has a filtering effect, in that two sinusoidal
'
where n = 1, 2, ... N
comJ><:>~ents with a frequency se~tion gi:~t~r than the chann~l's coherence
bandwidth are treated differently.
. ·:-~· -.

_. .... ....... " . . .........

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 ·---·--------------- - --~------
Digital Commimlcolion (K.T .U)
Multlpoth and Fading
.
u..1 the impulse response of the channel be expressed as
lfbo=, the cohe,encc bandwidth of the channel is IMi,: compared with the
tninsmittcd signal bandwidth, the, fading is said to be frequency non selective (or) h(,:, 1) a Re [h ,i:: 1) exp U 2x/ , 1)]
fmqucncy flaL Coherence bandwidth is viewed in the frequency domain.
where h (t: /) is the complex low-p:m impulse response of the channel and it is
llt1 Coherence Time(,,. • .,••.,) called as delay-spread function

Coherence time is the measure of the transmitted , ignal duration fro which tis the delay variable.
distortion across the channel becomes noticable. The output' of the complex low-pass envelope of the channel y(I), is defined by
the convolution intci:raJ.
The fading is said to be time :selective if the coherence time of the channel is
small compared with the duration of the received signal. -y <I) - 215®-h (t: ox- <, - 't) d,
The received signals duration is taken as the symbol duration plus the channel's
delay spread. 11.7.1. MULTIPATH CORRELATION FUNCTION
If however, the channel coherence time is large compared with the received The time-varying transfer function of the channel is defined as the fourier
signal dWl!tion, then the fading is said to be time non selective, or time flat transform of the delay-spread function h(t : t). with respect to the delay variable ,,
Multipath channels may also be classified as, as
..

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❖ "Flat-Flat Channel"; which is flat in both frequency and time. H(f : 1) = Jii(, : I) exp ( - j211.f,) d,
❖ "Frcqucocy-Flat Channel", which is Oat in frequency only._
where/ denotes the frequency variable.
❖ 'Tunc-Flat Channel", which is flat in time only.
❖ "Completely Non-flat Channel", which is flat neither in frequency.nor in 11.7.2. WIDE SENSE STATIONARY (WSS)

time, such a channel is also referred to as a doubly sp~ channel. "With in~erest confined to fast fading in the short term, it is reasonable to
assume that the complex impulse rcspoQSC h(t : /) is wide-sense stationary".
11.7. STATISTICAL CHARACTERIZATlON OF MULTIPATH CHANNEL A stochastic process is said to be widc-sensc stationary if ilS mean is. time
independent .and its autocorrelation function is dependent only on the different
The transmitted band-pass signal ~. between two time instants at which the process is observed.

x(t) = Re [;(t) exp (j.2 nfc t)] Accordingiy

❖ The expectation of h ('t : I) with respect to time / is dependent only on "

where ;(t) is the complex envelope ofx(t)
fc is the carrier frequency
Since the ~hannel is time varying due to ~ultipath effects, the _impulse response,
the delay t .
.
❖ As time t is concerned, the expectation ofthe product -h (t 1: t 1)
. • h
(t2: / 2) is dependent only ·on the time difference t:...I = /2 -1 1•
of the channel is delay dependent and therefore, a time varying function.
I

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 . \-

~I
i
Digital Communication (K.T,U) MultipaJh and Fading .
11.7.4. SPACED-FREQUENCY, SPACED-TIME CORRELATION FUNCTIONS
11 .7.3, UNCORRELATED SCATTERING (US)
Consider statistical characterization of the channel in terms of the complex time-
..Toe channel is said to be an uncorrelated scattering channel, when
varying transfer function Hif; I) as,
contributions from two or more scatterers with different propagation delays are

uncorrelated".
~"i if.,r, ;/2,/2) = E[H ~· if, ~
;t,) Hif2 ;t2)l

E[h• (t : t ) h{t2: t2)) = E [-·

h {t1: t 1) ~
h (t 1: t 2)] 6(t 1 - ti} where / 1
and Ii represent two frequencies in the spectrum of the transmitted
1 1
signal.
where 6(t - ti) is a Dirac-delta function autocorrelation function of h(t : t), is
1 The correlation function
non zero only when t 1:Ft 1d ~ if,, r1 ; / 2 , t 2) provides a statistical measure of the extent to which

Consider the correlation function of the delay spread function h (t : t) the signal is distorted in the frequency domain by transmission through the channel.
....

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.... _,
where E is the statistical expectation operator,
To represent wide-sense stationarity in the time domain,
1
-·
(t & ¼) are propagation delays of the two paths
( t & ~i) are times at which the outputs of the two path.
1
~ if1 , f2;M) -
= E[H if1 ; t) H if2 ; t + M)]

•If we assume stationary in the frequency domain,

Wt;, may reformulate the correlation functions as, ~ if,, / + A/ ;Al~ = rj:i (Af; M)
~· ~
R;; (t1, t 2 ; At) = E [ h (~1; t) h (t2: I + M)] . -·
= E[H if; I)
. -
.·

H if+ Af; t + M)]

= r;; {t1 ; At) 6(t1 - ¼) -
II Hence the new correlation function Tjj (A/; M) is given by

I where At is the difference between the observation times I I and I 2 6(t 1 - t2) is
rii (A/; M) = J"' rb {t; .6.t)exp (-j21ttAJ)] dt
the delta functio~ in the t domain. .....
The function rjj (llf ; At) is called the spaced-frequency, spaced-time
Replace t in place oft 1•
r;; -· -
(t ; M) . = E [ h (t; I) h (t :· I + t.r))
1
correlation function of the channel.

function r;; (t ; !J. t) is called the multipath correlation profile of the channel. 11.7.5. SCATTERING FUNCTION OF THE-CHANNEL
1

The correlation function rh (t 1 ; t. t) provides a statistical measure of the extent F~ction denot~ by_ S(t ; V) i~ the sca~ering function, which is given by a
founer transfonn pair With the multtpath correlation profi.le ~ (T; M) with respect
to which the signal is distorted in the time domain as a result of transaction through
to the variable At,
thcchaMel.

