CHAPTER

11
Radio Wave Propagation

1 1 . 1 . NTRODUCTION

and the procese

have been discussing the antennas
c o far, we currents in the
from them in which high frequency
a
radiation
antennas produce detachment of romagnetic energy in the for
light. This chapteris mainly conco
nature as
ofwaves ofthesame that occur in the media between a
tranc
with the phenomena radiated from the transmiti.
a radio wave is
and a receiver. When in amplitude with
in all directions deCreasing
antenna, it spreads
spreading of the speakine
increasing distance because of surface ar
electromagnetic energythrough larger and larger
spectrum of0.001 to 106Hertz
Electomagnetic wavein the frequency
termed as radio waves, although broadly speaking by
are arbitrarily in this chapter, mean that band of electromagnetic
radio waves, kHz (very low
covers the frequency range trom few
energy which to a few MHz (super high
frequencies or very long waves)
In this chapter, for discussion purpose,|
frequencies or microwaves).
radio wave have the same
the electromagnetic wave and
could have also been named as
meaning and hence this chapter
Propagation of Electromagnetics
waves" or simply wave pro-|
pagation.
not only depenu u
In an earth environment, the electromagnetic propagate in ways that
waves
which thera0
Own properties but are also dictated by the environment itself.
The actual environment in
medium variauons. Ho immediae
propagaied may have obstacles, discontinuities and propagation
the carth and l
cnvironment of importance for practical radio-wave propagation is that of
SuTOundings. Of course, in the recent years, radio has invaded "out space" too. In many rephdes
is tne spa noD
tree space propagation is realized in the space far from the earth. Free space
of
interfere with the normal radiation and propagation of radio waves. In other words, in free spaceof fce
offrees
cept
to exist. Ine
Or gravitational fields or solid bodies or ionized particles are assumed
propagation simplifies the approach to wave propagation.
 wer radi ad
(rom a

civingtransiniter
The po
oweTaValahle at most of the 1s
antennas is orcdinarily
radiated
a n s m i s s i o no s s ( r a t i n

loss power received

to only a smallspread over
is
he
transoful or not.between
it
the
transmi

power) fraction of therelatively large area i103 a

ivedsignalwillt
The transmitling and may be as radiated power. ard hence
sible mode of porlion ol the great
recciving antennas 10'" o 10 (150some cases
as In
veTanyof
und wave o surface propagations. The received which
energy at a distant o0 db)
(a) Gro.

b) Sky wave or ionospheric

wave
propagation, prominent modes of determines
receiving pointwhether the
c)Space wave propagation.
propagation. propagat io ns are may ravel

that
ns of these modes of propagation
be noted
It may
racently

communica
propagation
developed me;

All these modes

ications. All of largely depend
beyond the horizon, upen the
radio wavespropagation
are
Propagation of af ra
are not
will be
discussedtropospheric
in
frequency
scatter and
in use.
Besides
short and only used in this stationary
ligence
otion
over
distance, but also in radio chapter. satelie
Histanceetc. Propagation
ie phenomenon
phenomenon of radar, radio communication for the
these, special restrictelectromagnetic
Ne gu but we
shall direction
waves are also finding, control of transmission of
in
only to
n
ddition to these,
propagation
o2tion like. MUF,
unguided i.e.
super
happening in machine from
propagation guided manner just as
and all others
a
e n c o u n t

critical
frequency, skip refraction or duct will be omited.
discussed.
propagation,
distance fading and and some terms
11.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC OR RADIOWAVES measurements will also be
romagnetic waves are nothing but
Electro
approximately,c = 3 x oscillations which
10 m/s) in free
forces. space. propagate with the velocity of
andmagnetic forces."The lines of force in the
rection of pronagot electric
ctric and aagneaves waves Electromagnetic
of mos
consistof
moving
light
a right angle to the direction nagnetic fields of electric
the 'magnetic field' and
propagation. As fields are
illustrated in Fig. 11.1, the right angle and they both are
at

ues 'p ropagation' are

mutually direcion of the 'electric
netic waves are ttraverse in nature
i.e. osCillations perpendicular in field',
ve. A simple electromagnetic wave is are electromagnetic
waves. The
h and magnetic lines shownn figureperpendicular to the
direction of
electomag-
horizontal. However, 11,l in
which electric lines are propagation of
can they asSume any perpendicular to the
orientation w.r.. earth. Arrows indicate

