PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (BBA)

PROJECT REPORT
ON

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
BATCH: 2020-2023

SUBMITTED BY: PROJECT GUIDE:

Somil Raheja Ms. Chanchal Phore
Enrolment No. : 09124001720 (Professor)

TRINITY INSTITUTE OF PROFESSIONAL

STUDIES
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi)
 CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that the project work of “Research methodology” made by Somil Raheja,
BBA, 4th semester, 09124001720 is an authentic work carried out by him/her under guidance
and supervision of Ms. Chanchal Phore.

The project report submitted has been found satisfactory for the partial fulfilment of the degree
of Bachelor of Business Administration.

Project Supervisor: Ms. Chanchal Phore

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the following documented project report on “Research Methodology” is
an original and authentic work done by me for the partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Business
Administration degree program.

I hereby declare that the entire endeavour put in the fulfilment of the task are genuine and
original to the best of my knowledge & I have not submitted it earlier elsewhere.

SIGNATURE:

STUDENT’S NAME: SOMIL RAHEJA

BBA

SEMESTER- 4TH / 2ND YEAR

SHIFT- 2ND
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is in particular that I am acknowledging my sincere feeling towards my mentors who

graciously gave me their time and expertise.

They have provided me with the valuable guidance sustained and friendly approach it would
have been difficult to achieve the results in such a short span of time without their help.

I deem it my duty to record my gratitude towards my internal project supervisor “Ms. Chanchal
Phore” who devoted his precious time to interact, guide and gave me the right approach to
accomplish the task and also helped me to enhance my knowledge and understanding of the
project.

STUDENT’S NAME: SOMIL RAHEJA

ENROLLMENT NO.: 09124001720

B.COM (H), 4TH SEM / 2ND YEAR

SHIFT- 2ND
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. PARTICULARS PAGE SIGN

INTRODUCTIONTORESEARCHMETHODOLOGY

1.1 Introduction to Research 1

1) 1.2 Research Methods 2-4

1.3 Research Types 4-6

1.4 Research Methodology 6-9

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LAB

2) 2.1 Hardware Requirements 10

2.2 Software Requirements 10

INTRODUCTIONTO CUSTOMERS PREFERENCE

OF DETERGENT
3.1 Detergent Market - Overview 11

3.2 Detergent Market - Segments 11

3)
3.3 Detergent Market - Consumption 12

3.4 Background of the Study 12

3.5 Statement of Problem 13

3.6 Significance of Study 13

3.7 Scope of Study 13

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

4) 4.1 Primary Objectives 14

4.2 Secondary Objectives 14

INTRODUCTION TO SPSS

5.1 Overview of SPSS 15

5.2 Functions of SPSS 16

5) 5.3 Benefits of SPSS 16

5.4 Limitations of SPSS 16

SCREENSHOTS & DESCRIPTION

6.1 Opening of SPSS 17-18

6.2 Details of Menu 19-20

6) 6.3 Details of View 21-26

6.4 Preparation of Questionnaire 26-34

6.5 Data Collection 35-37

6.6 Coding of Data 38-46

6.7 Tabulation of Data 47-48

6.8 Editing of Data 49-50

ANALYSIS OF DATA & FINDINGS & SUMMARY

7.1 Descriptive Statistics 51-52

7.1.1 Frequency Analysis 52-55

7.1.2 Chart Analysis 56-59

7.1.3 Mean Analysis 60- 61

7.2 Inferential Statistics 62

7)
7.2.1 T- Test 63-67

7.2.2 Chi Square Test 68-70

7.2.3 Cross Tabulation 70 -72

7.2.4 Correlation Analysis 73-75

7.2.5 Data Reduction ( Factor Analysis ) 75-78

1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH

a) Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock

of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the
use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications or in other hand.
b) It is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase
our understanding of a topic or issue.
c) It begins with a problem in the form of a question in the mind of researcher.
d) It requires a plan and deals with facts and their meaning.
e) It is circular in nature.
f) At a general level, research consists of three steps:
1. Pose a question.
2. Collect data to answer the question.
3. Present an answer to the question. This should be a
familiar process.
4. You engage in solving problems every day and you
start with a question, collect some information, and
then form an answer
g) Research is important for three reasons:-
1. Research adds to our knowledge: Adding to knowledge
means that educators undertake research to contribute
to existing information about issues
2. Research improves practice: Research is alsoimportant
because it suggests improvements forpractice. Armed
with research results, teachers andother educators
become more effective professionals.
3. Research informs policy debates: research also
provides information to policy makers when they
research and debate educational topics.

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1.2 RESEARCH METHODS

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative. Both methods have
distinctive properties and data collection methods.

 QUALITATIVE METHODS

a) Qualitative Research is a method that collects data using conversational

methods.
b) Participants are asked open-ended questions.
c) The responses collected are essentially non-numerical.
d) This method not only helps a researcher understand what participants think
but also why they think in a particular way.

 Types of qualitative methods include:-

1) One-to-one Interview: This interview is conducted with one participant at a given

point in time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in advance.
The researcher asks only the most important questions to the participant. This type of
interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. During this time the
researcher collects as many meaningful answers as possible from the participants to
draw inferences.
2) Focus Groups: Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants
who are usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus
group that facilitates the discussion amongst the group members. A moderator’s
experience in conducting the focus group plays an important role. An experienced

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 moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct questions that will help them
collect a sizable amount of information related to the research.
3) Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where
people are observed in their natural environment without this method is demanding due
to the necessity of a researcher entering a natural environment of other people.
Geographic locations can be a constraint as well. Instead of conducting interviews, a
researcher experiences the normal setting and daily life of a group of people.
4) Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative methods as it is
used to analyze social constructs by decoding words through any available form of
documentation. The researcher studies and understands the context in which the
documents are written and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. Researchers
today follow activities on a social media platform to try and understand patterns of
thoughts.
5) Case Study: Case study research is used to study an organization or an entity. This
method is one of the most valuable options for modern this type of research is used in
fields like the education sector, philosophical studies, and psychological studies. This
method involves a deep dive into ongoing research and collecting data.

 QUANTITATIVE METHODS

a) Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms.

b) It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data.
c) It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with
measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

 There are three methods that are often used by researchers:-

1) Survey Research: The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large
population by deploying a survey. Today, online surveys are popular as they are
convenient and can be sent in an email or made available on the internet. In this method,
a researcher designs a survey with the most relevant survey questions and distributes
the survey. Once the researcher receives responses, they summarize themto tabulate
meaningful findings and data.