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:.,===~===
~-~-~~~'."'"'"'---------------------·
C# - ~~---•-•---•-•1-------•-•--------- - ----•
ttar
er-:N! W>ee>?"C'rzil

Multipath and Fading

Digital Communication (K.T.U)
.,
JS(t; V) d-r is the power spectral density of the channel output relative to the
S(t; V) = f r; (t; 61) exp (- j2nVM) d(61) -«>

frequency f of the transmitted tone with the Doppler shift V acting as the
for. the fourier transform and, frequency variable. "The scattering function S(t ; V) provides a statistical measure
,0 of the output power of the channel, expressed as a function of the lime delay-rand
r;; (t ; !:it) = f S(t ; V) exp (j2rtV!:it)dV the Dopp!cr shift V . ·

11.7.6. POWER DELAY PROFILE

for the inverse fourier transform,
We know that
The function S(t : V) may also pe defined interms of rii (t:.f; M) by applying a
!'j, (t ; 61) = E[-·h (-r; t) ~h (t: t + M)]
form of double Fourier transformation.
by putting 61 =0 to obtain that,

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· "The Fourier transform with respect to the time variable M and an inverse
fourier transform with respect to the frequency variable !if''. = E[lh (t ; 1)12]
P;; (t) = 'i .(r; 0)
• i.e. S(t; V) = f f rii (6/; 6/)exp [-j2nVM)) exp Q2m4'} d(M) d(Aj)
The ~unction P;; (r) describes the intensity of the scattering process at
,--
The following figure describes the relationships between the three impoft¥lt
pr?pagation delay t for the WSSVS channel and it is called the power-delay profile'
of the channel.
functions of r;; (t ; 61), r;; (6.f; !:it) and S(t; V) interm s o_f the Fourier transform
. "The power-delay.profile may also be defined in terms of the scattering function
and its inverse. S(t; V) by averag~dt over all potentially possible doppler shifts. ·
Spaced • frequency 'i.-F_t [:.c.
.]--1 Mu14>3th Scatering
Spaced - time
auto C01Tela~on function i.e. ~ (t) = J. S(t;
Correlation fundion 1---+-1
r;. (hf ; At)
_,
FA/[.]
p1ofi1e
r;; (t; .M) -1
F~ [.]
S(t; v)
. - V) d V

Central Moments o{ P;; (t)

Fig. 11.6. Fundional relationships between r;, (r; l.t), r11 (4'; ,11) and S(r; v,I
. To c~cterize the power-delay profile of a WSSVS channel in statistical terms
F.[-) Fourier transform ~th respect to d~lay t.
i ..e, the integrated power avfraged over the delay variable t, as
given by, ,
rJ [·) Inverse fourier transform with respect to frequency ..
increment 6.f. Po, = f P;; (t) dt
_,
· F.v [·] : Fourier transfo.rm wi.th respect to the increment !:it.

--
The average delay, normalized with res~~ to p,, is defined in terms of the
Fv 1 Jnverse•·fo~er transform with respect to Doppler shift V. first-order moment by the formula,
-
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 -
"ii

111.1sj , ,
Digital Comm1mir.otlon (K.T. U)
MultipaJh and Fodrng
.r,-

~a, - -
Po,
-j
1
t P;, (t) dt
The Doppler-Power Spectrum may be interpreted in two insightful ways. ✓-

rom:spondingly, the i;coon<l-ordcr central moment, normnfo..cd with rci;pcct lo ❖ The Doppler spectrum describes the frequency dispersion of n wireless t ~
pa?. is defined by the root-mean square (RM[S) fo~uln, ] ' channel, which results in the occurrence of transmission errors in r
narrowband mobile wireless communication systems.
o, = -
Pa,
-J...,
1
(1-10 ,)2~ (t)dt
12
❖
'
The Doppler Spectrum provides a measure of temporal variability of the i

•
channel, which in mathematicaJ tenns, is described by the channel's
The panunetcr o, is called the delay sprend, correlation function rii (0 ; 6/) for !if == 0. · _,
The duration of a signal in the time domain is inversely related to the bandwidth 1
of the signn) in the frequency domain, The Doppler Power Spee1rum may also be defined interms of the scattering · ·
function by averaging it over all possible propagation delays as given by,
1
"The coherence bandwidth of the WSSVS channel is thnt band of frequencies co
for which the frequency response of the channel is strongly correlated".

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I .....,
B cohcrcncc
I. The Doppler shift V assume positive and negative values with almost equal
11.7.7, DOPPlER POWER SPECTRUM likelihood.

Consider the issue ofrelating Doppler effects to time variations of the channel. .The mean Doppler Shift is therefore effectively zero.