Doted lines
Electric lines (Vertical)
Full line
magnetic lines (Horizonal)
EARTH T
DIRECTION OF-
PROPAGATION
Fig. 11.1. Simple electromagnetic waves. Fig. 11.2. E. M. Waves in free space.
hsantaneous direction of fields for a wave
travelling towards reader.
ne magnetic fields surround the wire and perpendicular to it, it means electric field is parallel to the
axis of wire.
This cor
Art. 6.25). The configuration is true even after the radiation from antenna and hence the polarization (refer
ntation of Electricfield w.r.t carth gives the polarization. In Figs. 11.l and 11.2 wave is
vertica
The initial polarization is determined by the oricntation of antenna. Ifantenna is vertical
or hoPOlarized.
horizontal,
then it will produce respectively vertically polarized orhorizontally polarized waves. The wave
USual
nin free enit
ly maintains itspolarization¢during the ravel as was initially generated. Since no obstacle or interference
free spacei
4ssumed to be present so e.m. waves spread uniformly in all drecuons trom a point source.
 1104 ANTENNA WAVE PROPAGA
nON

01RECTION OF
PROPAGATION

SOURCE

WAVE
FRONT
A, B, C,D = Wave fronts
Fig. 11.3. Wave fronts and rays rom a
point source in free space. Fig. 11.4. Spherical wavefront representation.
The wave front is, thus, spherical as illustratcd in Fig. 11.3 and actual wave front is also shown in Fig. 11.4
Sometimes for convenience even the "rays" are also imagined which radiates from point source in all direction
and they are every where perpendicular to the plane of wave front
optical phenomena of reflection, refracion. diffraction and polarizations are also observed and
followed by e.m. waves.
11.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION FOR FREE-SPACE PROPAGATION
The ratio of radiated power to received power is called the radio transmission loss. The basic concept
in estimating radio transmission loss is the loss expected in free space i.e. in a region of all objects that might
absorb or reflect radio cnergy. This concept is essentially the inverse square law in optics applieú to radio
Lransmission.
For the fundamental equation for free space transmission or propagation, first consider an average
power Wr assumed to be radiated equally in all directions (isotropically). It is further assumed that this isotropic
radiator is placed in free space, a homogeneous and non-absorbing mediun of dielectric constant unity. This
radiations will be spread out spherically as it travels away from the source so thatdistance r, the power density
in the wave, which is the power per unit area of wavefront, will be

P, W/m . (11.1)
4Ta

where 4 t d is the surface area of une sphere of radius d, centered on the source.
Since all the practical antennas have directiorial characteristics i.e. radiate more power in sonie
direction and less power in some other direction, therefore, the directivity gain is defined as the ratio of actuaB
power density along the main axis ofradiation ofthe antenna to that which would be produced by an isotropic
antenna at the same distancefed with the same input power. Let
Gr = Maxmum directivity gain of the uransmitting antenna.

Then, power density along the maximum radiation is given by

Po ( test antenna
GTP,(isotropic antenna )
Po Gr P

Pp= Gr Wr .. (11.2)
4md
Now a receiving antenna may be positioned so that it collects maximum power from the wave. Let
,WRbe the power delivered by the antenna to the load (receiver) under matchcd condition. When so posilioned
the antenna can be considered to have an effective Aperture Are:a ( A«) so that
.. (11.3)
WR PD A
 W A V EP R O P A G A ?

RADMOW

We TWTA,
4T 1105
But foranyantenna,
the maximum dir
directivity gain and
GA o efctive arcea are . (114)

related as
uhere Ai
Wavelength being radiated. 4T
Maximum directivity gain of the . (11.5)
receiving
=

antenna. Then
A = GR from eqn. 11.5
we have
eqn.
11.4 we get
this in
Putting

WR G7W
4T

WR Gr Gr
WT 4T Watts
1 1 6is the . (11.6)
fundamental equation
pACE equation in SI. units forjor free space tYansmission or
F R I SF R E E
antennas in a propagati >n. This is also called
alternative
form, we get loss-free medium. Writing eqn. 11.5 in an

R = Gr GR
WT . . 11.7 (a)

WR WT Gr Gr
4Td .11.7 b)
whcreWr Radiated power in Watts; WR = Received power in Wats:Gr = Maximum directüviy
gain oftransmitting antenna; GR = Maximum directivity gain of receiving antenna; = wavelength in
distance in meters.
meters=f/cand d =

