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JTRXXX10.1177/0047287517708255Journal of Travel ResearchChung et al.

Empirical Research Articles

Journal of Travel Research

The Role of Augmented Reality for

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DOI: 10.1177/0047287517708255
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The Case of Cultural Heritage journals.sagepub.com/home/jtr

Tourism in Korea

Namho Chung1, Hyunae Lee2, Jin-Young Kim1,

and Chulmo Koo1

Abstract
In cultural heritage sites around the globe, augmented reality (AR) is being utilized as a tool to provide visitors with better
experiences while preserving the integrity of the sites. However, little research has examined the impact of AR on customers’
attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the sites. By integrating the post-acceptance model of information systems (IS)
continuance, balance theory, and the theory of reasoned action (TRA), we investigate the causal mechanism underlying
consumers’ beliefs about AR (perceived advantage, aesthetic experience, and perceived enjoyment) and AR satisfaction
in conjunction with the attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the destination. The results show that the perceived
advantage and aesthetics of AR influence AR satisfaction. In turn, AR satisfaction affects behavioral intentions toward the
heritage destination, indirectly via the attitude toward the destination through AR. Based on these findings, we present
theoretical and practical implications as well as suggestions for future research.

Keywords
cultural heritage, augmented reality (AR), balance theory, smart tourist, post-acceptance model of IS continuance

Introduction Because of the mobile nature of tourists, mobile technol-

Cultural heritage sites are among the most popular tourist
destinations around the world. Their rich historical, cultural,
and architectural components attract tourists, but such rich-
ness also requires a great deal of information and knowledge
for visitors to fully appreciate the cultural heritage (Kerstetter,
Confer, and Graefe 2001). Often, the original physical struc-
ture is not intact, and the past lives of the people there are no
longer tangible (Caton and Santos 2007). Moreover, these
sites suffer from natural degradation, which can be aggra-
vated further by influxes of tourists (Paquet and Viktor 2005).
Therefore, many heritage sites limit access to certain areas for
preservation or restoration reasons. In turn, the quality of the
experience perceived by tourists can decline further.
Recent developments in information technology (IT) has
enabled visitors to more fully explore and appreciate cultural
heritage sites, moving beyond time, space, and language barri-
ers. In particular, augmented reality (AR), a visualization tech-
nique that superimposes digitized virtual information on top of
the real-world view of a location (Kounavis, Kasimati, and
Zamani 2012), is a popular method for enhancing users’ cogni-
tive capability to appreciate the surroundings in real time
(Azuma et al. 2001; Haugstvedt and Krogstie 2012; Bujak et al.
2013). AR offers opportunities to transform how travelers travel.
ogy has naturally been utilized actively in new services in
tourism (Gretzel, Werthner, Koo, and Lamsfus, 2015).
Cultural heritage tourism is one of the most important areas
served by the mobile application of AR (Adhani and Rambli
2012; Tutunea 2013) because AR can enhance tourists’ his-
torical and geological knowledge and social awareness
(Jung, Chung, and Leue 2015). According to a private
research institution, the AR market is expected to grow at a
compounded annual growth rate of 79.6% between 2015 and
2020, with the tourism sector and the logistics sector having
a high growth rate (Business Wire 2015).
In Korea, initiated by government organizations, AR appli-
cations have been developed promptly and applied to cultural
heritage sites and museums. More specifically, Deoksugung
Palace, one of the royal palaces in Korea, launched a mobile
1
College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
Republic of Korea
2
Department of Hotel Management, Graduate School, Kyung Hee
University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Corresponding Author:
Jin-Young Kim, College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee
University, 26 DongdaemunGu, Seoul, 130-701, Republic of Korea.
Email: jk293@khu.ac.kr
2 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
application called “Deoksugung, in My Hands,” which con-
tains 1,634 items of pictures, videos, and 3D images related to
the palace and nearby points of interest through augmented
reality (Korea Tourism Organization 2013).
This new information technology gives travelers a novel
way of enjoying the tourism experience at specified destina-
tions. Accordingly, the ultimate goal of developing AR is to
provide enhanced experiences at cultural heritage sites and
therefore potentially valuable relationship that may increase
the revisit and recommendation intentions to the focal site
(Jung et al. 2015), rather than to achieve favorable percep-
tions of AR itself. However, there has been little research on
the link between AR and the travelers’ perceptions toward
the tourism destination. Thus, it is worth investigating the
impact of AR satisfaction on the behavioral intention toward
a specified destination. Traveler–technology relationships
have been studied in many contexts both theoretically and
practically (e.g., Chung, Han, and Joun 2015; Chung, Koo,
and Kim 2014; Han et al. 2015). Travelers are looking for
AR hardware (e.g., headsets or mobile phones) and software
(e.g., AR applications) that enable them to overlay virtual
elements onto real places (McKone, Haslehurst, and
Steingoltz 2016). The successful incorporation of AR into
the tourism model will contribute to understanding the rap-
idly evolving technologies travelers will face in the future.
For a relationship between the tourism destination and AR
to truly exist, the incorporation of AR and a place must col-
lectively affect a traveler. Theoretically, this relationship
between augmented reality and a real place can be supported
by balance theory (Hummon and Doreian 2003), which
asserts that if an element a (traveler in this context) is con-
nected to b (AR) with strong ties and a (traveler) interacts
with c (destination) intensively, then b (AR) and c (destina-
tion) also interact with each other (Meyerson 1991). Little
empirical research has investigated this relationship in a
tourism context.
In addition, we identify other underexplored areas regard-
ing the critical features of AR. Specifically, AR has inherent
synchronicity of the virtual and real worlds (Liang and Roast
2014). For traditional travel-related online media, the impacts
on the ex ante intentions (Kaplanidou and Vogt 2006) or per-
ceived risk (Lepp, Gibson, and Lane 2011) toward the desti-
nation have gained considerable scholarly attention. In
contrast, for the application of AR, which is utilized mean-
ingfully only at the specified site, ex post evaluations of the
application and the intentions (i.e., intentions to revisit and
recommend the site after the experience) appear to be impor-
tant. Consequently, we consider the post-acceptance model
of IS continuance (Bhattacherjee 2001) as another relevant
theoretical framework.
Related to the synchronicity, another feature of the AR appli-
cation is the importance of aesthetics (Papagiannis 2014).
Aesthetic issues include perception, interpretation, and visual-
ization and reality, as opposed to “seeing like machines”
(Sterling 2012). Aesthetic characteristics are particularly
highlighted because the virtual content should blend well with
the real environment. The real world is represented through AR
with visual images and illusions, which can aesthetically per-
sonalize an experience in the tourism sector. In the end, it is
critical for AR to provide an aesthetic experience, which can be
defined as “indulged in environment” (Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung
2007, 121). Although the aesthetic features of the AR applica-
tion have been examined in previous studies, the extant research
has investigated only the direct impact on overall tourist satis-
faction (K. Lee, Lee, and Ham 2014) or the overall experience
(Jung et al. 2016). The detailed mechanisms, for example, the
antecedents and the cognitive/affective consequences of the per-
ceived aesthetic characteristics have not been integrated.
Regarding these points, we propose the corresponding
research questions:
Research question 1: Is there a causal relationship between
experiential satisfaction with AR and the behavioral
intentions toward a specified destination? This question is
related to whether AR applications give extra value to
travelers’ perceptions regarding a real place and naturally
extends the destination connection to the traveler.
Research question 2: Is the post-acceptance model of IS
continuance valid for AR applications in cultural heritage
tourism? In other words, does the post-usage confirma-
tion affect consumers’ beliefs about this novel informa-
tion technology?
Research question 3: What are the roles played by the aes-
thetic experience of AR applications? Previous literature
suggests that the aesthetic experience is affected by the
post-usage confirmation and it affects ex-post beliefs
about and satisfaction with AR.
In this way, this study fills the current gap in the literature
by developing a research model that extends the post-use
model of IS continuance and integrates balance theory. More
specifically, utilitarian (i.e., perceived advantage) and
hedonic components (i.e., aesthetic experience and perceived
enjoyment) of the application of AR are investigated along
with satisfaction in the post-acceptance framework of IS
continuance. With this step, we intend to find out which per-
ceived factors of AR influence the satisfaction with AR for
cultural heritage sites. Then, we refer to balance theory
(Festinger 1957) to uncover whether satisfaction with using
AR forms positive attitudes and revisit/recommendation
intentions toward the destination.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is twofold: (1) to identify
whether satisfaction with AR influences the attitude toward
and intention to visit tourism sites and (2) to empirically
identify the impact of expectation-confirmation on positive
beliefs (e.g., perceived advantage and perceived enjoyment)
and aesthetic experience, which are predictors of AR satis-
faction. With the results of the present study, we provide both
theoretical and practical implications for cultural heritage
marketers and AR developers.
Chung et al. 3