In direct contrast to the power-delay profile, time we set llf ~ 0, _which The square root ofthe second moment of the Doppler Spectrum is given by
corresponds to the transmission of a single tone over the channel.
I c, J/2

Under this condition, the spaced-frequency, spaced-time correlatio~ function of IV!- MdV
the channel, reduces tor;; (0; ~). · av==
- • H
"'
Heoce. evaluating the fourier transfonn of this function with respect to the time
variable~.
., The parameter av provides a measure of the width of the Doppler Spectrum,
-
S-H (V) = J,- (0; /J./) exp (-j27CVll.!) d(ll.t)
_.,
II
: therefore it is called the Doppler spread of the channel.

The average fade rate is related 10 the Doppler Spread av by the

The function Sj:j (V) defin~ the power speclrum of the channel output
liodt TO It = 1.475 av crossings per second
expressed as a Ciiociion of the Doppler S~ft V, therefore called as the Doppler
Power Spectrum oftbe channel. The coherence time of a multipath wireless channel is inversely proportional to
the Doppler Spread, as given by

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Digital Communication (K.T.U)

I 0.3
tc ohcrence = ~ ~ 2 V,...,.

where VIIL1I is the maximum Doppler Shifl due to motion of the Mobile unit
CHAPTER XII
i.e. "The coherence time of the channel is that duration for which the time
response oftbc channel is strongly correlated". DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES

12.1. INTRODUCTION
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Future generation of wireless commllllications. requires higher data rates and a
1. F.xplain about propagation effects. more reliable transmission link. The transmission data rates can be increased by,
2. Discuss about various classification of multipath channels. ❖ Increasing the transmission bandwidth.

KTUStudents.in
3. Explain about statistical characterization of multipath channel. ❖- Using higher transmitter power.
Due this wireless communications channels suffer from various factors like
••• fading problem is the major impairment proble~.
!. To improve the performance of those fading channels, diversity techniques are
used.
_"The diversity techniques is used to provide the receiver with several replicas of
the transmitted si~al, used to overcome the fading problem and to improve the
performance of the radio channel without increasing the transmitted power and
improves the SNR".

In diversity technique:

Communication channel is supplied with multiple transmitting and receiving

antennas. The signal is.transmitted and received through multiple paths.

As a resul~ th~ probability that all replicas of sig~als will fade simultaneously is
reduced considerably.

Diversity _technique is used to decreased the fading effect and improve system
performance in fading channels.

. \
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 • I \. n . , l

.. ,.f
Dis:ital Comn11micaJio11 (K.T.U) Diversity Ttclmiques

There nrc different type.~ of diversity which is commonly employed in wirele.,;s 1

llf,,,. T.,
communication systems. They arc
❖ Frequency (or) Multipath diversity The number of resolvable multipath given by tlie following equation is used to
❖ Time (or) Temporal diversity approximate the maximum achievable diversity order for multipath diversity.

❖
Space (or) spatial diversity
Polarization diversity
L == [T.,W)+ 1
Channel equalization is another app~ch to achieve multipath diversity. Afilter
is used at receiver to make channel equaliµtion to -compensate the channel
•
❖ Angle diversity impairments.
❖ Antenna diversity
This process combines the multipath of signals and reduces inter-symbol
interference (ISI) and pro<!uce diversity. .
12.2. FREQUENCY (OR} MULTIPATH DIVERSITY
Anl fW.

In which the information - bearing signal is transmitted using several carriers

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that are spaced sufficiently apart from each other to provide independently fading
versions of the signal.

,.
lb.is may be accomplished by choosing a frequency spacing equal to or larger
- than the coherence bandwidth of the channel.
Transmi~ signals with different frequencies are affected different way in Fig. 12.1. Frequency ofDiversity
frequency domain. The information signals are modulated through different carriers 'M' in
Multiple replicas of information signal are _sent over several affected frequency
band in this diversity. There should be a distance more than C?herent bandwidth
II
frequen_cy diversity and different signals undergo in~ependent fading.
The carrier should be separated by at_least coherent bandwidth from ea<;h other,
II between the frequency bands and achieve small-scale.fading according to, I 'L' copies of signals ·are optimally combined at the receiver to ~ e a statistic
t,,j ~ -
id
I I decision. The maximum ratio combiner is the optimal combiner.

II
c

Frequency hopping might be use, to achieve such kind of diversity instead of 12.3. TIME DIVERSITY (OR) TEMPORAL DIVERSITY:
sending multiple frequency replicas over different affecting frequencies.
-In which 1;he same _ infonnation - bearing signal is transmitted in different time
Frequency diversity can also be implied as in the case of Jl}ultipath diversity.
slots, with the interval between successive time siots being equal to or greater than
i, Transmission of a wideband signal is given by the following .equation where the the coherence time of the channel. - . ·~
'
bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth (ti / J of the previously used
:,: ~
:~t,
If the interval is less than the coherence time of the channel but at the expense of
channel and this results a frequency selective fading . degraded perfoJ'JJlance. ·
.:.