It is apparent from the eqn. 11.7 (b) that larger the denominator, smaller the value of received power
Wand hence we may describe

( losSes.
.. (11.8)

S the spatial attenuation which is distinct from dissipative or absorption make

expressed in logarithmicform ir order to
and is usually
qn. I1.7 is the propagation equation units for the decibel notation are either the appropriate
SI unit or
For
C GCCIbel notations. The reference in case oflatter the reference must be specified clearly. in decibels
reierred arbitrary value. Accordingly, tol u V/m or power
taml
ample, if we wish to expres electric field strength in decibels with respect
) or W( d8 m).
Now
simply E ( dB ju
rL m We must write E (dRuv/m) or W( dB mW) or

Iron
from eqn. 11.7
(a) (
Gr + 10 logio G
+
101og10 4Td
10 logio = 10 logio
 106 NNA 8 WAVE
PROP
or WR( dbW) = Wr(dbW) + Gr(db) + Gr(db) - L(s)
PAGATION
with L)= 10logie = 201ogie
L(s)db = 32.45+ 20log1os+ 20 logid
This is obtained
further known that
as follows. Normally, frequency is expressed in MHz, and distance
nce d in .km.(11.10
Lis
= 3x10 (m/s) . 3x 10
S(Hz) fx 10° (MHz)
300
AFMH)
Hence expressing eqn. 11. 6 (a) intoabove units, we hav .01.12)
Gru
Gr GR
16 T
300x 300
(10
x
'xf(MHz)
= Gr GR 9x 10
16 x 9.8596 x 10(df?| 9x10
CrGr | 157.7536(df? 1

GrGr x0.0.5705x10 Gr G 0.57 x 10

WT (df .11.11)
(4f
Expressing above power ratio in decibels, we get

10 logio WR =10 logio Gr+ 10 logio GR+ 10log1o 0.57 + 10 log1o 10- 10log1o d - 10log1o
Wr
Gr ( db)+ Gr ( db) + 10 x 1.7559 10x3 logio 10- 10 x 2 logio d-2x 10log1of
= -

Gr ( db )+Gr (db) +3.5590-30.0000 -20 logio d -20 logiof

30.00
=
Gr (db) +Gr(db) -32.45-20 logod-20 logof +3.5590
=
Gr( db)+Gr (db)- 32.45 +20 log1od +20 log1of - 32.4410
3245
WR
Wr
=
Gr(db)+ Gr (db) L(s)db -

.(11.9)

where L (s)a = 32.45+ 20 logied + 20 log1of . (11.10)

d in km and f in MHz.
This is the loss in decibels, resulting from the spreading of the wave as it proçagates outward from
thesource. L (6 ) is known as spatial atenuation or transmission path loss. At microwave frequencies, the loss
greater because of atmospheric absorption. It may be noed that decibels are defined in terms of power
ratios as such, it is not comrect to express logarithmic ratio of frequency and distance as decibels and the
expressions should always be written as 20 log10f or 20logio d etc.
it is required to know the electric ficld strength of the wave at the receiving antenna. This is
Often,
obtained as follows. By Poynting Theorem,

Pp E x H and= n = 120rt
 RADO WAVE PROPA.

107

H e n e
E -E
E =PD =
V G7 WI, 120
V4T 120 «
.
b y eqn. 11.2
E 3 0G W
d V/m .. (11.11)

e
h i ic the fundamental equation whichgives the field strength at the receiving for free
propagation con
conditions. A receiving antenna, therefore, has an effective
antenna
atoefective arca and hence open circuit emf of the receiving antenna is given bylength or heig
Voe E l, (11.12)
Ean, 11.11 is also writen sometmes in terms of the field strength Eg at unit distance ie. 1 km. Thus
we havee
1 km
atd
E =Ee = N 30 Wr.GT V/m . (11.13)
Putting eqn. 11.13 into eqn. 11.11, we havve

E = 30 Wr GT _ E V/m . 11.14 (a)

E
or
Ee x
V/m .11.14 (b)
Further, Eqn. 11.11 is also written in an alternative form when choice ofreference having distance
ernressed in 1 km and transmitted power is 1 kW. Then
Ee =
30 Wr GT 30 x I000 x 1 x Wr 100 x 13 x Wr v/m
d O00 1000

