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ZEDNOTESON THESYLLABUS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 Wave Phenomena
CHAPTER 9

7 Fields
CHAPTER 10

10 Electromagnetic Induction
CHAPTER 11

15 Quantum and Nuclear Physics

CHAPTER 12
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Formulae
9. WAVE PHENOMENA When at 𝑡 = 0, the displacement equals the amplitude:
• 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
9.1.Simple Harmonic Motion • 𝑣 = −𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
• Period (𝑻) of the motion is related to the angular • 𝑎 = −𝜔²𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) = −𝜔²𝑥.
frequency (𝜔), not to the amplitude or to the phase. When at 𝑡 = 0, the displacement (𝑥) equals zero:
2𝜋 • 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑇 =
𝜔 • 𝑣 = −𝜔𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
• Acceleration (𝒂) is proportional and in the opposite • 𝑎 = −𝜔²𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = −𝜔²𝑥.
direction to the displacement. Maxima: The maximum speed is 𝜔𝑥0 and maximum
𝑎 = −𝜔²𝑥. acceleration is 𝜔²𝑥0
Spring:
• Restoring force: After being moved a distance 𝐴 Circular motion and SHM
(Amplitude) from equilibrium point, there will be a
restoring force towards the center.
o When there are two springs, the force doubles
• Period is independent of the amplitude/extension.

Simple pendulum
• Small angle approximation: Acceleration is not
proportional to the displacement (𝑥). But if 𝑥 is small Energy in SHM systems
(𝑥 < 1) then 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥⁄𝐿 ) is approximately equal to 𝑥⁄𝐿 . • Total energy conservation, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝐾 + 𝐸𝑃
1
• Period is independent of the mass. o 𝐸𝑇 = 𝑚𝜔²𝑥0 ²
2
1
o 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
= ½ 𝑚𝜔² 𝑥𝑜² 𝑠𝑖𝑛²(𝜔𝑡) = 1/2 𝑚𝜔² (𝑥𝑜² − 𝑥²)
o 𝐸𝑃 = 1/2 𝑚𝜔² 𝑥0 ² 𝑐𝑜𝑠²(𝜔𝑡) = 1/2 𝑚𝜔²𝑥².

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 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
9.2 Single-slit Diffraction
Diffraction is appreciable if the wavelength is of the same
order of magnitude as the opening (b) or bigger, i.e. 𝜆 ≥
𝑏.
• Central maximum is twice the width of other maxima,
which are evenly separated.
• Central maximum is about 20 times as intense as the
other maxima.
Variation of intensity with angle for a diffraction pattern
• Central maximum is twice the width of other maxima,
which are evenly separated.
• Central maximum is about 20 times as intense as the
other maxima.
• Each successive maxima (excluding the central
maximum) has less than half the previous one's
intensity.
secondary waves, which, summed together, equal the
total wave front.
• Single-slit diffraction explanation: "For two waves
coming from the edges of the slit making an angle 𝜃 with
the straight through, there is a path difference 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
Waves from a point halfway along the slit will have a
path difference of 𝑏/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃". (Bowen-Jones & Homer,
2014)
o Consequence: For each point in the bottom half of
the slit, there will be a point in the upper half of the
slit with a path difference of 𝑏/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
• Small angle approximation: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃, and
thus, 𝑏/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑏𝜃/2 = 𝜆/2, i.e. 𝒃𝜽 = 𝝀.
• 𝜽 = 𝒔/𝑫, where 𝐷 is the distance between the slit and
screen and 𝑠 = distance of first minimum from center.

• Destructive interference: When the path difference

equals half the wavelength.
o First minimum: 𝜽 = 𝝀/𝒃.
o Additional minima: 𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀/𝒃, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3. ..
• Diffraction with laser is monochromatic.
• Diffraction with white light: central maximum is white,
fringes will be coloured and blue diffracts the least.

Diffraction by a single rectangular slit

• Huygens’s principle: You may always think on a wave
front as an infinite series of source points, generating
PAGE 3 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
9.3 Interference • Slit widths with real size: modulation by single-slit
Double-slit interference diffraction.
• Sources must be exactly in phase, otherwise no o Constant fringe spaging, varying intensity.
interference pattern will be formed.
• Destructive interference: If the path difference is a half-
integral multiple of 𝜆.
o Path difference = (𝑛 + 1/2)𝜆, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2. ..
• Constructive interference: If the path difference is an
integral multiple of 𝜆.
o Path difference = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2. ..,
where 𝜃 is the angle between two primary maxima.