For more
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IJ/gltal Ca111111u11k<1tlon (K.T .U) Dlvcr.,lty 'f 'tclmlqutJ

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Time diversity nsc \he rcpctilion code for crror-co11lrol codin~.
lnlcr \~vine, nnd codinl!,, ovc1 symbols ncroi;s difforcnt coherent time periods, is
used to ohtnin time or temporal diversity.
This t<.'Chnique utili'res coding of chnnnc\ nml intc1\cnving to miticnte chnnncl
fading nt a cost of Bddcd delay nnd loss of bnn?width cnicicncy, lt is uses on slow
fading channels nnd on the channels which is delay sensitive.
lntcntionnl redundancy is introduced into the tmnsmittcd signal lo achieve time
diversity in the temporal domain. Redundancy cnn be done by repetition of chnnne\
coding.
Channel coding, when there is no error control capability, mny be performed
separately or with modulation.
possible fndinl, events occurring in tho ch11n11cl.
Multiple ontcnnns nrc used to tmnsmit 11i&nals with cnrrying informotiort at the
trnnsmillcr uncl/or receiver to provide multiple independent fading puths in space
diversity.
This technique is used to provide significant performance gain with not
sacrificing nny vnluable bandwidth on the transmitted power resources.
[n a space diversity system, most of the cellular communication system has only
one lmnsmitting antenna at the base station and two receiving antennas those are
widely separated per sector.
ln general, if we wnnt to receive M copies of transmilled signals then we need
'M' number of antennas in a space diversity system.

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It is very important to keep enough space between the antennas so that the
received signals undergo independing fading.
Space diversity is different than frequency and time diversity. Unlike those
spaces diversity needs no additional work at the transmission end nnd no additional
b'.111dwidth is required on the transmission time.
Fig. 11.2. 1ime Diversity · Depending on whi~h end of the wireless link is equipped with multiple antennas,
\
~ -,1 • al is transmitted in 'M' different periods of time we may identify thr_c e different forms <>f space diversity.
In general, a desu\AI sign ··
•
diversity. . th (i) Receive diversity:
. . bol is transmitted 'M' times, that intervals between e
For example, every syrn .h time to make ensure that different Receive diversity, which involves·.thc use of a single transmit antenna and
transmitted symbols should be at least co e~ence multiple receive antennas.
co ies of the same undergo independent fading. . . d
p . • be ·seo
to obtnin optimal combiner. lf we sen (ii) Transmit diversity:
Maximum ratio combiner ~ . u . . . tition code. Error
·control
bot 'M' times then 1t· apP.hes the (M,I) rcpc · : Transmit diversity, which involves the use of multiple transmit antennas and a
the same sym . . ffi . . to combat time selective or fast fading.
·coding and interleaVIDg is an e ecllve way . . . . . single receive antenna.

{Iii) Diversity on both transmit and receive:

12.4. SPACE DIVERSITY (OR) SPATlAL DIVERSITY
. .
In which multiple transmit or recc1
· t being chosen so as
.ve antennas or both, nre used with the spa~ing
to . ensure the independence of .
I
i
Which combines the use of Multiple ant~nas at both the transmitter and
receiver.
between adjacent an ennas -
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\
 ' I
_ I n ,,,~

Digital Communication (K.T .U) Diversity Techniques

r N\I rr. ...r 11

t 2 M
Antenna

j ~ ~ - ----- - -·--Control -- Comparator Preset threshold

Fig. I 2.3. Concept ofspace diversity

- 'fi,.12.5. DIVERSITY COMBINING TECHNIQUES

1------<-i

Receiver
Short- Term
Average

~pti~ . f di ·ty
. :hniques applied to combine the multiple received signals o a vers1
i\lec1 on device
. mto
. a sm· g1 . d . al Fig. 12.5. Feedback Combining
e unprove sign •
,:eparal Only one receiver is required (Since oniy receiving one signal at a time), so it is
lO S following techniques are used.
less costly but-required multiple no. of antennas.
c!lection Combining:

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(ill) Maximal ratio combining:
Here the receh•er sel~ts branch with highest instantaneous SNR. and the 'new
selection made at a time that is the reciprocal of the fading rate. All paths co-phased and summed with optimal weighting to maximize combiner
I. outputSNR
'

Monitor Select
SNR branch

..;

•
:
)(
X
y y

Fig. 11.-1. Selection Comhi11i11g ·

hi
This will cause the system to stay with the current signal until it is likely the
signal has faded. Fig. 12· 6· Maximai Ratio Combining
A means of combinin th • ·
It is simple and cheap.
with a higher received po!er :a:::~ fro~nflall receiver branches, so that signals
(it) Feedback or scanning combining: • thC Optima}
It 1S . .t hn. · ger 1 uence on the final oirt,-,.ut
-•y •
, . ec tque to ~aximize output SNR.
It scan each antennas until a signal is found that is predetennined it/teshold. _(iv) Equal Gain Combining
If signal drops below threshold it rescan.
It is the simplified Inethod of m,.v;-a} . 1·
It combine multiple signals. t
~u ra 10 combining
. •
10 o one.
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 Dlgilal Communication (K.'f,U) Dlvt!rslty Teclmlcpres

The phase is adjusted for ench receive signnl so thnt,
❖ Signnl. from each bmnch 1trc co-phnsed
❖ Vectors ndd in-phase.
lt gives better pcrform:i.ncc than selection diversity.
12.6. SPACE DIVERSITY ON-RECEIVE SYSTEMS
ln 'Space diversity on receive', multiple receiving antennas ure used with the
spacing between adjacent antennas being chosen so that their respective outputs are
esscntinlly independent of each other. ..
This may be satisfied by spacing the adjacent receiving antennas by as much as
The N, receivers output produced by a common transmitted signal, the logic
circuit selects the particular receiver output with the largest SNR as the received
signol.
To describe the selection combining, we assume the following i!l}plication,
❖ The frequency-flat assumption means that all the frequency components
constituting the transmitted signal experience the some random
attenuation and phase shift.
❖ The slow-fading assumption means that fading remains essentially un
changed during the transmission of each symbol.
I ❖ The fading phenomenon is described by the Rayleigh distribution.