1,732Wz = 0.173 Wt v/m

10
E 173 VWr mv/m if WT 1kW

or
Ee= 173 mv/m
Hence, it can be writen, in general, as
173 VWr(kW) .(1115)
E (m V/m) =

d( km)
(AMIETE, Dec. 1992)
11.4. MODES OF PRoPAGATION
antenna following any of
the transmitting antenna may reach to the receiving
The radio waves from distance
depending upon several factors like frequency of operation,
he following modes of propagations
between transmitting and receiving antennas étc.
Wave Propagation (Upto MHz)
2
1.4.1. Ground Wave or Surface 1977, 78, 1985, 1992)
(AMIETE, May 1976,77,78, 79,93, Nov.
as Norton's
surface wave) is of practicai
(sometimes also called waves. The
ne ground wave or surface wave
waves, long waves and very long
ampo a broadcast and lower frequencies i.e. for mediuméarth just as an electromagnetic wave is guided
iS a wave that is guided along
the surface of the around the
curvature of the earth.

ave the propagation

Surface wave permits the surface of carth
or iransmission line. antennas areclose to
his mo uc exist when the transmitting
and receiving
wave as being
producedusuali
snPOpagaions The ground
nd is
Supported .its lower
do1IS lower edg
edge by the presence of the ground.
 ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATI
by vertical antennas, is vertically polarized i.e. Electric field vectors ofe.m. waves are vertical wr.
as dowr in Fig. 11.1. Any horizontal component of electric field in contact with the earth is sho8TOund
by the earth. The ground wave propagation akong the surface of the wave, induce charges in the eaCted
ravel with the wave and hence constitute a current. While carrying this induce current the earthich
j as a eaky capacitor and, therefore, the earth can be represented as a resistance in shmves
capacitor. This behaviour of earth as a concuctor may be described in terms of conductivity and dicle
constant k
When the surface wave glides over the surface ofthe earth energy is abstracted from the surface
o supply the losses in the earth. Ths while passing over the surface ofthe earth, the surface wave looses swave
Some
ofits energy by absorpion. Energy lost so, is, however, replenished to a certain extent, by the energy diffraced
dowaward from the upper portion of the wave front present some what above the immediate surface ofth
earth. The ground wave, therefore, suffers varying amount of attenuation while propagating along the curvati
of the earth, depending upon frequency, surface iregularities, pemittivity and conductivity. Earth's attenua.
tüon increases as the frequency increases and hence the mode of propagation is sutable for low and medium
frequency ie. upto 2 MHz only. At higher frequency, wave attenuation by ground is much more than at low
frequency over the same ground. It is also called as medium wave propagation and is used invariably in local
broadcasting. All ihe broadcast signals received during day time is due to ground wave propagation. In Fig
115 path A, represents the ground or surface wave propagation.
ONOSPHERE

SKYWAVE
BETWEokn
S 3 T O
4 0 o k m

PROPAGATION
OIRECTION
DIRECT WAVE
INDIRECT ie.
TILT ANGLES-
GROUND
REFLECTED TRANS MITING
UPTO R WAVE ANTENNA
16m
EARTH
GROUND WAVE OR
EARTH
SURFACE WAVE
Tx = Transmitting antenna.
Rx = Receiving antenna.
Path A =
Ground wave propagation.
Paah B Sky or ionospheric propagation. W Successive
Pah C = Space wave propagatioon. wave fronts
A, A, A", A",A' = Tilt angles in increasing order
Fig. 11.5. Posible propagation pauhsfrom Fig. 11.6. Tilting wave wave fronis in
transmitting antenna to receiving antenna
ground wave progagalion.
Besides ground atenuaion, there is sill another way in which surface wave is atenuated ie. due to
diffraction and tilt in the wave front as illustrated in Fig. 11.6. As the wave progress over the curvature of the
carth, the wave fronts startgradually tiling more and more. This increase in thetiltof wave causes more short
circuit of the electric field component and hence the field strength goes on reducing. Ultimately, at some
appreciable distance from the transmitting antenna in wavelength, the surface wave dies because of the losses
mentioned above.
t may be noted that maximum range of surface wave
propagation depends not only on the frequen
but power as well. Hence range of ransmission can he increased by increasing the power of the ransmiterin
the VLF band but this method can not be effective at the MF band (higher side) where the tilung due
diffraction is more effective.
Thefield strength at a distance from the transmitting antcnna due to ground wave has been calculatcd
from the Maxwell eqns. as
 RADYO VAVE PROPAGATION
1109
120 rh
,l yolt/meter
. (11.16)
where
120m 377 Q =
Intrinsic
Effective heights ofimpedance
hr, hr = of free space.
I, Antenna currents.
= transmitüing and receiving antennes.
A = wavelength.
ddistance between
=