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 2) Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a method which identifies the
characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collects more information. This method
is designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate manner. In
simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the phenomenon,observing it,
and drawing conclusions from it.
3) Correlation Research: Correlation research examines the relationship between twoor
more variables. Consider a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and
married. Married women have a negative correlation with cancer. In this example, there
are two variables: cancer and married women. When we say negative correlation, it
means women who are married are less likely to develop cancer.However, it doesn’t
mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.

1.3 RESEARCH TYPES

Following are the types of research methods:

 Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge.

The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that
doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to
determine a simple fact.
 Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life
problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using

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 scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the
overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.
 Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is
conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions.
The term “problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation. For
example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The
following could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality
of a product, no advertising, or economic conditions.

 Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to

understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied
research to find solutions to the existing problems.
 Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps
create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a
non-statistical method. Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of
the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually
restricted to 6-10 people. Open ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages
answers that lead to another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-
ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample.
 Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and
analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a
computational and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all
about numbers. Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people mean
more data. With more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This
method uses close-ended questions because the researchers are typically looking to
gather statistical data.
 Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a
group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the
perceived problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive
research and data collection.
 Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues
through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the

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 behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to
conduct the study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing,
explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-
level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge
sum of money from the company profit.
 Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the
impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is
the most popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to understand
the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions. The process used to collect information and data for
the purpose of making business decisions. The methodology may include publication research,
interviews, surveys and other research techniques, and could include both present and historical
information.

The research methodology plays an important role in implementing the research and validating
the results. Therefore, this research methodology is derived from the methodologies being
used in similar studies. This chapter entails the details of the methodology used for this research
work. The research methodology is divided into several sections, this include research
methodology description, data description, system design and development methodologies, and
a final summary of the methodology. The description of the methodology consists of literature
review related to methodologies, data collection, data analysis, system analysis, system design,
system implementation, system testing, and conclusions and recommendations. Data
description section contains data collection and data pre processing. The system design and
development section present designing of interactive Spatial Decision Support System (ISDSS)
to identity the Zinc deficiency zones in the soil, a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) for
land management, and an integration of multi criteria decision making (MCDM) techniques
into GIS, and finally, its uses for land management.

An adequate description of the problem may form a strong foundation for the model or system
development process. Defining a problem is a hierarchical process, where the problem

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is identified from a general to specific description. The precision in defining a problem with
adequate clarity provides a strong base for other phases of system development. During this
phase, the researcher intended to identify the target problem to address in this study. In this
phase, we identified that the existing systems in the resource management areas have some
drawbacks. As discussed in previous chapters that these systems do not adequately support
decision making, because they lack in analytical modelling capabilities and do not easily
accommodate variations in either the context or the process of spatial decision making. The
development of Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) explicitly addresses complexspatial
problems and overcome shortcomings of a GIS. The research methodology involved several
stages to ensure the achievement of the research objectives as discussed in chapter 1. These
stages are: (1) Literature Review, (2) Data Collection, (3) Data Analysis, (4) System analysis,
(5) System design, (6) System implementation, (7) System testing and (8) Conclusions and
Recommendation.

 WHAT MAKES PEOPLE TO DO RESEARCH?

a) Desire to solve unsolved and challenging problems

b) Desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative work
c) Desire to be of service to the society
d) Desire to get a research degree
e) Desire for innovation and recognition.

Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve a research problem. It is a science

of studying how research is done scientifically. Essentially it is the procedure by which the
researchers go about their work of describing, evaluating and predicting phenomenon. It aims
to give the work plan of research. It provides training in choosing methods materials,scientific
tools and techniques relevant for the solution of the problem.

 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:-

a) Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes

development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
b) Research plays a dynamic role in several fields and it has increased significance
in recent times, it can be related to a small business and also tothe economy
as a whole.

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 c) Most of the Government Regulations and Policies are based on and are a result
of intensive research.
d) Its significance lies in solving various planning and operational problems.

 RESEARCH PROCESS:- 

A typical research process comprises the following stages:

1) Selecting the research area:- You are expected to state that you have selected
the research area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this
statement must be true. The importance of this first stage in the research process
is often underestimated by many students. If you find research area and research
problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of
writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to
start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.
2) Formulating research aims, objectives or developing hypotheses:- The choice
between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses
depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more
details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result
from several attempts and revisions and these need to be mentioned in
Methodology chapter. It is critically important to get your research questions or
hypotheses confirmed by your supervisor before moving forward with the work.

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3) Conducting the literature review:- Literature review is usually the longest stage
in the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the
formulation of research aims and objective; because you have to check if exactly
the same research problem has been addressed before. Nevertheless, the main part
of the literature review is conducted after the formulation of research aim and
objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as
books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.
4) Selecting methods of data collection:- Data collection method(s) need to be
selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages
associated with several alternative data collection methods. In studies involving
primary data collection, in-depth discussions of advantages and disadvantages of
selected primary data collection method(s) need to be included in methodology.
5) Collecting the primary data:- Primary data collection needs to be preceded by
a great level of preparation and pilot data collection may be required in case of
questionnaires. Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all
dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based
research.
6) Data analysis:- Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of
research aim and objectives. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and
primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative studies.
7) Reaching conclusions:- Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of
research aims and objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have
to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved.
Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future
research.
8) Completing the research:- Following all of the stages described above, and
organizing separate chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft.
The first draft of your dissertation needs to be prepared at least one month before
the submission deadline. This is because you will need to have sufficient amount
of time to address feedback of your supervisor.

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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LAB

2.1 Hardware Requirement

 Laptops or a computer desktop ( monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse)

 Processor with 2 GHz or higher
 4 GB Ram or more, for 64- Bit Clients at least 8 GB
 2 GB free space on the hard disk
 If you install more than one language, you must be aware that each additional
language requires 60-70 MB disk space
 Printer to get external, tangible copies of the work done in the computer.

2.2 Software requirement

Nowadays, computer-assisted data analysis (CADAS) packages have become the norm for
researchers. Data analysis software is used in all academic fields, such as sociology,
psychology, philosophy, and medicine. They are mere efficient and effective in their work
processes. They are less time consuming and insightful. Computer-assisted data analysis
software imparts insights into data sets without suggesting interpretations. They help a
researcher gain those insights which he/she might have missed. Content analysis can help the
researcher in drawing conclusions about the respective object of research (e.g. interview
data). Software tools allow for easy sorting, structuring, and analyzing large amounts of text or
other data and facilitate management of the resulting interpretations and evaluations. Software
packages are available for the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. Each package
has different features and the researcher needs to be cautious while choosing them. The
packages can save time, but there is still a great deal of time required to set them, input data
and check through the process.