Table 1.  Brief Description of the Previous Studies in Relation to Augmented Reality.

Scholar Contents and Results

Alzua-Sorzabal, Linaza, -  Conducted a usability study assessing a new prototype of AR technology (PRISMA) used at a tourist site,
and Abad (2007) which was focused on the development of a personalized AR service.
-  Found that tourists who used AR in the tourist site agree that AR is useful and strengthens the interactive
experience between them and the tourist content, and they are willing to pay for the experience (up to
three euros).
Han, Jung, and Gibson -  Investigated what tourists require for the development of mobile AR apps by adopting in-depth interviews.
(2013) -  Classified the requirements into several sections: local context, reviews/social network, personalization
and user empowerment, map and easy navigation, multi-lingual and internationality, up-to-date information
and speed
Weber (2014) -  Developed the design of the conceptual research development framework for location-based AR games
used by tourists by adopting game design theory and HCI theory
-  Asserted the importance of developing user-centered game design to enhance tourists’ experience.
Jung et al. (2015) -  Examined the impacts of AR quality (content, system, and personalized service) on AR satisfaction and
intention to recommend and the moderating effects of personal innovativeness in the relationships
between AR qualities and satisfaction.
-  Showed the significant effects of 3 AR qualities on AR satisfaction.
-  Indicated that the impacts of content quality were weakened, while system quality was strengthened in
high personal innovativeness group
Lee, Chung, and Jung -  Assessed the impacts of aesthetics of AR on perceived attributes (e.g., perceived usefulness, perceived
(2015) ease of use and perceived enjoyment) and investigated the influence of cultural differences (South
Korea, representative of Eastern culture, vs. Ireland, representative of Western culture) on these causal
sequences
-  Indicated that aesthetic experience is an important factor in both cultures
-  Showed that individuals from Eastern cultures (high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, and
collectivism) consider usability, enjoyment, and social influence as important whereas individuals from
Western cultures (low power distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and individualism) consider ease of use
as important
Jung et al. (2016) -  Investigated the impacts of the social presence of mixed experience of AR and VR on 4 realms of the
experience economy, tour experience, and intention to revisit the attraction.
-  Found that social presence was a strong predictor of four realms of the experience economy, and
education, entertainment, and escape experience influenced the tour experience and intention to revisit
the attraction.

Literature Review with real experiences, only a small number of previous

Augmented Reality and Prior Studies
Research on augmented reality in the areas of tourism and
information systems has only just begun. The existing research,
which is scant, has investigated the usability of augmented
reality in a tourism site (Alzua-Sorzabal, Linaza, and Abad
2007), visitors’ requirements for a mobile AR tourism applica-
tion in urban heritage sites (Han, Jung, and Gibson 2013),
mobile game features in the context of tourism AR (Linaza,
Gutierrez, and García 2013; Weber 2014), satisfaction with
AR with respect to the attributes of the AR (Jung, Chung, and
Leue 2015), and users’ perceptions about AR based on their
cultural backgrounds (Eastern culture vs. Western culture) (H.
Lee, Chung, and Jung 2015) (Table 1). Jung et al. (2016)
examined the impact of both AR and the VR (virtual reality)
applications on the overall tour experience and subsequently
on revisit intentions toward the destination.
Still, several aspects of AR application have not yet been
explored. First, although one of the most conspicuous fea-
tures of cultural heritage AR lies in the fact that it is blended
studies have examined AR as a part of aesthetic travel expe-
riences (e.g., Jung et al. 2016; H. Lee, Chung, and Jung
2015; K. Lee, Lee, and Ham 2014). Therefore, the detailed
procedure from predictors of aesthetic experience to its
cognitive and affective consequences remains unidentified.
Moreover, previous studies investigated antecedents of
intention to use AR, while employing participants who had
already experienced AR. However, after the initial use of
AR, it is reasonable to consider the concept of users’ ex post
behavioral intentions (Bhattacherjee 2001). Therefore, this
study regards the expectation-confirmation variable as the
antecedent of aesthetic experiences and investigated the
impacts of it.
Second, while Jung et al. (2016) expanded the boundary
of AR research by relating the overall tour experience to cus-
tomers’ ex post behavioral intentions toward the tourism site,
the mechanism underlying AR satisfaction, the attitudes
toward the heritage destination, and the behavioral intentions
toward the destination is still unclear. Thus, by incorporating
balance theory, we test the causal links more rigorously.
4 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
; ;
3 2 3 2
Four Balanced Triadic Configurations
; ;
3 2 3 2
Four Imbalanced Triadic Configurations
positive negative
Figure 1.  Balanced and imbalanced triadic configurations (Hummon and Doreian, 2003).
Balance Theory
Our study is related to balance theory (Heider 1958), which
postulates that if an element a is connected to b with strong
ties and a interacts with c intensively, then b and c also inter-
act with each other (Meyerson 1991). The triangular rela-
tionship is also supported by the cognitive dissonance theory
of Festinger (1957) in the context of the transitivity argu-
ment. According to cognitive dissonance theory, individuals
who feel dissonance among opinions, beliefs, knowledge
about the environment, and knowledge about one’s own
action and feelings will experience discomfort and pressure
to reduce or eliminate the dissonance by changing their atti-
tudes toward the target (Festinger 1957). In other words, a
person tends to change his or her attitude “in the direction of
increased congruity within the subject’s cognitive schema”
(Dean 2002, 79).
With regard to balance theory, Heider (1946, 1958)
explained the process mechanisms in the minds of social
actors. He introduced the concept of the POX triple, where P
is a focal person, O is another factor (attitude object) and X is
an object (which may be a third person). Figure 1 presents
the POX triple (Hummon and Doreian 2003).
As shown in Figure 1, triples in the top row are defined as
balanced, and those in the bottom row are defined as imbal-
anced. In the first triple in the top row, P has a positive atti-
tude toward O, and O has a positive attitude toward X;
consequently, P also has a positive attitude toward X. In con-
trast, as shown in the first triple on the bottom row, although
P has a positive attitude toward O, and O also has a positive
attitude toward X, if P has a negative attitude toward X, then
P will experience dissonance and pressure to reduce or elimi-
nate it. Consequently, P will change his attitude toward O or
X to create consonance.
; ;
3 2 3 2
; ;
3 2 3 2
In the tourism context, it is possible, for example, for a
tourist who is satisfied with a specific tourism destination to
buy some souvenir representing the destination (first triple in
the top row). In contrast, if a visitor is dissatisfied with the
site, he or she will not be inclined to buy a souvenir even if
he or she likes the souvenir per se, because the consumer will
negatively change his or her belief to reduce or eliminate the
dissonance (third triple in the top row). In the consumer
behavior literature, balance theory has a long and rich his-
tory. However, there have been few studies in tourism
research in spite of the relevance of the theory to the field
(Table 2 provides an overview).
As stated above, balance theory postulates that individu-
als tend to change their “attitude” toward product/service to
maintain balance and avoid cognitive dissonance. This the-
ory will be very useful in explaining how AR affects travel-
ers’ attitudes toward the destination. If a traveler likes the
experience from AR and is satisfied, AR satisfaction will
lead to revisit intentions toward the destination. Reciprocally,
the traveler will tend to like the destination further to main-
tain a psychological balance.
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) posits that atti-
tudes toward behavior affect intentions to perform the
behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). Combining TRA and
balance theory, this article extends the territory of balance
theory to include the “behavioral intention to revisit and
recommend the site” as a consequence of the attitudes
toward the destination.
Post-Acceptance Model IS Continuance
Because this research regards consumers’ beliefs after the ini-
tial use of AR and their impacts on the attitudes and intentions
toward the destination, the post-acceptance model of IS
Chung et al. 5