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l Oto 20 radio wavelength or less apart from each other. Let ';(t) denote the complex envelope of the modulated sign.al transmitted during
The much larg~ spacing is needed for elevated base stations, for which the the symbol interval O·s ( ~ T.
angle spread. of the incoming radio wave is small. I
The complex envelope of the received signal of the k"' diversity branch is •
i.e. spatial coherence distance is inversely proportional to the angle spread.
defined by
Let us descnl;c the systems with the diversity combining techniques. ~ ~ -
x 1 (t) = a 1 exp (j0 1) S (t) + W-1 (t), OS t ST
12.6.1. SELECTION COMBINING
where k ;. l,Z, ... N,
The following block diagram describes the selection combining techniques that
\i
consists of two functionalbfocks. i.e. for K th diversity branch, \he fading is represented by the multiplicative term
I
•!• N, linear receivers and, x1 exp (j0 l) and the additive channel noise is denoted by W1 (t).
•:• Logic circuit. Remove the unknown phase shift 0 1 at each diversity branch with sufficient
-
x1(t) I accuracy,
1 Rec.elver 1
I.

2
X2{1) I Recelver2 I.
I 1 .•
•
Circuit--
LDgic Output
i.e. x1 (r) ~ a 1 S (~) + W 1 (t), 0 S I ST

The signal component of ; 1-(t) is a 1 S(1} and the noise component is Wt (t).
.••• ; '
Then the average SNR at the output of the kth receiver is given,
IJ xti{t) I • IJ
'" 1, Recerver " f
Multiple. receiv.e·antennas
• · Fig. l2.7. Block....diagram ofseledio11 combiner
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DiglJol Commvrrlcation (K.T.U} Di¥m/Jy Techniques

E 0~ (r) El [ E [o.! ]] For N, divenity branches

En W1 (1) fl]
P(y. S y) = [ 1-exp[ -.i. ] lN,
lhc mean - square value of W1 (1) is the same for all k, then the (SNR) as, Tn J
1
E The eumulative distribution function of SNR. is the same as the c:umul.dive
(SNR) 1 = N E [o.~] distribution function of the random variable r ·
0
,c-

Where E is the symbol energy Y,c = Max {T1, "fi, ··· 1N }

,
N which is less than the threshold ·r if and only if, the individual SNRs y y
2° is the noise spectra] density. 'YN, less than "f. I• 2> • ••

For binary data E equals the transmittexl signal energy per bit Eh-
0.9
Let yI ck:notc the instantaneous SNR measured at the output of kit> receiver
0.8

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during the transmission of a givm symbol
0.7
Then replacing the mean square value E [ !uJ21 by the instantaneous value laJ, 0.6 6
we get 3: 0.5
10
..!(
E 0.4
11 = Na.;
0

Assume that the random amplitude a 1 is Ray Leigh distributed, the squared
amplitnde ~ will be exponentially distnl>uted.

Then the probability density functions of the random variable i~ given by, ·
! . 2 X . 3
&
f nC
rJ = r:v exp[-:.ly ] Y1 ~o Fig.12.8. NormaI'1wfprobabiliJydutsityfundicnfx(x) =N,exp(-x)
fl - ~p (-x)f'r- 1 for a varying numbu N,ofreceive fllllennas.
For SNR r. the associated commulative distributions of the individual branches
are described by
y The cumulative distribution function of the selection combiner is given by ·
fIn Cr1) d Yt - [ - y ] ]N,
P(r1 sy) "'
...,
-
Fr(y,c)=
[
I-exp-.,::
= I -exp[-J_] Yav
By definition, the prob~bility density function Fr{y,c) is the derivative of the
cumulative distribution function FrCYs,) with respect to the argument y,c•

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:_::::::~~~~~~~~~~~~,_ _____________________ ____ .,..... ,

. ·--·- - , _ ____ -·--- ·--

Digital Communication (K.T,U) Diversity Techniques

Hence. differentiate with respect 1o y., N,
d y(t) = I at xk(t )
Fr(Y,c) = dy Fr(Ysc) .t • I
IC"
N,

Fr = - N, (-Yu~
r.. r..
[ (-y)]N,-1
exp - - ) I - exp _2£..
Y..
= I a* [ a * exp (j ei;(t) +; *(t)]
N, N,
From the above figure we make two observation. = ;(I) I a1 a. cxp(j9.t) + I ak;.t (I)
kGJ kc J
(1) As the number of diversity branches N, is increased, the probability density
where ak are complex weighting parameters.
function/x(.r) of the normalized random variable X =r / Yav progressively
moves to the right ' 1- -- -11 Receiver 1
l

(i1) The probability density functionfxCx) becomes more and more symmetrical
2 ------il1 Receiver 2 ,1--1---~ Linear Output
and therefon; N, is increased. : Combinex ~
.