 SAS for Windows & Linux.

 Version: 9.3 & 9.4. Education Analytical Suite.
 IBM SPSS for Windows, Linux, and Mac.
 Version(s) available: SPSS 23, 24, & 25.
 Supported Operating Systems (O/S) for SPSS 23, 24 & 25.

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3. INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER PREFRENCE OF DETERGENT

1) Consumer preference is defined as the subjective tastes of individual consumers,

measured by their satisfaction with those items after they’ve purchased them. This
satisfaction is often referred to as utility. Consumer value can be determined by how
consumer utility compares between different items.
2) Consumer preferences can be measured by their satisfaction with a specific item,
compared to the opportunity cost of that item since whenever you buy one item; you
forfeit the opportunity to buy a competing item.
3) While consumer preference is an indicator of consumer demand, it’s important to
note that consumer choices are not always determined by preference alone. Choices are
often limited by a consumer’s income or budget, compared to the cost of the item,
which is why so few people drive luxury cars or fly first-class.

3.1 DETERGENT MARKET - OVERVIEW

a) The Detergent Market is one of the segments of the FMCG market in India
that has high growth potential.
b) The detergent based segment is divided into two broad categories - oil-
based laundry soaps and synthetic detergents, including bars, powder, and
liquids.
c) The detergent market is mainly concentrated in the urban areas but the level
of penetration in the rural for the past few years has been good.

3.2 DETERGENT MARKET - SEGMENTS

a) Detergent market in India can be further divided into four sub categories
concentrates and Compact Segment for washing machines such as, Surf
Excel, Henko, Ariel, etc.
b) Premium Segment such as Surf Excel, Henko, Ariel, etc.
c) Mass Premium and Mid Price Segment such as Rin, Mr. White, Tide, and
d) Other regional brands popular Segment such Nirma, Wheel, Chek, 501, etc

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3.3 DETERGENT MARKET - CONSUMPTION

a) The detergent consumption in India is less in comparison to the other Asian

countries. The per capita detergent consumption in India is around 2.7 kg per
year, whereas places like Philippines and Malaysia, the per capita consumption
is 3.7 kg, and in USA it is around 10 kgs.
b) The detergent market in India is expected to have a growth rate of 7 % to 9 %
per year in terms of volume.
c) The major players in the detergent market are the UniLever and Nirma.

3.4 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

a) Many business forms are struggling hard to know who buys and consumers
their products, where they are located, how they buy, when, from whom else
they buy and why and equally why people do not buy a particular product from
certain persons, organizations and shares.
b) The centre point of all the daily activities of all business organization is an
individual, he purchases and makes use of the product (goods and services)
offered for sale in the business firm.
c) The consumer and the reasons why, how and when as well as where he buys
or not buy from, the future buying decisions are now fully integrated in to the
daily business function of every enterprise. This is in much recognition of the
marketing concept and consumer’s sovereignty in recent times by many firms
who comes to realize that he “consumer is still the king.”
d) This is because nothing works until the consumer needs are satisfied. The
consumer is now at the centre point of every business attention, as the period
of fast and hard selling is going way to the much recognition of the consumer
as the king, one who does no wrong and one whose existence and need
satisfaction is the major reason why many business organizations are in
business in the first instance.
e) The important factor in planning of all marketing activities which among others
include establishing of advertisement and selling appeals in such manner that
consumers desires quality and preferences can be met satisfactorily by
marketing efforts.

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3.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

a) To find out the major factors that influence consumers preference of

detergent brand.
b) To identity consumers preference for detergent brand.
c) To determine the related outlet preferred by consumers.
d) To consumer to prefer one brand of detergent to another.

3.6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

a) The reason why I “Somil Raheja” conducting the study is not only to satisfy
the academic requirement for the award of certificate but to attempt to find
out the factors that influence consumers preference, consumer brands, retail
outlet and attributes that will influence consumer to prefer one brand toanother
and as a result increase sales or at most maintain the market share in light of
all variety of brands and fair competition and dynamic world.
b) The average customer’s aware of his right and expects value for his money. As
a result of this, the work will gather all implication of good corporate image
and effective customer’s satisfaction as opposed to ill will and the role of
customers orientation and the factors that influence the consumers preference
of detergent brands. However I strongly believe that the study is timely now,
that a lot of people are not satisfied with the brand of detergent they use and
also introduction of new products in the market. This study will help the
researcher to find solution to the problem of consumers in preferring a
particular brand of product and also form basis for further research of the topic.

3.7 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1) This study is restricted to consumers which are with particular reference to

consumer’s preference in my area as a case study.
2) I also will burnished to factors that influence consumers preference of detergent
brands which involves the price, product, attributes, packaging and image.

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4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a project. The following project
has been given in order to make me understand the real environment of the market in which research
is conducted. Marketing research, being a very important field of study in management, can only be
learned through practically working in the markets. The subject of this study, being an FMCG
product, forced me to go and interact with customers. I have defined my research objectives as:-

 PRIMARY OBJECTIVES:-

We wanted to figure out the customer preference and satisfaction about detergent powder in
our locality to explore reasons behind their preference and satisfaction.

 SECONDARY OBJECTIVES:-
a) To find out customer needs.
b) To observe the most preferred washing powder of different company i.e.
weakest brand among all.
c) To analyze the technological advancement i.e. use of washing machines in
India.
d) To identify the market share of the prominent market player.
e) To find the purchase behavior of a product that what influence the customer to
buy a product again and again.
f) To find out the customer`s frequency of use of detergent.
g) To find the brand loyalty of the customers.
h) To find the role of packaging in the purchase behavior of a product quantity.
i) Consumer`s awareness towards the harmful effects of detergent.

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5. INTRODUCTION TO SPSS

5.1 OVERVIEW

SPSS Statistics is a software package used for interactive or batched, statistical analysis. Long
produced by SPSS Inc., it was acquired by IBM in 2009. The current versions (2015) are named
IBM SPSS Statistics.

The Software name originally stood for statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS),
reflecting the original market, although the software is now popular in other fields as well,
including the health sciences and marketing.

SPSS is a Windows based program that can be used to perform data entry and analysis and to
create tables and graphs. SPSS is capable of handling large amounts of data and can perform
all of the analyses covered in the text and much more

SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package for the Social Science. SPSS is one of the most
popular statistical packages which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis
with simple instructions. SPSS is a widely used program for statistical analysis in social
science. It is also used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies,
government, education researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and others. The
original SPSS manual (Nie, Bent & Hull, has been described as one of "sociology's most
influential books" for allowing ordinary researchers to do their own statistical analysis. In
addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping, creating
derived data) and data documentation (a metadata dictionary is stored in the data file) are
features of the base software.