Table 2.  Brief Description of the Previous Studies in Relation to Balance theory.

Scholar Contents and Results

Niininen, Szivas, -  Experimented with destination loyalty and repeat behavior using optimum stimulation level (OSL), which is
and Riley (2004) based on balance theory and cognitive dissonance theory
-  Demonstrated that tourists with a high need for variety will display a varied pattern in their vacation
destination selection
Woodside et al. -  Using brand netnography*, investigated how visitors of Italy report specific Italian cities as unique brand icons
(2007) and illustrated the story using a mapping application considering the balance and imbalance relationships
among the concepts implied by the story
Hsu et al. (2009) -  Using brand netnography*, investigated how visitors of China interpret the place, people, and situations to
resolve paradoxes in their minds by unbalanced states, such as inciting incidents, and illustrated the story using
a mapping application of balance theory
Su et al. (2011) -  Experimented with the ways in which Korean TV dramas affect Taiwanese consumers’ attitudes toward the
locations where the dramas are filmed (onscreen locations)
-  Demonstrated that consumers’ parasocial relationships with a character and consumers’ attitudes toward the
character are related to their attitudes toward the location (but this relationship is significant only for those
viewers with high perceived cultural proximity between Taiwan and Korea)

*Netnography: a method of assessing how visitors’ attitude are changed by “analyzing first-person on-line stories consumers tell that include discussions
of their product and brand use” (Woodside, Cruickshank, and Dehuang 2007, 162).