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i.e. a frequency~ flat, slowly fading Rayleigh channel is modified through the
use of selection combining into a Gaussian channel provided that the number of
diversity channels N, is sufficiently large. N,------il Receiver N, ~
12.6.2. MAXfMAL - RATIO COMBINING Fig. 12.9. Block diagram ofMaximal- Ratio combiner

The selection combining technique just described is relatively straight forward These parameters are changed from instant to instant in accordance with signal
variations in the N, diversity branches over the short-tenn fading process.
to implement However, from a performance point of viewi
❖ It is not optimum ❖ i.e., The . complex envelope of the output signal equals the first
express\on
❖ . I~ . ig1?9res the information available fro~ all the diversity b~ches N,
except for the particular branch that produces the larg_est instantaneous ; (I) L ak a.. exp (i a.t) .
· k• I
power of its own demodulated signal. .
I N, ~
This limitation of the selection ~mbiner is mitigated by the maximal - uition ❖ - The complex envelope of (he output noise equals the }: a J: w (t)
1
combiner.
Asswning that the w.t(t) are mutuaiiy ind~pendent fork= I, 2, ... N, the o~tput
The-block diagram of maximal - ratio combiner is described in the follo~~g
SNR of the linear combiner is therefore given by
figure. .
It consists of N, linear receivers followed by a linear combiner.
l
(SNR)c =
E[l:;(t) f a.takexp(i9t)P]

J~
k=I
.. . The corresponding complex envelo~ of the linear combiner output is defin~
by,
I . _: • E[ I
1
a.t (t) 12 ]
I •

.I
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~ bticd oo lbc Sclt\Wl7 moqUAlity. die!• diMl'lity lnnch hu a mapill.ldo proportlona.l to lliid
1 _ . that ~ the aisnaf pilllM 9 to wi1hit\ tho ldt.atical for All !ht N
o1 111d h; dcloou- an~ rwo CIOmJ>lcA 11wnbai) ful ! .. I, l. ... N, A ~ to 4
Gwa.y~ • . ,
Git ' ......(1 fur a.onv,l~ pammolG, ~ bave
11m J)mDitl Ibo AIJJy qii¥m,i Mfdtdon o!lbt N, rccdvcJ 01JtJ10U by tho I ~
N, N, ~
~ r1,,r1:1a,r
• .. . '. 1 The ~ tip definn the imlantllDCOUa output SNR of tho maximal - ratio
~

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 --:
4

'
f)Jwr,lty Ttchn/lJUU '
{)lflltol ('nm,,,111flrnt/f1ff (K.T ,11) The result.Ing two by- two space-time bloclc code~ writteTl in matrix form a,
'
- follows: Q Time
w

Th< _.-, ~kc, ih< ,_,.,.,. i,;..,1 ,1,1, ""'""

Mapper: !,,, wt,e,,, h, " I. I, """ s· .. '
_ , . , , . , .,.w "•"'"" of 1,locl<• ,.;1h

and 1hal nrc cmr,pJex.

"'b blo<k m"'' "P of mo,Wpl• ,ymbol•

F01 e,cample: The mapper m11y be iri the Corm of 1lr'I M - nry PSK or M - t1ry
-•
Space
QAM mc."'IIP,e oonoitel111tion.
G, •0 '
Block ~ncoder:
The bfoclc encoder c.onvcr1s c:nch block of c.omplcx symbols produced by the -_~.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.
• 1
Transmit at time t
Transmit at time I+ T -
""1'J'<' io<o on J - by - N, ,...,,.,;,,,.,,bl""' S,
whore / ..,o
N, MO ,.,pocti,.IY
Transmit '
tho tcmpornl dimension lllld spn1io.l dimen.~ion of the transm ission Matrix. Transmit
antenna 1
antenna 2

'
KTUStudents.in
The individual elements of the transmission Matrix S nre mndc up of linear

c.ornbinations ofS1 ands,.

Mulliplic:atiVC
path coeff'tcienls '
Where S, arc complex symbols
llme t' : noise= w }
1
_ ___,
;.
I
! ' (i
S nrc their complex conjugates TlfTIOr+T: nolso=vr
1 ~
Alamoutl Code
AJrunouti code, which is one of the first space - time block codes involving-the ~
. hi -
use of two transmit antennas and one signoJ receive antenna.
4
Let ; and ;l denote the c.omplex symbols produced by the code's mapper,
1
which are to be: tran51Dillcd over the multipath wireless channel by two tranSmit
antennas- Signal tmnSmission over the channel proceeds ns follows:
MaximUm - lilcelihood
decoder · ......·
'
~
J. At some arbitrnrY time I, :mterma I tran5mits s I and simultaneously antenna

2.
2 rnmsmits s2·
At time t + T, where T is the symbol duration,, signal transmission is Fig. 11.11. BIW J;ag,an, •fth• uans";,., (uansml;tU and ,ece;,,,J fo, th< ,<Janw,d'
' ~

-·
switched to - s transmitted by antenna I an~ simultaneously
-·
St is
code. Note that I'> t to allow for propagation delay '
~
2
·.. . . ~
tr.lllSitl,itte<l by antcruia 2.