Statistics included in the base software:

 Descriptive statistics: Cross tabulation, Frequencies, Descriptive, Explore, Descriptive

Ratio Statistics
 Prediction for numerical outcomes: Linear regression
 Prediction for identifying groups: Factor analysis, cluster analysis (two-step, K-
means, hierarchical), discriminant
 Geo spatial analysis, simulation
 R extension (GUI), Python

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5.2 FUNCTIONS OF SPSS:
SPSS offers four programs that assist researchers with their complex data analysis need:-

 STATISTICS PROGRAM: It furnishes a plethora of basic statistical functions like

frequencies and cross tabulations.
 MODELLER PROGRAM: It enables researchers to build and validate predictive
models using advanced statistical procedures.
 TEXT ANALYSIS FOR SURVEYS: It helps survey administrators uncover
powerful insights.
 VISUALISATION DESIGNER: It allows researchers to use their data to create a
wide variety of visuals like density charts and radial box plots very easily.

5.3 BENEFITS OF SPSS:

 SPSS is an extremely powerful tool for manipulating and deciphering survey data.
 It makes the process of pulling, manipulating and analyzing data clean and easy.
 It provides countless opportunities for statistical analysis.

5.4 LIMITATIONS OF SPSS:

 The major limitation of SPSS is that a very large data set cannot be analyzed.
 A researcher often gets large data sets in some fields, like insurance where the
researcher generally uses SAAS or R instead of SPSS to analyze data program.

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6. SCREENSHOTS & DESCRIPTION OF SPSS

6.1 OPENING OF SPSS

There are two ways to open SPSS. The first way is quite simple if the SPSS icon is already on
your desktop all you have to do is double click the icon:

1. START- PROGRAM- SPSS

2. A dialogue box will open in front of SPSS grid listing several options to choose from:
Double-clicking the SPSS icon should open the program, as illustrated below:

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3. Alternatively you can open SPSS through the start button on your computer (if you're
running Windows). If the SPSS icon is not on your desktop you must go through your
computer's Start button. Click “Start” → “All programs” → “SPSS Inc.” From this
point if you have more then one version of SPSS on your computer you have to pick
the version you are going to open. I am going to use version 16.0. From here click SPSS
16.0, and finally click the SPSS 16.0 icon. All the steps are shown below in a screen
shot:

4. If you followed the steps above when you click SPSS 16.0 the program should open on
your computer. The following options will appear in the dialogue box:

a) Run the tutorial

b) Type in data
c) Run in existing query
d) Create new query using database wizard
e) Opening an existing data source
f) Open another type of file

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6.2 DETAILS OF MENU

The Data Editor window has two views that can be selected from the lower left-hand side of
the screen. Data View is where you see the data you are using. Variable View is where you can
specify the format of your data when you are creating a file or where you can check the format
of a pre-existing file. The data in the Data Editor is saved in a file with the extension. Many of
the tasks you want to perform with SPSS start with menu selections. Each windowin SPSS
has its own menu bar with menu selections appropriate for that window type. The Data Editor
window, for example, has the following menu with its associated toolbar:

SPSS Menus and Icons

Now, let’s review the menus and icons. Review the options listed under each menu on the
Menu Bar by clicking them one at a time. Follow along with the below descriptions.

 FILE includes all of the options you typically use in other programs, such as open, save,
exit. Notice, that you can open or create new files of multiple types as illustrated to the
right.
 EDIT includes the typical cut, copy, and paste commands, and allows you to specify
various options for displaying data and output.

Click on Options, and you will see the dialog box to the left. You can use this to format the
data, output, charts, etc. These choices are rather overwhelming, and you can simply take the
default options for now. The author of your text (me) was too dumb to even know these options
could easily be set.

19
 VIEW allows you to select which toolbars you want to show, select font size, add or
remove the gridlines that separate each piece of data, and to select whether or not to display
your raw data or the data labels.
 DATA allows you to select several options ranging from displaying data that is sorted by
a specific variable to selecting certain cases for subsequent analyses.
 TRANSFORM includes several options to change current variables. For example, you can
change continuous variables to categorical variables, change scores into rank scores, add a
constant to variables, etc.
 ANALYZE includes all of the commands to carry out statistical analyses and to calculate
descriptive statistics. Much of this book will focus on using commands located in this
menu.
 GRAPHS include the commands to create various types of graphs including box plots,
histograms, line graphs, and bar charts.
 UTILITIES allow you to list file information which is a list of all variables, there labels,
values, locations in the data file, and type.
 ADD-ONS are programs that can be added to the base SPSS package. You probably do not
have access to any of those.
 WINDOW can be used to select which window you want to view (i.e., Data Editor, Output
Viewer, or Syntax). Since we have a data file and an output file open, let’s trythis.
Select Window/Data Editor. Then select Window/SPSS Viewer.
 HELP has many useful options including a link to the SPSS homepage, a statistics coach,
and a syntax guide. Using topics, you can use the index option to type in any key word and
get a list of options, or you can view the categories and subcategories available under
contents. This is an excellent tool and can be used to troubleshoot most problems.

The Icons directly under the Menu bar provide shortcuts to many common commands that are
available in specific menus. Take a moment to review these as well. Place your cursor over the
Icons for a few seconds, and a description of the underlying command will appear. For
example, this icon is the shortcut for Save. Review the others yourself.

20
6.3 DETAILS OF VIEW

There are two types of views in the SPSS:

 Variable View
 Data View

VARIABLE VIEW - Variable View is where we see additional information about our data.