(Information Systems) continuance (Bhattacherjee 2001) has
theoretical relevance. Whereas the traditional expectation con-
firmation theory (ECT) (Oliver 1993) emphasizes expectation
in the pre-usage stage as an antecedent of confirmation, the
post-acceptance model of IS continuance highlights the causal
link from confirmation to post-use expectation in the post-
usage stage. After the use of the system, consumers are likely
to update their expectations, which is postulated to serve as a
strong predictor of IS continuance. In terms of consumers’
continued usage, compared to the initial acceptance of IS, the
post-acceptance model of IS continuance has been regarded as
a more useful tool with stronger explanatory power than previ-
ous IS acceptance models. Bhattacherjee (2001) conceptual-
ized the post-use expectation by perceived usefulness.
The post-use confirmation model of IS continuance has
been integrated with other research models such as the tech-
nology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis 1985), theory of
planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1985), and unified theory of
acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh,
Morris, and Davis 2003). For example, integrating the post-
use confirmation model of IS continuance and UTAUT, Shin
et al. (2011) proposed and showed that confirmation affects
satisfaction directly and through perceived usefulness and
ease of use, which then affect users’ intention to continually
use smartphones as a ubiquitous learning tool. While a con-
siderable number of studies have examined IS in the context
of tourism, little research has incorporated AR technology
usage at a post-use stage of IS continuance.
Motivational Theory
Whereas Bhattacherjee’s model of IS continuance includes
perceived usefulness as a single construct of consumer
beliefs about the performance of the information system, we
note that beliefs are multifaceted (Trafimow and Sheeran
1998). Motivational theory (Deci 1975) posits that user
acceptance of a product or service is explained by extrinsic
and intrinsic motivations. In the context of IT use, the extrin-
sic motivation is driven by the utilitarian purpose of the IS
usage, that is, expecting rewards or benefits by analyzing the
functionality of the system rationally, whereas the intrinsic
motivation is driven by the hedonic purpose, that is, expect-
ing benefits from the interaction with the system itself (Van
der Heijden 2004). Thus, it is plausible that after the initial
use of IS, consumers will evaluate the experience and formu-
late updated cognitive and affective beliefs in relation to the
product performance related to these motivations.
For the extrinsic motivation, performance expectancy,
which is rooted in perceived usefulness of technology accep-
tance model (TAM) (Davis 1989), has been conceptualized
in UTAUT (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Formally, performance
expectancy is defined as “the degree to which an individual
believes that using the system will help him or her to attain
gains in job performance” (Venkatesh et al. 2003, 447).
According to expectation confirmation theory, when users’
expectation is confirmed in the actual experience, they will
have more favorable beliefs about the performance of the
system, which in turn will affect their satisfaction with the IS
(Bhattacherjee 2001; I. Lee et al. 2007).
Since the publication of UTAUT, performance expec-
tancy has been applied to tourism research as well. In the
context of online purchase of rural tourism (San Martín and
Herrero 2012) and app-based mobile tour guides (Lai 2013),
performance expectancy was found to be the strongest pre-
dictor of the intention to use information systems.
Perceived enjoyment, which is also drawn from motiva-
tional theory, is another facet of customer beliefs. Perceived
enjoyment is defined as “the extent to which the activity of
6 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
using the computer is perceived to be enjoyable in its own
right, apart from any performance consequences that may be
anticipated” (Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw 1992, 1113).
Theoretical and empirical research has validated the idea that
perceived enjoyment is an important factor for successful IT
usage (e.g., Carroll and Thomas 1988; Igbaria, Parasuraman,
and Baroudi 1996; Venkatesh and Brown 2001). In particu-
lar, consumers of IS with a hedonic purpose are more likely
to be emotionally driven in pursuing fun, enjoyment, and
sensory stimulation (Chun, Lee, and Kim 2012). It has been
found that perceived enjoyment is significant and even more
important than perceived usefulness as a determinant of the
hedonic use of IT (Van der Heijden 2004).
Consequently, perceived enjoyment has been incorpo-
rated into the TAM, particularly for the hedonic information
system (Davis et al. 1992). In empirical research on tourism,
Ayeh, Au, and Law (2013) demonstrated that when travelers
use consumer-generated media for travel planning, perceived
enjoyment positively influences both satisfaction and behav-
ioral intentions toward such media. M. J. Kim et al. (2013)
also demonstrated that perceived enjoyment has a significant
effect on satisfaction in mobile tourism shopping.
Aesthetic Experience
Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggested a paradigm shift from the
product or service itself to the experience of consuming
product and service. They also highlighted the importance of
staged experience and proposed four realms of the experi-
ence economy: entertainment, education, escapism, and aes-
thetics. According to Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung (2007), all four
realms of the experience economy are strongly related to the
tourism industry. However, among them, aesthetic experi-
ence is related to AR tour experience because it features
“becoming physically or virtually a part of the experience
itself” (Pine and Gilmore 1998, 31).
Aesthetic concerns have been recognized as a major issue
in any visualization that is integrated with a larger environ-
ment (Skog, Ljungblad, and Holmquist 2003). Thus, as for
the AR applications, which augment the users’ tour experi-
ence in the combination of real and virtual contents, aesthetic
appeals are also critical (Jung et al. 2015b; H. Lee, Chung,
and Jung 2015; Weber 2014).
While the term aesthetics has evolved with various mean-
ings for different schools of thought, it is commonly defined as
“an artistically beautiful or pleasing appearance” (Tractinsky
2004). In this context, the aesthetic property in the information
system is realized by the visual elements, such as color, photo-
graphs, shapes, and font (Cyr, Head, and Ivanov 2006). The
aesthetics have significance in AR applications, particularly
on mobile devices, which have the limitations of a smaller dis-
play with a lower resolution than traditional devices such as
desktop computers (Sadeh 2003). Consumers’ cognitive pro-
cesses have been found to depend on the device type (e.g.,
smartphone and computer) (Koo, Wati, and Chung 2013).
Thus, it is important to take into account the mobile space
when designing a mobile application or website (K. C. Lee
and Chung 2009) instead of simply converting a traditional
computer-based website to a mobile format (Fling 2009; Han
and Kim 2013).
To the users of AR, the virtual and real objects coexist in
the same space (Azuma 1997). Thus, the aesthetic features of
AR in the context of tourism in particular should contribute
to a sense of harmony and sensory pleasure (Hosany and
Witham 2010). This means that the aesthetic issues of AR
eventually boil down to whether the AR system successfully
provides users with an “aesthetic experience,” which can be
defined as “indulged in environment” (Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung
2007, 121). The experience economy literature has postu-
lated that in the aesthetic experience, tourists passively par-
ticipate in destination activities and are immersed in them,
“becoming physically or virtually a part of the experience
itself” (Pine and Gilmore 1998, 31).
Several studies thus far have investigated the role of aes-
thetic experience in AR usage. For example, immersion in
AR was found to be related to satisfaction with AR (W. Y. Z.
Lee, Cheung, and Chan 2014). Visual appeals of AR were
found to affect both the perceived usefulness and ease of use
(Chung, Han, and Joun 2015). The aesthetic quality of the
interface design was found to affect trust, which in turn influ-
ences customer satisfaction with mobile banking (Delone
and McLean 1992; DeLone 2003).
Conceptual Model and Hypotheses
To investigate the role of AR on the attitudes and behavioral
intentions toward cultural heritage sites, we propose the con-
ceptual model shown in Figure 2 based on the extant literature.
In this section, we propose hypotheses for the causal links
among the constructs and present the theoretical background.
Confirmation and Beliefs
The beginning point of our conceptual model is post-use
expectation confirmation. Referring to Bhattacherjee (2001),
we conceptualize expectation confirmation as visitors’ per-
ception of the congruence between the expectations of AR
use and its actual performance in a cultural heritage tour. It
has been proposed that in the context of IS continuance after
the initial adoption, customers are likely to update their
beliefs about the core attributes of the system (Bhattacherjee
2001). In the context of AR applications, if the performance
of AR exceeds the ex-ante expectation, a high degree of con-
firmation will lead users to update their beliefs about the
product and service more favorably.
The extant literature, for example, motivational theory
(Deci 1975), suggests that beliefs are multifaceted and can
be analyzed in terms of utilitarian (extrinsic) and hedonic
(intrinsic) motivations. Based on this premise, we examine
the beliefs in terms of the performance, aesthetics, and
Chung et al. 7
Motivational theory
Post-acceptance model IS continuance &Experience economy
Perceived
advantage
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Prior Expectation (A)esthetic
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expectation confirmation experience
'ZRGTKGPEGGEQPQO[
#4
Perceived
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Enjoyment
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Positive perception &
Expectation-confirmation
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Figure 2.  Proposed research model.
enjoyment of using AR applications, namely, the perceived
advantage, aesthetic experience, and perceived enjoyment.
As in the existing IS literature, regarding innovative tech-
nology in particular (e.g., Eriksson, Kerem, and Nilsson
2008), we conceptualized performance expectancy as visi-
tors’ perception of the advantages of AR use in heritage tour-
ism because the advantages of using the innovation such as
AR applications, relative to existing solution, are important
for the continued use of the IS. In UTAUT, performance
expectancy was used as a logical surrogate for perceived use-
fulness, which is postulated to be affected by confirmation
(Bhattacherjee 2001).
Furthermore, referring to Davis et al. (1992), perceived
enjoyment was conceptualized as visitors’ perception of
enjoyment of AR use. Thong, Hong, and Tam (2006) demon-
strated that confirmation of e-government service has a sig-
nificant influence on both perceived usefulness and perceived
enjoyment, which contribute to satisfaction and continued
usage intention.
Considering the unique characteristics of the application
of AR for cultural heritage tourism, we included aesthetic
experience for the third dimension of customer beliefs
toward the IS. Following Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung (2007), aes-
thetic experience was conceptualized as visitors’ indulgence
in augmented reality. There has been little research regarding
the relationship between confirmation and aesthetic experi-
ence. However, theory suggests that aesthetic experiences
are likely to be an important motivation for travel (Pine and
Gilmore 1998; Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung 2007). As such, after
the initial use of the AR application, which is particularly
designed to provide richer appreciation of the cultural heri-
tage, it is likely that consumers will evaluate the aesthetic
aspect of its usage. We propose that consumers’ perception
Balance theory
Attitude toward
a destination
through AR
#VVKVWFGVQYCTFQDLGEV
AR Satisfaction
(QECNRGTUQPğU Behavioral intention
CVVKVWFGVQYCTF toward a destination
QDLGEV
#VVKVWFGVQYCTF
VJKTFRCTV[
Positive attitudes Positive attitudes
toward AR towards destination
of aesthetics is also an important dimension of their belief in
the use of AR, which is affected by confirmation. Thus, we
formulated the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Expectation confirmation has a positive
impact on the perceived advantage of AR.
Hypothesis 2: Expectation confirmation has a positive
impact on the aesthetic experience of AR.
Hypothesis 3: Expectation confirmation has a positive
impact on the perceived enjoyment of AR.
Aesthetic Experience, Perceived Advantage, and
Perceived Enjoyment
As explained earlier, we conceptualized aesthetic experience
as visitors’ indulgence in augmented reality (Oh, Fiore, and
Jeoung 2007). For aesthetic experience to be materialized, it
is critical to present the AR application with design aesthet-
ics, namely, the beauty that can be expressed through ele-
ments such as color, photographs, font style, and layout.
Design aesthetics is also regarded as one of the most impor-
tant communication routes between mobile-vendors and cus-
tomers (Li and Yeh 2010). Aesthetics have a strong halo
effect (Al Sokkar and Law 2013), that is, a tendency through
which initial outstanding impressions or characteristics
affect overall judgments even after contradictory evidence is
exposed (Rosenzweig 2009). Thus, initial impressions
derived from aesthetic aspects can induce users to judge the
usefulness or joyfulness of the product.
Because mobile devices have a greater limitation in the
size and resolution of their displays than traditional devices
such as desktop computers (Sadeh 2003), it is important to
take the mobile space into account when designing mobile