tt.however, the distance d is fairly large, the uransmiting and receiving points.
reduction
ancnheric absorption increases and thus the actual in the field strength due to ground
and.atmosph

sults in
less ficldstrength than attenuaton
that shown by eqn. 11.16.voltage received at receivirng point decreases. 1nd
According to Sommerfeld, the field strength for
ground wave propagation
for a flat is earth given by
d ..(11.17)
where
Eo Ground wave field strength at the
transmitting antenna. Earth losses surface of earth, at unit distance from the
not accounted.
E =
Ground wave field strength.
A Factor accounting for earth losses
d Distance from transmitting antenna
called attenuation factor.
expressed in the same unit as Eo.
Unit distance field strength Eo depends upon
()Power radiation of transmitting antenna.
(i) Directivity in vertical and horizontal planes.
If the antenna is non-directional in the horizontal plane,
producing a radiated field which is propor
tional to the cosine of the angle of elevation (as in case of short vertical
antenna), then the ield at unit distance
(ie. 1 km) for a radiated power of 1 kW is given by the general formula

Eo V / m 300 T V/m
= 1000 300 mV/m . 11.17 (a)
d
where P radiatea power in kiloWatts and d = distance in kilometers.
This is because, for a short vertical unipole antenna (grounded antenna), the field strength Eo at a
distance of d on a hypothetical flat perfectly conducting earth is
90P volts/metres
E = .. 11.18 (a)

where P radiated power in Watts

and d distance in metres.
wnen P is expressed in kilowatts (kW) and d in kilometres (km), then eqn. 11.18 (a) reduced to

Since P 1 kW= 1000 Watts

Eo
90x Px 1000 V/m and d = 1 km = 1000m

Eo V/m

Ifd is expressed in mules, then

300 vmV/miles = 186.45 mV/miles .11.18 (b)
Eo =

1.609
 ANTCNNA WAVE PROPAGATIO
300 mV/m at a distance of l km and Ea
sau 18645 mV/m
radiated power of 1 kW, Eo =

ThASfor wer, Eo will be proportional mV/

mile. For other
alues ofradiated power, mll proportional to the squ e
Eo rootforof any
power P and will accordingly be modiied in accordance with the directiviy in horizontal plane, and
at a distance of1 the
is not proportional to the
cosine ofthe angle ofelevation.
added directiviy whenthefield distance in kilometers. Thereduct
P being effective power
radiated in kiloWatt and d, the duction factor
accounting foreath losses too, depends
on
A in eqn. 11.17, (ii) dielectric constant
)frequency
Cii) conductivity of the earth two auxiliary variahlee
A is a complicated function of
above factors, expressed in tems of
numerical distance p and phase constant b.
distance and dielectric characterin
These twoconstantspand bare determined by the frequency, stics
curents and are given as follows.
of ground considered as a conductor of radio frequency
reduction factor A is expressed in terms of two auxilian
() For Vertically polarised wave. The liary
parametersp and b.
The parameter p andb are related as

0s b .. 11.19 (a)

.. 11.19(b)
and b tan = 2b b

1818x 10" mbos/cm= 18x

f(MHz)
10o mhos/m
and .(11.20)
S(Hz)
and b are given by
(ü) For horizontally polarized wawe : The parameters p
.(11.21)
cOS b
b 180 - b1 .(11.22)

.. (11.23)
tan&
a = tan

b Power factor angle of the impedance offered by the earth to the flow of current
=

where f frequency, in Hz.

t h e conductivity of the earth, in mhos/cm.
e = dielectric constant of the earth relative to air.
a wavelength in same unit as d.
11.4.2. The Ground wave Atenuationfactor A. The relation between numerical distancep an
phase constant b is shown in Fig. 11.7. The numerical distance p depends upon the frequency and the ground
constants and the actual distance to the transmitter. It is proportional to the distance and the square or
frequency and varies almost inversely with the ground conductivity. The phase constant b is a measure o
1ormua
power-factor angle of the earth. The attenuationfactor Amay be represented by following empirical
Forb5

A E 2+03p_ . (11.24)