Understanding SPSS variable types and formats allows you to get things done fast and reliably.
Getting a grip on types and formats is not hard if you ignore the very confusing information
under variable view. The Variable View tab is another tab in the Data Editor window in addition
to the Data View tab, which was discussed in the last chapter. Again, you can select between
the tabs at the bottom left corner of the Data Editor Window:

In Variable View, the rows correspond to variables, not cases. This view does not show raw
data but rather metadata, information/settings/characteristics of the variables included in the
data set. The metadata of two variables:

21
The columns provide information about the various characteristics of the variables. The
"name" column with part of the "type" column:

There are 10 metadata columns total. Each explained:

Column What it Means

Name The variable's name. Older versions of SPSS were limited to 8 character names.
New versions of SPSS are not, but lengthy descriptions better belong in the Label
column.
Type The data type of the variable. There are 8 options: Numeric, Comma, Dot, Scientific
notation, Date, Dollar, Custom currency, and String. Most variables that beginning
users will encounter will be either Numeric or String. Numeric variables are numbers
that either map to a value (e.g., 1=Catholic) or are the value of interest (height=73
inches). String numbers are text and can only be treated as such. As a
result, very few manipulations can be performed on them.
Width This column indicates the number of characters available for the variable values.
Decimals This column allows you to control the number of numerals after the decimal place.
Label This column allows you to provide a more extensive description of the variable.
Values This column allows you to provide a key for what the numbers of a numeric
variable may represent (e.g., 1=Catholic, 2=Protestant).
Missing This column allows you to indicate which values mean missing. Values marked as
missing are excluded from analyses in SPSS.
Columns This column indicates the total number of columns a variable's values may have.
Align This column indicates the alignment of the variable in the Data View, viz., Left,
Right, or Centre.
Measure This last column indicates the level of measurement of the variable, viz., Nominal,
Ordinal, or Scale.

 SPSS has 2 variable types:

1) Numeric variables contain only numbers and are suitable for numeric calculations
such as addition and multiplication.
2) String variables may contain letters, numbers and other characters. You can't do
calculations on string variables -even if they contain only numbers.

22
There are no other variable types in SPSS than string and numeric. However, numeric variables
have several different formats that are often confused with variable types. The only way to
change a string variable to numeric or reversely is ALTER TYPE. However, there's several
ways to make a numeric copy of a string variable or reversely. We'll get to those in a minute.

Level or Scale of Measure mainstream statistics recognises four levels or scales of measure.
These are

1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio (combined with Interval as Scale in SPSS)

These are in order from most name-like to most number-like. Each level has its own
characteristics and association with a set of permissible statistical procedures. Below, the level
will be characterised and associated with one or more measures of central tendency,viz.,
mode, mean, and median.

1) Nominal Data- A nominal scale is a scale that classifies values of a variable intocategories.
These categories have names, or possibly numbers, associated with them. It is used to
categorize events or objects into discrete categories for further analysis. The Nominal level
of measure is used for categorical data, where each value has each been

23
 assigned to a discrete category. For instance, eye colour of participants in a study might be
nominally (from Latin no men for name) categorised into groups as: brown, blue, green,
others.

Examples of Nominal Scale:-

a) Gender (male/female)
b) Marital status (married/unmarried or widowed/divorced)
c) State of residence
d) Questions requiring binary responses (yes/no)

2) Ordinal Data-The Ordinal level of measure is used for data which form discrete categories
and can be naturally ranked on some scale. This ranking is a weak ordering of the data in
that two values may share the same rank: the relative rank of a and b is a < b ora > b or a =
b

Examples of Ordinal Scale:-

a) Socio- economic status

b) Customer satisfaction ratings(on a scale of 0-10)
c) Rank in a class test(1st, 2nd or 3rd)
d) Education Qualification ( school, graduate, doctorate etc.)

The central tendency in ordinal data may be represented by the mode (defined above) and
by the median, the value that divides the data into equal halves. This is the middle value
when the cases are odd-numbered. Else, the median is usually taken to be the arithmetic
mean (see below) of the two middle values. The differences between the rank levels of this
scale cannot be measured or compared: while we know that, of ordinal data points a, b,
and c, a<b, b<c, and a<c, we do not know if the distance ab is equal to the distance.

3) Interval Data-Interval data values can be ordered and the distances between them
compared. However, the zero point of interval data is arbitrary. An oft quoted example is
the measure of temperature on the Celsius scale. Here, the freezing point of water is
arbitrarily assigned the value zero and the boiling point of water is arbitrarily assigned the
value 100. While 50° is indicated half way between these two marks on the scale, it is not
coherently half the boiling point of water.

24
 Examples of Interval Scale:-

a) Celsius/ Fahrenheit temperature scale, Likert Scale

4) Ratio Data-Ratio data is all of: ordered, of comparable distance (successive, integral
points on the scale are equally spaced), and on a scale with a true zero point.

Examples of Ratio Scale:-

a) Weight
b) Height

DATA VIEW - Data View is where we inspect our actual data. In the Data View, the data are
laid out in the standard rectangular format for statistical software. Each row represents a unit
of observation, sometimes also referred to as a record or in SPSS as a case. The case
(observation) number in the leftmost column is assigned automatically and is not saved as data.
Each column represents a variable. All of the data in a column must be of the same type,either
numeric or string (also called character).

You can switch the Data View between formatted and unformatted data by clicking on
the Value Labels button on the Toolbar, the fourth button from the right when in the Data View.
With value labels on you can also see the actual values for a given variable by clicking on a
cell and then looking at the bar just above the data. The box to the left indicates the observation
number and variable selected, e.g. 1: gender, while the centre box shows you the actual value,
e.g. m.

Data values can be edited or added by typing them directly into the Data View. To enter data,
type in the actual data value. However, aside from very small data sets for class exercises,
you should almost never need to do this. SPSS’ main window is the data editor. This is the only
window that's always open when we run SPSS. Although it's called “data editor”, we useit only
for inspecting our data. We strongly recommend you

Never edit data in the data editor.

25
 1. The data editor has tabs for switching between Data View and Variable View. For
now, make sure you're in Data View.
2. Columns of cells are called variables. Each variable has a unique name (“gender”)
which is shown in the column header.
3. Rows of cells are called cases. Oftentimes, each respondent in a study is represented
as a single case.
4. In SPSS, values refer to cell contents.
5. The status bar may give useful information on the data, for instance whethera
WEIGHT, FILTER, SPLIT FILE or Unicode mode is in effect. These are the main
elements in Data.

6.4 PREPARATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts

for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Steps required to design and
administer a questionnaire:

1) Defining the objectives of the study

2) Define the target respondents and methods to reach them.
3) Questionnaire design
4) Questionnaire pilot testing
5) Questionnaire administration

26
 6) Results interpretation

 DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:-

a) A questionnaire should allow us to collect the most complete and accurate data
in a logical flow.
b) This is done in order to reach reliable conclusions from what we are planning to
observe.
c) A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research goal and objectives and
minimize unanswered questions—a common problem bound to many surveys.
d) Define the target respondents and methods to reach them. The researcher should
clearly define the target, study populations from which she/ he collects data and
information.
e) Main methods of reaching the respondents are: personal contact, interview,
mail/Internet-based questionnaires, telephone interview.

 WRITTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE:-

Before writing the questionnaire researcher should decide on the questionnaire content.

1) Each question should contribute to testing one or more hypothesis/ research

question established in the research design.
2) Questions could be:

a) Open format questions that are without a predetermined set

of responses.
b) Closed format questions that take the form of a multiple-
choice question.