8 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
applications (K. C. Lee and Chung 2009) instead of simply
converting a traditional computer-based website to a mobile
format (Fling 2009). Li and Yeh (2010) demonstrated that the
design aesthetics of m-commerce websites have a positive
effect on usefulness, which in turn, influences loyalty. Cyr,
Head, and Ivanov (2006) showed that the design aesthetics
of mobile commerce significantly influence both perceived
usefulness and enjoyment in performing information retrieval
tasks on the Lonely Planet website.
Thus, aesthetic characteristics of mobile AR application,
which are expected to lead to consumers’ aesthetic experi-
ence, may enhance cognitive ability regarding the attributes
of mobile applications. Based on these premises, we postu-
late that the aesthetic experience affects the cognitive and
affective characteristics of smartphone-based AR applica-
tions. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 4: The aesthetic experience of AR has a posi-
tive impact on the perceived advantage of AR.
Hypothesis 5: The aesthetic experience of AR has a posi-
tive impact on the perceived enjoyment of AR.
Beliefs and Satisfaction
The users’ positive beliefs toward a specific information sys-
tem are crucial internal and external drivers for IS acceptance.
Users of an AR application who have positive beliefs about its
attributes are more likely to feel satisfied with the AR applica-
tion. Thus, consistent with the theory of reasoned action (TRA)
and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), IS adoption litera-
ture also asserts that satisfaction with IS determined by users’
beliefs (Thong, Hong, and Tam 2006). In TAM, beliefs about
the system are postulated to influence attitudes toward using
the system, which is a parallel concept to customer satisfaction.
These theories suggest that positive cognitive and affective
beliefs about product/service are likely to induce satisfaction
(Thong, Hong, and Tam 2006; Van der Heijden 2004).
As stated above, our conceptual model includes three
belief constructs, namely, perceived advantage, aesthetic
experience, and perceived enjoyment. Several studies have
demonstrated a close relationship between belief and satis-
faction toward information systems (Al-Gahtani and King
1999; Nelson, Todd, and Todd 2005). Al-Gahtani and King
(1999) proposed that the ease of use, the enjoyment, and the
relative advantage affect end-user satisfaction with the com-
puting system, and they found that only the relative advan-
tage has a significant result. Nelson, Todd, and Wixom
(2005) reported that beliefs about IS significantly influence
satisfaction with information and system. Thus, the follow-
ing hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 6: The perceived advantage of AR has a posi-
tive impact on satisfaction with AR.
Hypothesis 7: The aesthetic experience of AR has a posi-
tive impact on satisfaction with AR.
Hypothesis 8: The perceived enjoyment of AR has a posi-
tive impact on satisfaction with AR.
AR Satisfaction, and Attitudes and Behavioral
Intentions toward a Destination
Balance theory (Heider 1946), which examines relation-
ships in triads (Basil and Herr 2006), has been widely
applied to marketing and management research. For exam-
ple, Manrai et al. (1997) investigated the relationship
between advertising slogans for ecologically harmless
products in connection with consumer attitudes toward
nature. Basil and Herr (2006) examined the consumer
response to cause-related marketing, which involves the
pairing of a firm and a charity organization, in relation to
the preexisting attitude toward the firm.
There has been little research on tourism utilizing balance
theory; however, several studies dealing with balance theory
have used netnography (Hsu, Dehuang, and Woodside 2009;
Woodside, Cruickshank, and Dehuang 2007), which is a
method of assessing how visitors’ attitudes change based on
the stories that consumers tell online (Woodside, Cruickshank,
and Dehuang 2007, 162). Su et al. (2011) examined the
impact of TV dramas on consumers’ attitudes toward the
location featured in the drama. The results showed that con-
sumers’ attitudes toward the characters of the drama are
related to their attitudes toward the locations for viewers
with high perceived proximity to the cultures featured in the
dramas. Heider (1946) posited that individuals change their
attitudes toward product/service to maintain balance and
avoid cognitive dissonance.
In our conceptual model, the three entities in the relation-
ship system include the consumer, the AR application, and
the cultural heritage site. Oliver (1980) posited that satisfac-
tion influences post-purchase attitudes toward the product
and future behavioral intentions. Combining this proposition
with balance theory, it is likely that consumer satisfaction
with the application of AR has a positive impact on the atti-
tudes and behavioral intentions toward the cultural heritage
site featured in the AR application.
In other words, when tourists have positive attitudes
toward a destination, it induces them to have the behavioral
intention to visit or revisit the site. Thus, we postulate that
attitudes toward cultural heritage sites that are formulated
through the use of AR applications will influence the inten-
tion to visit the heritage sites. Thus, the following hypoth-
eses are suggested:
Hypothesis 9: Satisfaction with AR has a positive impact
on the attitude toward the destination.
Hypothesis 10: Satisfaction with AR has a positive impact
on the behavioral intentions toward the destination.
Hypothesis 11: Attitude toward a destination has a posi-
tive impact on the behavioral intentions toward the
destination.
Chung et al. 9
Research Method
Measures
From previous literature, we adopted the following measure-
ment items: expectation confirmation (Bhattacherjee 2001),
perceived advantage (Venkatesh et al. 2003), aesthetic expe-
rience (Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung 2007), perceived enjoyment
(Agarwal and Karahanna 2000; H.W. Kim, Chan, and Gupta
2007), AR satisfaction (self-developed), attitudes toward a
destination (Oh, Fiore, and Jeoung 2007), and behavioral
intentions toward a destination (Pavlou and Gefen 2004).
This procedure yielded 34 measurement items. All 34
measurement items are summarized in Table 4 by each con-
struct: expectation confirmation (three items), perceived
advantage (four items), aesthetic experience (five items),
perceived enjoyment (four items), satisfaction (four items),
attitude toward the destination through AR (ten items), and
intention to revisit the destination (four items). All items
were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from
strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
As for the attitudes toward the destination, following
Kaplanidou and Vogt (2007), who integrated the cognitive and
affective images for a destination, we included items that mea-
sure the cognitive image of destination, such as “educating,”
and the affective image, such as “enjoyable,” “captivating,”
and “exciting.” In particular, considering the educational aspect
of cultural and historical tourism, we judge that it should not be
a problem to introduce educational attitudes with more conven-
tional items of attitudes toward the destination.
The survey questionnaire was developed in English first
and then translated into Korean by individuals who were pro-
ficient in both languages. Then, researchers who were fluent
in English and Korean, with academic specializations in the
area under study, compared the translated version with the
original version. No material discrepancies were found.
Data Collection
To validate the proposed research model, a survey was con-
ducted at Deoksugung Palace on November 16, 2013.
Deoksugung Palace is one of the royal palaces in Korea and
has more than one million visitors annually (Seoul
Metropolitan Government Statistics 2013). In 2013, the
palace launched a mobile application called “Deoksugung,
in My Hands” to provide visitors, both overseas and domes-
tic, with high-quality historical and point-of-interest infor-
mation. The application provides an augmented reality
containing 1,634 photos and videos, as well as 3D images
related to Deoksugung Palace, which serve as a sophisti-
cated tour guide with multilingual capabilities (Korean,
English, Japanese, and Chinese). The application also
allows users to view 3D images of currently nonexisting
palace buildings that are projected on the existing palace
building to “augment” the sense of reality (“Seoul Palace,”
Korea Tourism Organization 2013) (see Figure 3).
A pilot test was conducted to assess the content validity of
the survey instrument. A total number of 132 college stu-
dents participated in the pilot test and assessed the length,
readability, and clarity of the measurement items. The pro-
cesses in this pretest stage showed that all of those questions
were valid and reliable.
Considering that most visitors are not aware of AR
applications, we presented video and print materials that
explain AR in general and how to use “Deoksugung, in My
Hands” to participants prior to the survey. Specifically, we
provided the material with two purposes: (1) to allow the
visitors to familiarize themselves with the application so
that they can evaluate the AR more accurately and (2) to
allow the visitors to form an ex-ante expectation of the AR
application. Then, using a convenience sampling process,
selected visitors were asked to use “Deoksugung, in My
Hands” in front of the three major palace buildings (e.g.,
Junghwajeon, Hamnyungjeon, and Seogeodang) for
approximately 30 minutes and participate in the survey.
All respondents received a gift certificate worth
KRW5,000 (about USD5) as a reward for participation.
Out of the 162 questionnaires collected, 17 incomplete
questionnaires were eliminated. Therefore, a total of 145
questionnaires were used for this study (89.51%). Table 3
summarizes the characteristics of the respondents. Out of
the 145 total respondents, 94 (64.8 %) were female and 51
(35.2%) were male. Approximately half of the respon-
dents are between 20 and 29 years old (46.2%) or students
(60.0%). Although the respondents of this survey were
young and highly educated, only 48 (33. 1%) of them had
ever used AR previously.
Analysis and Results
To test the proposed research model, we used a partial
least squares (PLS) analysis. PLS-Graph version 3.0 PLS
analysis offers several advantages, including a small sam-
ple size, and has few assumptions about the measurement
scale and normal distribution (Ahuja and Thatcher 2005).
According to Barlett, Kotrlik, and Higgins (2001), the
sample size for a PLS estimation is required to exceed 10
times the number of measurement items of the most com-
plex construct, which is 10 in this study (attitudes toward
a destination). Therefore, 100 questionnaires are needed
for analysis. Because we collected 145 responses, the
requirement was satisfied.
Using PLS-Graph, the measurement model and struc-
tural model were estimated. Before conducting any analy-
ses, we first calculated the constructs’ skewness and
kurtosis (see Table 5) to check their normality (Tabachnick
and Fidell 2007). Skewness and kurtosis values ranged
from –1.249 to –0.293 and from –0.526 to 1.835, respec-
tively. Considering that the items were approximately nor-
mally distributed, we estimated the measurement and
structural model.
10 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)
Figure 3.  Snapshot of augmented reality application in Deoksugung Palace.
Measurement Model
To validate our measurement model, we assessed content,
discriminant, and convergent validity. The content validity of
our survey was examined from the existing prior literature,
and our measurements were developed by adopting con-
structs validated by other researchers. Discriminant validity
was assessed by comparing the average variance extracted
(AVE) associated with each construct, with the correlations
among constructs (Fornell and Larcker 1981). To claim dis-
criminant validity, the square root of the AVE associated with
a particular construct must be greater than its correlations
with other constructs. According to the estimates presented
in Tables 4 and 5, each construct sufficiently differed from
the other constructs, and, therefore, the measures represented
discriminant validity. Convergent validity was assessed by
the composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s α. Each of the
reliability measures exceeded the recommended 0.70 thresh-
old (Fornell and Larcker 1981) (Tables 4 and 5). Combined
with the strong evidence for discriminant and convergent
validity, the measurement model appears to be acceptable.
Structural Model
Figure 4 displays the outcome of the structural model. The
structural models were examined for their explanatory power
and path significance using a bootstrapping technique. The
size of the bootstrapping sample that was used in the PLS
analyses was 500. Table 6 shows the results of the hypothesis
tests. Hypotheses 1 through 3 postulate a positive relation-
ship between expectation confirmation and perceived advan-
tage, aesthetics, and perceived enjoyment, respectively.
Supporting these hypotheses, expectation confirmation is
found to have a positive effect on perceived advantage (β =
0.273, t = 3.794), aesthetics (β = 0.520, t = 8.817), and per-
ceived enjoyment (β = 0.240, t = 3.583). In addition, tests for
hypotheses 4 and 5 indicate that aesthetics significantly
influence perceived advantage (β = 0.442, t = 5.036) and per-
ceived enjoyment (β = 0.533, t = 6.415). Thus, both hypoth-
eses 4 and 5 are supported. Hypotheses 6 through 8 postulate
a positive relationship between perceived advantage, aes-
thetics, perceived enjoyment, and satisfaction. Satisfaction is
found to be significantly influenced by perceived advantage
(β = 0.505, t = 6.888) and aesthetics (β = 0.178, t = 2.083).
However, the path from perceived enjoyment to satisfaction
is not significant (β = 0.133, t = 1.517). Thus, hypotheses 6
and 7 are supported but hypothesis 8 is not.
In addition, hypotheses 9 and 10 postulate that if a visitor
is satisfied with using AR at cultural heritage sites, he or she
will have positive attitude toward the destination and in turn
will have greater intentions to revisit or recommend the site.
Chung et al. 11