2+p + 0.6
 R A D I O W A V E P R O P A G A 7 T O N
1111

p
0.582 dem tM) (11.25)
o(mS7mn)
S
value ofA
and

p 1s caled the numerical distance. For all values of b, the

eaUxiliary parameter
T h e a u x i l i a

givenb y
2 +0.3p sinbV r ... (11.26)
A 2+p+ 0.6p
b 0 for vertical
frequency currents when
=

a resistive
impedance to the flow of radio when b = 0 tor
orth offers polarization and offers a capacitive impedance
Earth
and b =
180 for horizontal shows that
polarizatic
polarization.
Thestudy
study c of Fig.11.8
either

b 0
b=30
0.
Aldb -60
b90
b 180
-10 0
-12

000
0.001 00
0-01
-lo

P (NUMERICAL DISTANCE)-

P
factorA with
approximae values of ground
Fig. 11.8. Variation ofground atenuation
values ofb.
Shows graph ofihe distance p based mumerical distance pfor diferent
Fig. 11.7.
nwnerical

factoronagainst A
from unity and reduces slowly
wavealtenuation egn. 11.24.
differs only slightly the field
attenuation factor A 11.17 it can be
seen that
1. The ground not significant.
From eqn.
) Forp ground losses are then
p. The
with the
increase of with the distance.
varies inversely
attenuation factor A
wave than unity, the
strength of the ground
becomes greater
numerical distance p
>L As the
() Forp proportional to
actual physical
decreases rapidly. factorA is almost
exacly inversely the square of
attenuation proportional to
> 10. The wave is inversely
(i) Forp field strength of the ground
the
distance. Hence forp> 10, wave
attenuation factor
11.25) ground A is
the distance. of the plane earth (eqn attenuation factor
numerical distance variation of p p and ground
The value ofdiffraction and ground pemittivity. The less than dmx where
of distance
Orestneeffect
11.7. This gives
realistic answers
for the
1OWn in Fig. . (11.27)
dmax 100 km
dmax F 90 km
distance is 125 km to
maximum
value of the
where is in MHz. Typical
1S in' km and f 1.5 MHz. the
nx 0.5 MHz to distance by incorporating
frequency range off
=

CoTesponding to a b' same limit

of
the auxiliary paranmeter
is obtained within another
achieved through yet
A sli solution
more accurate
Telative e y path. This is
tive permitivity er of the ground
defined by
 ANTENNA WAVEPROPAGATION
112
tanb 18 .(11.28)
reduced to
for numerical distance
with the auxiliary parameter
0.582 d f cos b
(1129
where d is in km,f is in MHz and o is in mS/m.
assume a plane earth
to eqn. 11.26. Theseassump0ons h.
expressionfor A is then changed
The difference in above equations and
an equations verical
shown.
dmax.
polarization and distancesrestricted
to