3) Writing the Questionnaire, points to be considered when writing:

a) Clarity (question has the same meaning for all respondents).

b) Phrasing (short and simple sentences, only one piece of
information at a time, avoid negatives if possible, ask precise
questions, in line with respondent level of knowledge…)

27
 c) Sensitive question: avoid questions that could be
embarrassing to respondents.
d) Hypothetical questions should be avoided if possible.

4) Questionnaire pilot testing:

a) The major challenge in questionnaire design is to make it

clear to all respondents.
b) In-order to identify and solve the confusing points, we need
to pre-test the questionnaire.
c) During the pilot trial: the questionnaire participants should
be randomly selected from the study population.

28
 QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire is prepared by Somil Raheja who has been testing the “Investing behavior
and interests of millennials in Delhi”.

INSTRUCTION: One of the following pages there are some questions and their probable
answers given against them. You read them carefully and, mark in a blank spacegiven against
it. You have to mark only one answer. An illustration is given below. There is no time limit for
it but you should answer it as soon as possible.

Please fill up the following details:

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
6.5 DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find
answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: primary methods of data
collection and secondary methods of data collection.

 Primary Data Collection Method- Primary data also called first hand or raw data which
is collected by the investigator himself for the purpose in mind. Primary data collection
methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and qualitative:

a) Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in

various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median and others. Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and
they can be applied within shorter duration of time compared to qualitative methods.
Moreover, due to a high level of standardization of quantitative methods, it is easy
to make comparisons of findings.
b) Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or
mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words,
sounds, feeling, emotions, colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.

37
 Secondary Data Collection Method- Secondary data is a type of data that has already
been published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc. There is an
abundance of data available in these sources about your research area in business studies,
almost regardless of the nature of the research area. Therefore, application of appropriate
set of criteria to select secondary data to be used in the study plays an important role in
terms of increasing the levels of research validity and reliability. These criteria include, but
not limited to date of publication, credential of the author, reliability of the source, quality
of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent of contribution of the text to the development
of the research area etc.

 Data Collection Instruments: - I used both sources of data as I obtained data

through soft copy i.e. (E-Questionnaires) consisting of both open ended and close
ended questions have been designed to obtain the required information from the
respondents keeping in mind the objectives of the study and used secondary data
via websites, books, articles.
 Sampling Used and Sample Size

1) Meaning of Sampling:

a) Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of

elements from the population with the purpose of collecting
data about their attributes.
b) A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an
individual element or a group of elements selected from the
population.
c) Methods of Sampling:-
i. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is
a sampling method that selects random
members of a population by setting a few
selection criteria.
ii. Non-probability Sampling: This sampling
method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection
process which makes it difficult for all
elements of a population to have equal
opportunities to be included in a sample.

38
2) Sampling Used: In my research I used non-probability sampling
technique and convenience sampling method which means sample
drawn at the convenience of the people tend to make the selection
at familiar location and choose respondents who are like
themselves.

3) Sample Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliable.

The sample size should be such that the inferences drawn from the
sample are accurate to a given level of confidence to represent the
entire population under study. The size of sample depends on
number of factors and I take size of 100 respondents.

4) Sample Frame: A sampling frame refers to the collection of the

elements from which samples will be drawn and sampling frame
is my locality i.e. area of “janakpuri.”

5) Analysis Tool:
a) SPSS Software
b) Microsoft Excel 2013
c) Central Tendency i.e. mean , mode, median
d) Charts and Diagrams
e) Correlation Analysis

39
6.6 CODING OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Coding means it is the process of assigning a cod to something for classification or

identification.
b) If the answers to a question are represented on the questionnaire as points on a scale
from 1 to 5, usually you will enter these numbers directly into the grid.
c) If the answers take a different form, you may wish to translate them into a numerical
scale. For example, if students are asked to note their gender as male/female, you may
ascribe a value of 1 to every male response and 0 to female responses – this will be
helpful when it comes to computing summary statistics and necessary if you are
interested in exploring correlations in the data.
d) It will make it much easier to analyse the data if there is an entry for all questions.
e) To do this, you will need to construct code to describe ‘missing data’, ‘don’t know’
answers or answers that do not follow instructions – for example, if some respondents
select more than one category.

 CODING OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

[“20 - 25-1”] [“25- 30-2”] [“30 – 35-3”] [“35 - 40-4”] [“40 – 45 -5”]

40
[“Male-1”] [“Female-2”] [“Transgender-3”]

[“North Delhi-1”] [“South Delhi-2”] [“East Delhi -3”] [“West Delhi-4”] [“Central Delhi-
5”] [“NCR -6”] [“North East Delhi-7”] [“North West Delhi-8”] [“South East Delhi-9”]
[“South West Delhi-10”]

41
[“0 – 2,50,000-1”] [“2,50,000 – 5,00,000-2”] [“5,00,000 – 10,00,000-3”] [“Above 10,00,000-
4”]

[“1-1”] [“2-2”] [“3-3”] [“Above 3-4”]

[“Primary Sector-1”] [“Secondary Sector-2”] [“Tertiary Sector-3”] [“Self-employed-4”]

42
[“0-5%-1”] [“5-10%-2”] [“10-20%-3”] [“Above 20%-4”]

Mutual Funds - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Share, Debentures and Bonds - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Real Estate - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Foreign Exchange - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Savings Account or Fixed Deposits - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Commodities (Gold, Silver, Platinum etc.) - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Crypto-Currency (Bitcoin, Ethereum etc.) - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Side Business - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Other - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

43
North Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

South Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

East Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

West Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Central Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

North East Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

North West Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

South East Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

South West Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

NCR - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

Outside Delhi - [“Yes-1”] [“No-2”]

44
[“Once a week-1”] [“Once a month-2”] [“Quarterly-3”] [“Half-yearly-4”] [“Yearly-5”]

[“Short-term trading-1”] [“Long-term trading-2”] [“Saving for retirement-3”] [“For the

generation of passive income-4”] [“For general financial stability-5”] [“Prefer not to say-
6”] [“Other-7”]

45
[“0-6 months-1”] [“6 months-1 year-2”] [“1-3 years-3”] [“3-5 years-4”] [“More than 5
years-5”]

[“Conservative-1”] [“Slightly Conservative-2”] [“Neutral-3”] [“Slightly Aggresive-4”]

[“Aggressive-5”]

46
[“Mutual Funds-1”] [“Shares, Debentures and Bonds-2”] [“Real Estate-3”] [“Foreign
Exchange-4”] [“Savings Account or Fixed Deposits-5”] [“Commodities -6”] [“Crypto-
Currency -7”] [“Side Business-8”] [“Other-9”]