Multiple slits (N)

Intensity variation:
• Slit widths of negligible size:
o Bright fringes are equally bright and spaced.
o Smaller slit separation: maxima are further apart.
• With N slits there are 𝑁 − 2 secondary maxima between
primary maxima.
• Intensity of the central maximum is 𝑁².
• Primary maxima of the multiple-slit interference pattern
are observed at the same angles as the corresponding
two-slit pattern with the same slit separation.
• As 𝑵 increases:
o Primary maxima become thinner and sharper.
o Secondary maxima become unimportant.

Three slits:

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 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Five slits:
Diffraction grating: large number of parallel slits, whose
width we take to be negligible.
• Uses: analyze wavelength of light, disperse white light
into its component colors.
• Maxima are sharp and bright, as there is a large number
of slits causing constructive interference.
• Spacing between the slits is small, and thus, there is no
small angle approximation, as the angular separation of
the maxima is very large. 𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀, where n is
known as the "order" and 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2. . ., i.e. 0 order, 1st
order, 2nd order...
o Maximum order: Found using 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 < 1, when d
and λ are known.
o Total number of orders: 2𝑛 + 1 (Counting "0 order"
and the negative orders).
• Lines per millimeter: diffraction grating is stated to have
𝑁 lines per millimeter. This means that the separation of
the slits is 𝑑 = 1/𝑁 𝑚𝑚.
Diffraction grating with white light: Each successive
visible spectrum repeats the order of the colors of the
PAGE 5 OF 20
previous one, but less intense and more spread out. The
central one is always white.
Interference may occur by:
• Division of wavefronts: taking waves from different
parts of the same wavefront, and thus, they are in
phase. Called "non-localized", as they may be found
anywhere.
• Division of amplitude: achieving interference using two
waves that come from the same point on a wavefront.
The source of waves must be much bigger than the slit
used for division. Image produced by the two waves,
each with a portion of the original one, is localized to
one plane.
Thin film interference:
• Example: reason why thin films, such as soap bubbles,
show colorful patterns.
• Explanation: upon reflection off a thin film, a ray of light
will undergo a phase change of 𝜋, if it reflects off a
medium of higher refractive index (arrives as a crest,
reflects as a trough)
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Perpendicular: if the angle with the normal is small, as Diffraction grating resolvance (𝑹):
one was looking at a thin film perpendicularly, the path • Definition: the ratio of the wavelength of the light to the
difference will be 2d. smallest difference in wavelength that can be resolved
• Constructive interference: 2𝑑𝑛 = (𝑚 + 1/2)𝜆, where by the grating ∆𝜆. 𝑅 = 𝜆/∆𝜆.
n is the refractive index. • Explanation: ability to see as distinct two lines in a
• Phase change of 𝜋 included in the formula (+1/2). spectrum that correspond to wavelengths 𝜆1 and𝜆2 that
• Destructive interference: 2𝑑𝑛 = 𝑚𝜆.
are very close to each other. Hence, 𝑅 = 𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 /∆𝜆,
where 𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )/2
• White light: the wavelength that suffers destructive
• 𝑹 = 𝑵𝒎, where 𝑁 is the total number of slits
interference will have the corresponding color absent in
illuminated by the incident beam and m is the order of
the reflected light, giving the pattern seen in soap
diffraction.
bubbles.
• Number of lines: When the incident beam is 𝑥
millimeter wide, the number of lines is 𝑁/𝑥
9.4 Resolution
Resolution
9.5 The Doppler Effect
• Explanation: the ability of an imaging system (e.g. eyes,
Definition: "Doppler effect is the change in the observed
camera or telescope) to be able to produce two separate
frequency of a wave when there is relative movement
distinguishable images of two separate objects.
when there is relative movement between the source and
o Diffraction: light from each of the objects will diffract
the observer."
as it goes through the opening of the imaging system.
This creates diffraction patterns.
Wavefront diagrams:
• Rayleigh criterion (minimum for images - diffraction
patterns - to be just resolved): "Two sources are just
resolved if the principal (central) maximum from one
diffraction pattern is no closer than the first minimum of
the other pattern".