is only of units.
and
is sub-divided into surface
wave space wave n
Sometimes, ground wave propagation
wave predominates at a larger distance above the
tion following sommerfeld. According him, space
to
surface of the earth.
where as, the surface wave is the larger near the
114.3. Sky wave or lonospheric Wave Propagation. (Between 2 to 30 MH). The sky waves aves aare
at medium waves and short waves) for verv lne
of practical importance at medium and high frequencies (i.e.
waves reach the receiving oi
distance radio communications. In this mode of propagation electromagnetic
after reflection from the ionized region in the upper atmosphere called ionosphere-Situated between 50kmn
400 km above earth surface-under favourable conditions. This is illustrated by the path (B) in Fig. 11.5. The
ionosphere acts like a reflecting surface and is able to reflect back the electromagnetc waves of frequencies
between 2 to 30 MHz. Electromagnetic waves of frequency more than 30 MHz are not reflected back from
the ionosphere rather they penetrate it. Mostly sky wave propagation is suitable for frequencies between 20
30 MHz, so this mode of propagation is also called as 'Short wave propagaton'.
Further, since sky wave propagation takes place after reflection
from the ionosphere, so it is also called as ionospheric propagation.
Since long distance point to point communication is possible with sky
wave propagation, so it is also called as point to point propagation or
communication by engineers and scientists. Extremely long distance EARTH
ie. round the globe communication is also possible with the multiple
reflections ofsky waves as shown in Fig 11.9. In a single reflection from
the ionosphere the radio waves cover a distance not more than 4000 km.
The signals received due o sky wave propagation are, however,
subjected to fading in which signal strength varies with time. It is because Fig. 11.9. Shows mulipie reflectionsof
at the receiving point a large number of waves followa different number radio waves from ionosphere.
of paths. Hence provision has to be made to overcome the fading
1144 Space wave propagation (above 30 MH. The space wave propagation of pracical
importance at VHF bands (betwecen to 30 MHz to 300 MHz), U.H.F. and microwaves and communications
like televisions, radar, frequency modulations etc.. utilize this mode of
propagation. In this mode
propagation, electromagnetic waves from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna either direcuyo
or after reflections from ground in the earth's
troposphere region. Troposphere is that portion of ue
atmosphere which extends upto 16 km from the earth surface (Fig. 11.5, path C). Space wave consists, ofa
least two components e.g. direct component and indirect ie.
ground reflected It means In
former, wave reaches directly from the transmitting antenna to receiving antenna components.
and in latter, the wave reacn
the receiving antenna after reflection from the
to reflection at the ground, in the
ground, where the phase change of 180' is also introduced du
ground reflected wave. Although both the waves (direct and indirect)
the transmitting antenna at the same time with the
same phase but may reach the
phase or out of phase, because the two waves travel different receiving antenna e
waves, thus, at the receiving point may be path lengths. The strength of the resu
the two waves are adding or
stronger or weaker than the direct
path alone depending upon w
opposing in phase. Atreceiving point the signal strength is the vector addiuo
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATTON
direct
direct and indire waves. Space wave
wave propagales through troposphere. propagation is also called as 1113]
Space wave Tropospheric propagation because space
ground wavepropagation
is
and mainly in VHF, and
propagations
to be reflected from the both fail. higher frequencies because at
Beyond 30 MHz sky such frequencies sky
ionosphere
attenuation is very high. Therefore and ground waves are
wave fails as the
wavelength becomes too
tilt, Space wave propagation just after few hundred propagating
feet ground waves close to the antenna
only, as
wave
is
rOwave frequencies, this mode of also called as line of sight propagationtoobecause
die due to attenuation
and
uVature of the earth. propagation is limited to the line of at VHF, UHF and
Although in actual practice sight distance and is also limited by
eoht distance due tO reiraction in the space waves propagate even
slightly beyond the line of
and receiving antenna can usually "see"atmosphere
each other.
of the earth. In line
of sight distance
transmitting antenna
In fact, the line of sight distance i.e. range of com-
munication can also be increased by increasing the
heights of transmitting and receiving antennas as S
llustrated in Fig. 11.10. The curvature of the earth
t
and the height of the transmitting and receiving
antennas determines maximum range of com- EARTH

munication through direct waves.

Fig. 11.10. Direct ray propagation.
In the Fig. 11.10, with the height of transmitting antenna, h and
receiving antenna hn, the direct wave
communication range is TR. As the range is increased i.e. receiving antenna is moved away from R, a point is
reached when the line of sight distance from 7 to S will just graze over the surface of earth. Then 7S represents
the maximum range of line of sight distance upto which communication is possible with the transmitting and
receiving antennas of height he and hn. This line of sight distance can still be increased if heights of either
antenna is increased further (say ha ) point U which means the range has increased from TS to TU. Lastuy, if
the receiving antenna is moved to a distance which is not in the line of sight distance just like point V of the
same height hh, then no direct wave signal reception is possible
Communication
In fact, the line of sight distance has now been extended by what is known as Space
microwaves with the
trans-Oceanic propagation of
orspecially Satellite Communication which has facilitated
mean the radio traffic between a ground station
polentiality of large bandwidth. By space communication we
and satellite or space probe, between satellites or space probes and
also between ground stations itself via man
made communication satellites or natural space body (e.g. the sun, the moon, the venus etc.)