High Returns - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

Fully understanding the investment - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”]

[“Very-4”]

Low Risk - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

Lower fees and other cost of investment - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”]
[“Very-4”]

The investment doesn't require regular attention or engagement - [“Not at all-1”] [“A
Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

High Returns - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

Fully understanding the investment - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”]

[“Very-4”]

Low Risk - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

47
 Lower fees and other cost of investment - [“Not at all-1”] [“A Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”]
[“Very-4”]

The investment doesn't require regular attention or engagement - [“Not at all-1”] [“A
Little-2”] [“Somewhat-3”] [“Very-4”]

 “In above question we give the value label as:”

[“Very Uncomfortable-1”] [“Uncomfortable-2”] [“Neutral-3”] [“Comfortable-4”] [“Very

Comfortable-5”]

[“I wouldn't change anything-1”] [“I would change to a lower risk investment-2”] [“I
would change to a higher risk investment-3”]
48
[“Always the possible losses-1”] [“Usually the possible losses-2”] [“Usually the possible gains-3”]
[“Always the possible gains-4”]

[“0-5%-1”] [“5-10%-2”] [“10-20%-3”] [“Above 20%-4”]

[“Liquid assets with less returns-1”] [“Fixed assets with high returns-2”]

 “As above you can see the questions and their coding according to their options.

49
Options are code in the number 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.”

50
 As below you can see the picture the values are assigned as:

51
6.7 TABULATION

The Data we have collected is being recorded in the table given below as:-

 Figure 1 Table without Value Label

52
 Figure 2 Table with Value Label

53
6.8 EDITING OF DATA

a) Editing SPSS data is Win Cross provides a convenient data grid for
editing SPSS data files.
b) The SPSS data grid opens automatically when an SPSS data file is
opened.
c) The data grid has two views of the data, the Data tab view of the actual
data and the Variables tab view of the data structure.
d) Initially, the data file is opened to the Data tab.
1) Data tab - The Data tab displays the actual data values
and lets you:

 Change data values

 Cut, copy, paste and delete data values
 Undo/Redo or Discard all changes
 Add, insert and delete records
 Sort records by variable values
 Add, insert and delete variables

54
 2) Variables tab- The Variables tab displays the data file
structure, including: the Variable Name, Label, Code
Values and ValueLabels, Type (String or Number), Field
Width, FieldDecimals, FieldFormat (Alphanumeric, Nu
meric, Currency, Date, etc.), Export Width, Export
Decimals, ExportFormat (Alphanumeric, Numeric, Curre
ncy, Date, etc.) and View Width. The Variables tab lets
you The following options:-

 Cut, copy, paste and delete

variable attribute values
 Undo/Redo or Discard all
changes
 Add, insert and delete variables

55
7. ANALYSIS OF DATA & FINDINGS SUMMARY

1) ANALYSIS OF DATA:-
a) The process of evaluating data using analytical and logical reasoning to
examine each component of the data provided.
b) This form of analysis is just one of the many steps that must be completed
when conducting a research experiment.
c) Data from various sources is gathered, reviewed, and then analyzed toform
some sort of finding or conclusion.
d) There are a variety of specific data analysis method, some of which include
data mining, text analytics, business intelligence, and data visualizations.

7.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

a) Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show
or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge
from the data.
b) Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data
we have analyzed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made.
They are simply a way to describe our data.

56
 c) Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw data
it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot of
it.
d) Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful way,
which allows simpler interpretation of the data.
e) For example, if we had the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be
interested in the overall performance of those students.
f) We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks. Descriptive
statistics allow us to do this. How to properly describe data through statistics and graphs
is an important topic.

7.1.1 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

a) Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

b) It is also referred to as temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial
frequency and angular frequency.

57
c) The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the
reciprocal of the frequency.
d) For example: if a newborn baby's heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its
period-the time interval between beats-is half a second (60 seconds divided by 120
beats).

 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS and from there click FREQUENCIES.

 STEP II – Take variables from all the variables in FREQUENCIES section. Then
click OPTIONS and then click OK.

58
 STEP III – A new OUTPUT window will open.

59
60
7.1.2 CHART ANALYSIS

a) A chart is a graphical representation of data, in which "the data is represented

by symbols, such as bars in a bar chart, lines in a line chart, or slices in a pie chart".
b) A chart can represent tabular numeric data, functions or some kinds of qualitative
structure and provides different info.
c) The term "chart" as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings:

 A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, that organizes and represents a

set of numerical or qualitative data.

 Maps that are adorned with extra information (map surround) for a specific
purpose are often known as charts, such as a nautical chart or
aeronautical chart, typically spread over several map sheets.

 Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as

the chord chart in music notation or a record chart for album popularity.

 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS and from there click FREQUENCIES.

 STEP II – Take variables from all the variables in FREQUENCIES section. Then
click CHARTS and select type of chart and then click OK.

61
 STEP III – A new OUTPUT window will open.

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7.1.3 MEAN ANALYSIS

a) The mean is the average of all numbers and is sometimes called the arithmetic mean.
b) To calculate mean, add together all of the numbers in a set and then divide the sum by
the total count of numbers.
c) For example, in a data centre rack, five servers consume 100 watts, 98 watts, 105 watts,
90 watts and 102 watts of power, respectively. The mean power use of that rack is
calculated as (100 + 98 + 105 + 90 + 102 W)/5 servers = a calculated mean of 99 Wper
server. Intelligent power distribution units report the mean power utilization of therack
to systems management software.
 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS and from there click FREQUENCIES.

 STEP II – Take variables from all the variables in FREQUENCIES section. Then
click STATISTICS and select type of statistics and then click OK.

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 STEP III – A new OUTPUT window will open.

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7.2 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

a) It refers to the testing an assumption on the sample data which is drawn from
a population with the objective to infer or estimate about the population.
b) Inferential statistics use a random sample of data taken from a population to
describe and make inferences about the population.
c) Inferential statistics are valuable when examination of each member of an
entire population is not convenient or possible.
d) For example, to measure the diameter of each nail that is manufactured in a
mill is impractical. You can measure the diameters of a representative random
sample of nails. You can use the information from the sample to make
generalizations about the diameters of all of the nails.

 TYPES OF TESTS :-

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7.2.1 T- TEST

a) A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant

difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features.
b) It is mostly used when the data sets, like the data set recorded as the outcome from
flipping a coin 100 times, would follow a normal distribution and may have unknown
variances.
c) A t-test is used as a hypothesis testing tool, which allows testing of an assumption
applicable to a population.
d) Different types of T- TEST are:-

1) ONE SAMPLE T- TEST

 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
COMPARE MEANS and from there click ONE-SAMPLE T TEST.