Table 3.  Sample Description. 2014) and destination management organizations (Chung
et al. 2015) are able to induce website visitors to have an
Profile Category Frequency Percentage (%)
intention to visit a real destination.
Gender The post-acceptance model of IS continuance is also vali-
 Male 51 35.2 dated since the results show the positive links between the
 Female 94 64.8 expectation confirmation and beliefs (perceived advantage,
Age aesthetic experience, and perceived enjoyment). The results
  ≤20 35 24.1 also indicate that aesthetic experience is a significant predic-
 20–29 67 46.2 tor of both utilitarian (e.g., perceived advantage) and hedonic
 30–39 23 15.9 (e.g., perceived enjoyment) attributes of AR application and
 40–49 16 11.0 experienced satisfaction with AR. Post-usage confirmation
 50–59 4 2.8
about the application of AR was found to provide tourists
  ≥60 0 0.0
with an aesthetic experience that features tourists’ passive
Education
participation and immersion in the destination environment.
  High school 37 25.5
Furthermore, the results are consistent with previous stud-
  In university/college 45 31.0
 University/college 47 32.4
ies in that the design components of a mobile application are
  Graduate school 16 11.0 important in mobile space (K. C. Lee and Chung 2009) and
Job the aesthetic experience of AR induces a positive perception
 Student 87 60.0 about AR (H. Lee, Chung, and Jung 2015).
  Office management 20 13.8
  Sales service 3 2.1 Implications and Limitations
  Technical post 3 2.1
 Specialist 12 8.3 We recognized three limitations of previous AR studies: (1)
  Public servant 8 5.5 limited research on balance theory in the tourism context, (2)
 Housewife 8 5.5 limited applications of the post-usage confirmation frame-
 Other 4 2.8 work in the context of AR usage, and (3) a lack of research
Have you ever used AR in the past? on the detailed mechanism of the aesthetic experience of AR
 Yes 48 33.1 and its role. The present study tried to overcome these limita-
 No 97 66.9 tions by extending and integrating balance theory in the
framework of the post-acceptance IS continuance model.
Consequently, this study provides the theoretical and practi-
AR satisfaction is found to have a significant impact on atti- cal implications as follows.
tudes toward a destination (β = 0.688, t = 11.951). However, Previously, only a few studies have brought balance the-
no significant relationship is found between AR satisfaction ory to the area of tourism. Originally, balance theory postu-
and behavioral intentions toward the cultural heritage site (β lated that individuals have a tendency to change their
= 0.086, t = 0.764). Thus, whereas hypothesis 9 is supported, “attitudes” toward a product/service by leveraging a third
hypothesis 10 is not. Finally, attitudes toward a destination thing, such as celebrity, to maintain balance and eliminate
through AR has an impact on intentions to revisit the destina- cognitive dissonance. Noting that the use of information
tion (β = 0.372, t = 3.415). Thus, hypothesis 11 is supported. systems such as AR applications at a cultural heritage site
will transform not only the attitudes but also the likelihood
of going to the destination, we extended the territory of bal-
Discussion ance theory from the change of “attitudes” to the change of
The results show that AR satisfaction influences behavioral “behavioral intention.”
intentions toward the focal heritage site. However, the path This novel approach of employing and extending balance
was significant only through the attitude toward the destina- theory reveals useful insights about the role of technology in
tion through AR. Thus, if an AR user is satisfied with the cultural tourism. Consistent with balance theory, the results
application, he or she will have a positive attitude toward a show that satisfaction with the AR application at cultural
destination through AR and, in turn, have an intention to heritage sites affects attitudes toward a destination, which, in
revisit the destination, which is suitably well explained by turn, has an effect on the intention to revisit cultural heritage
balance theory in terms of the transfer of positive attitudes sites. Surprisingly, satisfaction with AR was not found to
from toward AR to toward a destination. Once again, we directly influence intention to revisit cultural heritage sites.
assert that our study supports balance theory’s (Heider 1958) The findings of this study shed light on the detailed mech-
triadic relationships (i.e., satisfaction–attitude–destination). anism of the contribution of technology to cultural heritage
This result is similar to the previous studies that demon- tourism. In spite of the insignificant direct link between AR
strated that the websites of museums (Pallud and Straub satisfaction and behavioral intentions, the contribution of AR
12 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)