(UHF and Microwaves

Forward Scatter Propagation
l14.5. Tropospheric Scatter Propagation or
ie. above 300 MHz) (AMIETE, June 1974, 80,91, 92, 93, Dec. 87, 89, 82)
at VHF, UHF
scatter propagation is of practical importance
scatter propagation or simply the line of sight
orward found to be propagated much beyond
UHF and microwaves signals were
Tr Owaves. in the tropospheric irregularities. It uses certain properties of
uOn through the forward scattering
posphere and is also known as Troposcatter as l LOST
NO SCATTERING
Trted in Fig. 11.11. This has also lead to thee dis: SCATTER
Covery of ionosphere scatter propagation for signal TARBULANCE
frequencies
m
in the lower end of VHF band. Therefore, COM MON VoLUME
the recent it is
years, it has been established that LONGEST FORWARD
SStble to achieve a
reliable communication over
PATH SCATTER

communication rangeverof 160 km to 1600 km by using SHORTEST

PATH
BACK
LSCATTER
ie.
ransmitter and high gain antennas

ispossible in the VHF and EARTH

ans. The ropagation
name scatterpropagation (beyond the
honzon adon) is given
involved in the phenomenon. to it due to mechanism
Fig. 11.11. Tropospheric scatter propagation.
 14 ANTENNA WAVE PROPAGATION
Infact, the physical mcchanism is not yct completely known but there are two different the
involved in forward scatter propagation. 7he first mode is ionospheric and is believed to be resulted froms
scattering of radio wavesfrom the Lower E layer of the ionosphere. The second mode is Tropospheric and
thought to be result of scattering from either blobs orfine layers in the troposphere.
It is suggested that ionospheric scatter might be due to blobs or fine layers at the lower edge of tha
E layer or it could be from the ionized trails of myriads of small meteorS which bombard the cath from the
outer space. lonospheric scatter pemmits communication in the communication range
of about 1000 km to 2000
km at about 25 MHz to 60 MHz. However, the importance of ionospheric scatter propagation decreases bevond
60 propagation appears to from 100 MH2
MHz, but
10
at the same time tropospheric scatter be etfective starting
the
to
atleast GHz ie. 10,000 MHz. Due to the greater attenuation
ofsignals along scater
path, forward
propagation is mainly useful for point to point communication, radio or television relay links where it is
possible to use extremely high gain antennas and high power transmiters.
In Fig. 11.11 two dircctional (ransmiting and receiving) antennas are so pointed that their beams
intersect midway between them above the horizon. If one is UHF transmitting antenna and the other UHF
receiving antenna then sufficient radio energy is directed towards in the receiving antenna to make this a usefu
communication system. The blobs of air masses or eddies in the troposphere scatter radio waves due to
turbulence and this happens when they are situated in the common volume facing transmitting and receiving
antennas beams. When the wavelength ismore (frequency low) than the eddies, the scattering may ocur in
all directions even some back scattering too. On the other hand, when the
wavelength is small (frequency
high) than the eddies, forward scattering dominates into the cone of angle a (Fig. 11.11). The angle a
should be as small as possible. The best and typical used frequencies are centered on 900 MHz, 2000 MHz,
5000 MHz.
Both ionospheric and tropospheric scatters sometimes, produce undesirable noise and fading which
may be minimized to certain extent by diversity reception.
Besides these four modes of propagation, sometimes there is formation of inversion layers in the
troposphere under certain uropospheric conditions. Propagation in these layers is called 'duct propagation'
or Super-refraction and long distance communication with relatively less attenuation is possible in frequency
range of 300 MHz to 30,000 MHz i.e. UHF and SHF bands.
11.5. STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Since the
is
medium between transmiting and receiving antennas plays an important role, therefore,
necessary to study
the medium above earth, through which the radio waves propagate before further suu
is taken. We shall be resturicuing ourselves to (a) structure of troposphere, (b) sunucu
on modesofpropagation
of ionosphere and (c) outer atmosphere.
11.5.1. Structure of Troposphere. Tro-
posphere is that portion of the earth atmosphere
oUTERREGIONRE
which from the earth's surface extends upto a height
F2LAYER
of 8 to 10 km at polar latitude, 10 to 12 km at
moderate latitude and
upto 16
to 18 km at the
equator. On the average it is said that troposphere
LAYER

E LAYER 2Okm 250-400km

is extending upto a height of 15 km from the earth
6 LAVE
surface as shown in Fig. 11.12.
Thus actual height is atleast at the poles and
dSON. 50-90km
3TRATOSPRERE
TROPOSP
TROPOSPHERE
maximum at the equators and the composition of 5km

TTTT
Troposphere remains approximately the same as at EARTH
the surface of the earuh. The enure belt is called as
earth surface.
troposphere or region of change. Although in the Fig. 11.12. Mediun above
(a) Troposphere upto 15 km.
troposphere, the percentage ot the gas components (b)lonosphere-50-400 km. km.
remains almost constant with increase of height, yet above 400
(c) outer atmosphere