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 STEP II – Take one variable from all the variables in TEST VARIABLE section.
Then click OPTIONS and set the CONFIDENCE LEVEL to 95% and click
CONTINUE and then click OK.

 STEP III – A new OUTPUT window will open.

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2) INDEPENDENT SAMPLE T- TEST

 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
COMPARE MEANS and from there click INDEPENDENT SAMPLE T TEST.

 STEP II– Take one variable from all the variables in TEST VARIABLE section. Then
click OPTIONS and set the CONFIDENCE LEVEL to 95%.

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 STEP III – Click DEFINE GROUPS and define the GROUP 1 as 1 and GROUP 2 as
2 and click CONTINUE and at last click OK.

 STEP IV – A new OUTPUT window will open.

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3) PAIRED SAMPLE TEST

 STEP I – From the RIBBON select ANALYZE and from the drop down select
COMPARE MEANS and from there click PAIRED SAMPLE T TEST.

 STEP II – Select one variable for VARIABLE 1 section and the other for VARIABLE
2 section. Then click OPTIONS and set the CONFIDENCE LEVEL to 95%. Then
click CONTINUE and finally click OK.

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  STEP III – A new OUTPUT window will open.

7.2.2 CHI - SQUARE TEST

a) The term "chi-squared test," also written as χ2 test, refers to certain types of statistical
hypothesis tests that are valid to perform when the test statistic is chi-squared
distributed under the null hypothesis. Often, however, the term is used to referto
Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof.
b) Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a statistically significant
difference (i.e., a magnitude of difference that is unlikely to be due to chance alone)
between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more
categories of a so-called contingency table.
c) In the standard applications of this test, the observations are classified into mutually
exclusive classes. If the so-called null hypothesis is true, the test statistic computed from
the observations follows a χ2 distribution.
d) The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the observed frequencies would be
assuming the null hypothesis is true.
e) The Chi-square (χ2) test represents a useful method of comparing experimentally
obtained results with those to be expected theoretically on some hypothesis.

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f) Thus Chi-square is a measure of actual divergence of the observed and expected
frequencies.
g) It is very obvious that the importance of such a measure would be very great in sampling
studies where we have invariably to study the divergence between theory and fact.

 STEP I – In the RIBBON, click the ANALYZE tab and the go to NON PARAMETRIC
and click CHI- SQUARE in it.

 STEP II – A new DIALOG BOX will open, select variables in the CHI –SQUARE
TEST section and click OK.

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  STEP III– This will be the OUTPUT

7.2.3 CROSS TABULATION

a) To describe a single categorical variable, we use frequency tables. To describe the

relationship between two categorical variables, we use a special type of table called
a cross-tabulation. This type of table is also known as a:

 Crosstab.
 Two-way table.
 Contingency table.

b) In a crosstab, the categories of one variable determine the rows of the table, and the
categories of the other variable determine the columns.
c) The cells of the table contain the number of times that a particular combination of
categories occurred.

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 STEP I – In the RIBBON, click the ANALYZE tab and the go to DISCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS and click CROSSTABS in it.

 STEP II – Then a new DIALOG BOX will open and then select the variables in ROW
section, COLUMN section and for LAYER 1 of 1 section like done in the image below
and at last click OK.

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 STEP III– This will be the OUTPUT

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7.2.4 CORRELATION ANALYSIS

a) The Correlation Analysis is the statistical tool used to study the closeness of
the relationship between two or more variables.
b) The variables are said to be correlated when the movement of one variable is
accompanied by the movement of another variable.
c) The correlation analysis is used when the researcher wants to determine the
possible association between the variables and to begin with; the following steps
are to be followed:

 Determining whether the relation exists and then measuring

it (The measure of correlation is called as the Coefficient of
Correlation).
 Testing its significance
 Establishing the cause-and-effect relation, if any.

1) KARL PEARSON BIVARIATE

a) The bivariate Pearson Correlation produces a sample correlation coefficient, r,
which measures the strength and direction of linear relationships between pairs
of continuous variables.
b) By extension, the Pearson Correlation evaluates whether there is statistical
evidence for a linear relationship among the same pairs of variables in the
population, represented by a population correlation coefficient, ρ (“rho”). The
Pearson Correlation is a parametric measure.
c) This measure is also known as:

 Pearson’s correlation
 Pearson product-moment correlation (PPMC)

d) The bivariate Pearson Correlation is commonly used to measure the following:

 Correlations among pairs of variables

 Correlations within and between sets of variables

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 e) The bivariate Pearson correlation indicates the following:

 Whether a statistically significant linear relationship

exists between two continuous variables
 The strength of a linear relationship (i.e., how close the
relationship is to being a perfectly straight line)
 The direction of a linear relationship (increasing or
decreasing)
 STEP I – In the RIBBON, click the ANALYZE tab and the go to CORRELATE and
click BIVARIATE.

 STEP II – A new DIALOG BOX will open, select two variables and in the
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS section select PEARSON and click OK.

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  STEP III – This will be the OUTPUT.

7.2.5 DATA REDUCTION (FACTOR ANALYSIS)

a) Factor analysis is a method of data reduction. It does this by seeking underlying

unobservable (latent) variables that are reflected in the observed variables
(manifest variables).
b) There are many different methods that can be used to conduct a factor analysis
(such as principal axis factor, maximum likelihood, generalized least squares,
unweighted least squares).
c) Factor analysis is a technique that requires a large sample size. Factor analysis
is based on the correlation matrix of the variables involved, and correlations
usually need a large sample size before they stabilize.

 STEP I – In the RIBBON, click the ANALYZE tab and the go to DATA
REDUCTION and click FACTOR.

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 STEP II – A new DIALOG BOX will open, select variables and in the FACTOR
ANALYSIS section and click OK.

 STEP III – This will be the OUTPUT.

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CONCLUSION
After the analysis & interpretation of data it is concluded that Investors are very well aware
about investment avenues that are available in Delhi and NCR, India but still investors are
preferring to invest their money in commodities (gold, silver, platinum, etc) and Real Estate,
thus falling into Conservative category. The data analysis of research reveals that safety is an
important factor while doing investment, so remaining avenues are less found less considerable
while doing investment by investors.

Especially in a city like Delhi NCR where Real estate is always on the high or up, this is not
atall a bad investment option. But there is no fixed return and the risk and amount of investment
is high.(Charkha et al. 2018)

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