Table 4.  Reliability and Cross-Loadings.

Construct Measurement Items Loading t Value α CR AVE

Expectation My experience of using AR was better than what I expected. 0.844 12.194 0.829 0.884 0.718
confirmation The service level provided by AR was better than what I 0.854 12.307
expected.
Overall, most of my expectations from using AR were 0.844 28.300
confirmed.
Perceived I find the AR app useful for visiting Deoksugung. 0.887 26.869 0.895 0.928 0.765
advantage Using the AR app I can visit Deoksugung more effectively. 0.925 51.940
The app motivated me to revisit Deoksugung. 0.789 20.667
I feel I will be able to get more information about Deoksugung 0.892 41.760
by using AR.
Aesthetic When I used AR at Deoksugung, I felt a real sense of harmony. 0.868 31.632 0.924 0.943 0.768
experience When I used AR at Deoksugung, just being there was very 0.907 48.085
pleasant.
When I used AR at Deoksugung, the setting was not bland. 0.901 48.805
The setting really showed attention to design detail. 0.836 27.446
The setting provided pleasure to my senses. 0.867 35.290
Perceived I had fun using AR. 0.911 47.085 0.925 0.947 0.818
enjoyment Using AR provided me with a lot of enjoyment. 0.910 47.494
I enjoyed using AR. 0.924 54.455
Using AR did not bore me. 0.871 31.667
AR satisfaction I am satisfied with the quality of information provided by the AR. 0.904 56.024 0.912 0.941 0.800
I am satisfied with the system stability and speed of the AR. 0.847 20.086
I am satisfied with the visual interface design (such as graphic) of 0.882 27.844
the AR.
Overall, I am satisfied with the AR. 0.943 83.658
Attitudes The experience of using the AR app has made me more 0.822 19.065 0.953 0.961 0.710
toward a knowledgeable about Deoksugung
destination I learned a lot by using the AR app at Deoksugung 0.867 31.758
(cognitive and Using the AR app at Deoksugung has stimulated my curiosity to 0.856 24.214
affective) learn new things.
Using the AR app at Deoksugung was a real learning experience. 0.885 33.470
Experiencing Deoksugung through the AR app has been very 0.897 48.549
educational.
Experiencing Deoksugung through the AR app was enjoyable. 0.859 18.140
Experiencing Deoksugung through the AR app was captivating. 0.850 28.022
I enjoyed Deoksugung through the AR app. 0.870 32.571
Experiencing Deoksugung through the AR app excited me. 0.839 24.640
Deoksugung was very entertaining through the AR app. 0.661 9.440
Behavioral I think I will visit the Deoksugung again after experiencing the AR 0.903 36.324 0.883 0.918 0.737
Intention app.
toward a I intend to visit Deoksugung frequently after experiencing the AR 0.811 19.418
destination app.
I will continue to visit Deoksugung in the future after 0.880 23.254
experiencing the AR app.
I want to recommend Deoksugung to others after experiencing 0.836 24.176
the AR app.

Note: CR = composite reliability; b. AVE = average variance extracted.

to the destination is confirmed since satisfaction with AR
still affects the behavioral intentions toward the site through
consumers’ attitudes toward the destination. We also demon-
strated that the aesthetic experience of AR enables its users
to perceive positive utilitarian (e.g., perceived advantage)
and hedonic (e.g., perceived enjoyment) attributes and
satisfaction with AR. Most of the previous AR studies
focused only on the roles of utilitarian attributes of AR (e.g.,
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use). The results
show that aesthetic experience is important as an antecedent
of both perceived utilitarian and hedonic attributes in assess-
ing the performance of AR.
Chung et al. 13

Table 5.  Correlation and Discriminant Validity.