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~ ~~......___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..___M_u.u<ua•----•-~-•••-
·--- --..··------ · ---
Digital Comrmmlration (K.T.U)
Diver.tlty Techniq11cs
This transmission matrix is a complex-orthogonal matrix (quaternion) in that it
satisfies the condition for orthogonality in boU1 the spntinl nnd temporal sen~ . Property 2
Let,
Full-Rate Complex Code

St == [ ~ :• - -;_2] ~ Space The Alamouti code (with two transmit antcnnns) is the only complex sp11ce-timc
S 2 s, block code with a code rate of unity in existence.
Hence, for nny signal constellation, full diversity of the code is achieved at lhc
JJ full transmission rate.
Time Property 3 Llneilrlty
denote the Hcnnitinn transpose of S, which involves both transposition and
"The Alamouti code is linear in the transmitted symbols". The transmission
complex conjugation. To demonstrate orthogonality in the spatial sense,· we
Matrix S of the code as a linear combination of the transmitted symbols and their
multiply the code matrix S by its Hermitian transpose s+on the right, obtaining complex conjugates as given by,

KTUStudents.in
Ss+ = [ ~";•I _'s,2][ ~:• -~2] S = s,r11+s·,r12+s2 r21+i2r22
-s 1 s 1 s2 s1
12.8. MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUTPUT SYSTEM
,:r.12 -1:1s2f -:r,:;2+:;1:;,]
[
= -s·2s·,+s\s'1 1:r212+1st12 ~pace - diversity wireless _communication systems employing either multiple
receive or multiple transmit antennas to struggle the multip:ith fading.
- ~ [I OJ
=. (ls,f+ls2f) 01 Fading was treated as a source that degrades pcrfonnancc, necessitating the use
Since the right-hand side of s+ is real valued, it follows that the alternative of space diversity on receive or transmit to mitigate it.
matrix product s+s, viewed in the temporal sense, yields exactly the same result.
That is, MIMO wireless c_omrnunication; which distinguishes itself in' the following
ways, ·,
ss+ = s+s = ( Ii 1 f +Is212) I
❖ Fading pheqomenon is viewed not os a nuisance but rather os an
Where I is the two-by-two identity m~trix. environmental source of enrichment to be exploited.
Property 1
❖ Space diversity nt both the transmit and receive ends of the wireless
Unitarity (Complex Orthogonality) communication link may provide the basis for a significant increase in
channel capacity.
The Al!ll11outi ~e is an orthogonal spa~time block c~e, in that its
transmission matrix is a unitary m~trix with ,the sum tcnn I ~ 1 12 + I s 1 being
2
❖ Unlike conventional techniques, the increase in channel capacity is
2
merely a scaling factor. ac~eved by increasing computation_ahomplexity while ·ma~taining the
primary communication resources fixed.

·I.
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 l)

l • lVtf . a\' )~nuLc)1,&~

t ~~~- \_ . . i, .. : J

D1g11b1 eowm,,k:alim (K.T.U)

MODf:I. QUESTION PAPER~ I

1 )-- t
APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
B.E. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SIXTH SEMESTER
EC302 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
PART-A
Receive Answer any 2 questions carrying 15 marks each
)--2 antennas
I. (a) (,) What is digital communication? Compare Analog and digital
communication. (5)
(if) Derive the power spectral density function of an Random variable.(\ 0)
[OR]
/ r,z. 12./2. Block diagram ofJ.llMO wiulen link with N1 transmil ant~nnas and N, (b) (,) Explain a DPCM system with the expressions and block diagram.

KTUStudents.in
reahe antennas Show that SNR ofSPCM is better than that of PCN (8)
The above figure shows the block diagram ofa MJMO wireless link. (i1) Wbat is low bit Rate speech coding? Draw the block diagram of
,. ., The signals pansmitted_by the N, transmit antennas over the wireless channel adaptive sub-band coding. Scheme for speech signal and explain. (7)
/
/ -P,; /
an: all chosen tolie inside a common frequency band. 2. (i) Obtain an expression for Nyquist criteria' for distortion less· baseband
The transmitted signals are scattered differently by the channel, Moreover, transmissio~ with zero ISI. (7)
>'.,1
1,, owing lo multiple signal transmission, the S}'ilem experiences a spatial form of .(ii) A PCM system uses-a uniform quantizer followed by· a 7-bit binary
signal -dependent intuferencc, called Co-antenna Jnterference {CAI). ·· encoder. The bit rate of the system is equal to 50 x }()6 bis.
/.
-'/ / (a) What is the maximum m~ge bandwidth for ~hich the system
//
/ _REVIEW QUESTIONS operates satisfactorily?
'/ V
/'
I . Explain about diversity combining techniques. (b~ Dctennine the output signal-to-(quantization) noise ratio when~ full-
1/ ;;,- ~oad sinusoid_al modu_lating wave of frequency I MHz is applied to the
/; 2. Explain about space diversity on roceive system. mpul
//, 3. Explain about sp:ice diversity on transmit system.
PART-B
// 4. Discuss multiple input multiple output system. Answer any 2 questions carrying 1S marks each
5. Explain in detail about frequency diversity technique. 3
- (a) (I) Explain about Gram- Schmitt ortb?gonalization procedure (5)

6. What is time diversify? Explain time diversity technique in detail. (ii) Explain about conversion of the cont_inu~us AWGN channel into a
vector channel. _ ··
•• -• (6)

•
l LP) l.4 JI)¥ ~ ~ • - • ,11~~~1fW.llY..:lia":"~~"'"°T.lllfn,.JfN ( , . , ' I U _ , ~, - ~ ~ - . . . . - , - , kP'<<-• ~ - - ·.,., ~ , . . . , ~.,..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

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 {OR.]
(,) Eoq,i.;, BPS!(""'i>tion With suitable d ia · .
!he PmbabiT,ty orsymbot error for lhc scheme
grams_ Dcnvc an expression for
(ii) ComJ>are BER of coherent PSK, · ()
1 9
coherent QPSK
4. (O An onhogona1 set of sign,J, iseha,-actcriud by thand coherentthFSI( . (6) MODEL QUESTION PAPER~ 11