Correlation of Constructs

Construct (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
(1) Expectation 0.847 4.726 1.377 –0.293 –0.526
confirmation
(2)  Perceived advantage 0.419** 0.875 5.490 1.195 –1.249 1.643
(3)  Aesthetic experience 0.467** 0.584** 0.876 5.508 1.183 –1.049 1.204
(4)  Perceived enjoyment 0.465** 0.641** 0.657** 0.904 5.372 1.202 –0.754 0.740
(5)  AR Satisfaction 0.534** 0.682** 0.549** 0.564** 0.894 5.112 1.286 –0.745 0.318
(6) Attitude toward a 0.562** 0.687** 0.717** 0.835** 0.677** 0.843 5.352 1.125 –0.964 1.835
destination
(7)  Behavioral intention 0.371** 0.319** 0.406** 0.368** 0.313** 0.406** 0.858 5.859 0.986 –0.904 0.600

Note: Diagonal elements (in bold) in the “correlation of constructs” matrix are the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE). For adequate
discriminant validity, the diagonal elements should be greater than the corresponding off-diagonal elements.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Perceived
advantage
R2=0.396
Attitude toward
0.505*** a destination
0.273***
through AR
0.442*** R2=0.473
0.688***
(A)esthetic 0.372***
Expectation AR Satisfaction
0.520*** experience 0.178*
confirmation R2=0.527
R2=0.271
0.086
0.533*** Behavioral intention
0.240*** 0.133 toward a destination
R2=0.190
Perceived
Enjoyment
*p<0.05
R2=0.474 **p<0.01
***p<0.001

Figure 4.  Overall model: path estimates by PLS analysis.

As a practical implication, cultural heritage marketers and
system developers can refer to this study in the design and
actual operations of AR applications. In order to allow the
users to form positive attitudes toward a destination and
thereby keep them attracted, the design and development
focus must be placed on users’ perceived advantage and aes-
thetic experience because the results show that these attri-
butes are closely related to satisfaction with AR, while
perceived enjoyment is not. The insignificant role of per-
ceived enjoyment on AR satisfaction may be due to the char-
acteristics of cultural heritage tourism, where fun and
entertainment attributes are less spotlighted. To be more spe-
cific, the users of the AR applications in historical places
tend to focus on the information contents from the applica-
tion, which may improve their historical knowledge and cur-
rent information.
Further, the way the information is presented was also
found to be critical. That is, superimposed digitalized infor-
mation needs to be harmonious, taking into account the fact
that the mobile format is an information distribution channel,
instead of simply converting the traditional computer-based
website to a smaller screen. Therefore, cultural heritage mar-
keters and system developers should enhance the informa-
tion contents and aesthetic quality of information provided
by AR applications.
The present study has some limitations. First, because AR
applications have not yet been commercialized enough to be
known to many tourists, we had to produce and provide a
manual about how to use the AR applications before distrib-
uting the survey. Thus, our study was not able to assess tour-
ists who spontaneously used AR applications at a cultural
heritage site. That is, only relatively young and highly inter-
ested people who are willing to accept AR applications par-
ticipated in the survey, which makes it difficult to say that the
subjects of this study represent a truly random sample.
Second, the AR applications used in tourism have been a mix
of virtual reality and video. Thus, the users of the AR appli-
cations might misunderstand or misperceive the factors of
the AR. It would be useful to investigate tourists who have
actually and spontaneously used AR applications so that the
14 Journal of Travel Research 00(0)

Table 6.  Standardized Structural Estimates and Tests of the Hypotheses.

Hypotheses Path Estimates t Value Results

Hypothesis 1 Expectation confirmation → Perceived advantage 0.273 3.794 Supported
Hypothesis 2 Expectation confirmation → Aesthetic experience 0.520 8.817 Supported
Hypothesis 3 Expectation confirmation → Perceived enjoyment 0.240 3.583 Supported
Hypothesis 4 Aesthetic experience → Perceived advantage 0.442 5.036 Supported
Hypothesis 5 Aesthetic experience → Perceived enjoyment 0.533 6.415 Supported
Hypothesis 6 Perceived advantage → AR satisfaction 0.505 6.888 Supported
Hypothesis 7 Aesthetic experience → AR satisfaction 0.178 2.083 Supported
Hypothesis 8 Perceived enjoyment → AR satisfaction 0.133 1.517 Rejected
Hypothesis 9 AR satisfaction → Attitude toward a 0.688 11.951 Supported
destination
Hypothesis 10 AR satisfaction → Behavioral intentions 0.086 0.764 Rejected
Hypothesis 11 Attitude toward a → Behavioral intentions 0.372 3.415 Supported
destination
R2  
Perceived advantage 0.396  
Aesthetics 0.271  
Perceived enjoyment 0.474  
Satisfaction 0.527  
Attitude toward a destination 0.473  
Behavioral intentions 0.190  

relationship among beliefs, attitudes and behavioral inten-
tions can be more accurately assessed.
AR in tourism has wide avenues for future research. For
example, downloading activities or the feeling of mastering
an AR application at tourism sites may add additional value
to the overall tourism experience. We believe that future
research will verify these points.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This
work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of
Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2016S
1A3A2925146).
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Author Biographies
Namho Chung is a professor in the College of Hotel & Tourism
Management and the director of Smart Tourism Research Center at
Kyung Hee University in Seoul, Republic of Korea. His research
interests include travel behavior, information search and decision
making, destination marketing, knowledge management and the
development of information systems for destination management
organizations. His research work has been published in Information
& Management, Computers in Human Behavior, Behavior and
Information Technology, Electronic Commerce Research and
Applications, Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Management,
International Journal of Tourism Research, and others.
Hyunae Lee is a doctoral degree student majoring in hotel manage-
ment at Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Her
research interests focus on the role of information systems on pre-
decision, decision and post-purchase evaluation of tourists. Her
research work has been published in International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Technological Forecasting
and Social Change, Knowledge Management Research, and others.
Jin-Young Kim is an assistant professor in the College of Hotel
& Tourism Management at Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
Republic of Korea. Her research interests include corporate and
consumer behavior in the context of hospitality service. Her work
has been published in International Entrepreneurship and
Management Journal, Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, Computers
in Human Behavior, and others.
Chulmo Koo is an associate professor in College of Hotel &
Tourism Management, Kyung Hee University, South Korea. He is
the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Korea Service Management and
a director of Smart Tourism Research Center at Kyung Hee
University. Since 2015, he has managed the special issue of “Smart
Tourism” in Electronic Markets, Computers in Human Behavior,
International Journal of Information Management, International
Journal of Tourism Cities, Asia Pacific Journal of Information
Systems, Information and Management, Sustainability, Tourism
Review, Information Processing and Management, and Journal of
Business Research. Dr. Koo is an author of more than one hundred
refereed publications and, according to Google Scholar, has
H-index 17 and around 1000 citations.