=".:.,\~\i~I::::~:t~:;.~• ~
J>l'Oduct of any P · f . c Property at the inner
si""31s ' .(I)
and';,(~)
COnstellation for s 1(t) and Si(t). gn
APJABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
',(I) B.E. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SIXTH SEMESTER
EC302 DIGITAL COMMUNJ.CATION
PART-A
0 T /2
T
--nor--- --=-r-~ t . Answer any 2 questions carrying 15 marks e:ich

KTUStudents.in
1. (a) (1) Stnte and prove the sampling theorem in time domain? what is its
I
Nyquist Rate? (7)
(ii) What is auto correlation function? Explain its properties. (4)
(b) Bina,y data is lnmsmilled ovc:, a microwave unk at a rate of JO' bio / so:
(iii) Discuss about Ergodic and Gaussian process. (4)
and. the PSD of noise at the receiver ioput is I0-" watts / Hz. Find the
{OR]
average eanier po\Ver required to maintain an average prob,I,ifity of enor
P, 5 lo-< for coherent hiruuy FSK. What is the "'Join,! "'-1
bandwidth?
(b) (1) What is DM? Explain the transmitter and receiver ofDM system (7)
(ii) Explain the two operation modes of adaptive equalization. (4)
PART-c (iii) Discuss on Eye - Pattehi (4)
Answer any 2 questions carrying 20 marks each 2. (a) (1) Expi~n about power SJl<ctnl of PAN signals. (6)
5. (a) (1) With a neat diagram explain direct sequence sp~ealspecirum (ii) A high quality digital audio system has the following specifications,
(ir) Explain about slow and fast frequency hopping (10) 60 dB SNR to be maintained over a range of peak signal level~ of 100
;
(5) ' to 1. The signal BW = 5 kHz. Determine the value of n, M and BW
(iir) Explain the properties of Pseudo noise sequences
(5)
I
i
for the PCM system. How many bits are required if µ-Law
[OR)
(b) (r) Explain abo~ statistical characteriz.ation of multipath channel.
..
;

I
companding is used with a companding gain of 30 dB for low level
signals. Also detennine the new BW. (S)
_(6) '
(iii) A ·DPCM system uses a linear predictor with a single tap. The
(ir) Explain about diversity combining tec~ques. I

I
(4.)
(iil)°Bxplafu about space diversity on transmit s,:stem. •,
I normalized autocorrelation function of the input signal for a lag of
(5) l one sampling interval is 0.75. The predictor is designed to minimize
(iv) Explain about sp~ce diversity on transmit system
(S) .1-,
!r the prediction error variance. :O.etennine the proc~ing gain attained
t by the use of this predictor. ( )I
4
.-ti.---
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 ,,,

[&fil}
-0
Digital Communication (K.T.U)
Pnrt-B
TRIVANDRUJ
Answer nny 2 "Uestions carrying 15 marks each MODERN BOOK C
3. (a) (1) faplain about Geometric representation of signals (5) Gandhari Amman Ko
Nagar, Pufrmoodu T,
(ii) Explain about Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization Procedure (10) Ph: 0471-2331826
[OR) PRABHUS BOOK!
Prabhu Complex Ch
(b) (,) E>.1>lain the Generation and Detection of DPSK (6) Temple Tvm-69500
Ph: 94007 79586
(ii) Explain the Generation and detection of BFSK and QPSK (9)
SARAOHA 8001(
4. (i) Explain about carriersynchronization (5) Padrnavilasam Ro,
Pazhavaogadi
(ii) &1>lain about coherent detection of signal in noise (5)
East fort Tvm - 69!
(ii,) A signal having bandwidth 3 kHz is to be encoded using DM system. If IO Ph : 98955 14055
DC BOOKS
cycles of the signal are digitized, state how many bits will there in
Statue Junction 1
digitized, output in eaeh case if sanipling frequency is IO KHz. Also find Ph, 99461 09647
bandwidth requirement. (5) EDUMART

KTUStudents.in
~
Part-C TC no: 25/158, K
I Ganclhari Arnrna,
5. (a) (i) , Answer any 2 questions carrying 20 marks each Santhi Nagar, T1;
Ph: 82814 94521
With a neat block diagtam, explain frequency ·hopping
SpectnJ.m
spread K l"iaj::.A,iA:?
.,h~~~~&~~
(iz) Explain the generation of Pseudo noise sequence (10) DC BOOKS
First Aoor Pari:
(ii,) Discuss about Anti-Jam characteristics ofDsss (5) Andamukkom, 1

[OR] (5) Ph: 0471-2749'

(b) (1) Explain about propagation effects (8) VASANTHA I
Vadyakkukotr;
Kollam-69100
(iz) Discuss about multipath channel and explain the . classification of
multipath channels. (7) ASHOKAac
Chinnakkada
. (iiz) Discuss about multiple input and multiple output diversity system (5) Ph:9349376
6. (1) Discuss about peak lo average power ratio ofOFDM (10) swAMvsc
High School
(ii) Explain in detail about Ph: 94971 8'
-~., 1. Space diversjty~n ~ciye system
l"RlS$~
2. Spa~ diversity on transmit system (10) RAMJI BO
Capital Rad
East Trissu

~
1
j )·11IP I· cosMo e
=-======-==-=-=-=-=-=------ m 1!~~~~:li
Mangalam

t ""'-'-."'""°'•~•'""'"'·''•. .,'""""'"""™' - -.._,_,_ ""'"""'""'._,._....,,~- ,,._~

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