Cases:
• Angular separation (𝜽𝑨 ) = s/d, where s is the distance
Quantities
between the central maxima of the diffraction patterns
• 𝒇 = Frequency of the source;
of the objects and d the distance between the observer
• 𝒇′ =Apparent frequency, heard by the observed;
and the objects.
• 𝒗 = Speed of the wave;
o According to Rayleigh criterion, resolution is only
• 𝒖𝒔 = Velocity of the source;
possible when: 𝜽𝑨 ≥ 𝜽𝑫 .
• 𝒖𝟎 = Velocity of the observer.
o For a circular slit: 𝜽𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝝀/𝒃, where 𝑏 is the
Moving source and stationary observer
diameter of the slit and 𝜃𝐷 is known as the 𝑣
diffraction angle. 𝑓′ = 𝑓 ( )
𝑣 ± 𝑢𝑠
o For a rectangular slit: 𝜃𝐷 = 𝜆/𝑏. • − 𝒖𝒔 for a source moving towards a stationary observer.
𝑓′ > 𝑓, because 𝜆 are shorter, as the wavefronts are
being compressed.
• + 𝒖𝒔 for a source moving away from a stationary
observer. 𝑓′ < 𝑓, because 𝜆 are longer.
• 𝒗, as measured by the observer, is 𝑣, since it is
determined by the medium's properties.=
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 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Stationary source and moving observer
𝑣±𝑢0
𝑓′ = 𝑓 ( )
𝑣
• 𝜆 remains equal and 𝑣 changes, as the medium changed:
source - air; observer - moving air.
• − 𝒖𝟎 for an observer moving away from a stationary
source. 𝑓′ < 𝑓, but measured 𝜆 is constant.
• + 𝒖𝟎 for an observer moving towards a stationary
source. 𝑓′ > 𝑓, but measured 𝜆 is constant.
Examples
• Police speed radar: car moving away, reflecting
microwaves from the source.
• Medical physics: blood flow measurement
∆𝑓 2𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡
=
𝑓 𝑐
Doppler Effect with light
• Formula different for sound, as the velocity of light is
constant in all inertial reference frames (by special
relativity), which means that, when measured by an
observed who is not accelerating, the observer will
measure the speed of light to be 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
• Blue-shift: If the source of light approaches, then the
frequency increases and the wavelength decreases.
• Red-shift: If the source of light moves away, then the
frequency decreases and the wavelength increases.
• Expanding Universe prove: Light from distant galaxies
measured on Earth shows a red-shift, what indicates
galaxies are moving away from us, and thus, the universe
is expanding.
PAGE 7 OF 20
10. FIELDS
10.1 Describing Fields
Gravitational Fields:
• Magnitude: 𝑔 = 𝐺𝑀/𝑟², in 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1 .
• Field lines: For a point or spherical mass M, the field is
radial, with the field lines towards that mass. In the case
of a planet, when very close to its surface, the planet
may be considered flat and the field uniform.
Potential (𝑽𝒈 )
• Definition: "The gravitational potential at a point P in a
gravitational field is the work done per unit mass in
bringing a small point mass from infinity to point P"
• 𝑽𝒈 = 𝑾/𝒎 = −𝑮𝑴/𝒓, in 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1
• Work: the work done depends only on the change of the
potential, not on the path taken
o Positive work is done on the test object, increasing the
gravitational potential
o Negative work is done by the test object, decreasing
the gravitational potential
Potential energy (𝑬𝑷 )
• Definition for one body: "The gravitational
potential energy of one body is the work done to
bring one mass from infinity to a specific point".
• Definition for two bodies: "The gravitational
potential energy of two bodies is the work done
that was done in bringing the bodies to their
present position when they were infinitely apart".
• EP = -GMm/r. (negative sign implies that force is
attractive and that +GMm/r must be provided to
infinitely separate them)
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Electric Fields: 10.2 Fields at Work
𝐹 𝑘𝑄
• Magnitude: 𝐸 = = Graphical interpretation of gravitational field strength
𝑞 𝑟2
and potential
• Going upstream in the field (against) means going to a
higher potential, so gain in the potential.
• Going downstream in the field (against) means going to
a lower, so loss in the potential.
• Gradient of a graph of gravitational potential against
distance is the gravitational field strength. 𝒈 =
Potential (𝑽𝒆 ) −∆𝑽𝒈/∆𝒓
• Definition: "The electrical potential energy at a point P is
the work done for a small positive test charge to be
brought from infinity to that point".
• May be visualized as the height of a flat surface.

Potential energy (𝑬𝑷 )

• Definition: "The electrical potential energy at a point P is
the work done for a small positive test charge to be
brought from infinity to that point".
• Charge sign must always be taken into account. Inside a planet

Parallel plates
• Explanation: long oppositely charge plates.
• Field is uniform in the region between the plates.
• Edge effect: field becomes weaker at the edges.

Equipotential surface
• Explanation: consists of those points that have the same
potential, i.e. which are at the same distance from the
source (referred to as zero potential), and where masses
or charges move without work being done on or by then.
• Field lines are cut perpendicularly by the equipotential
surfaces.
Weightlessness
Feeling weightless for an astronaut in orbit around the
Earth is a consequence of both ship and the astronaut
"falling freely", with the same acceleration towards the
center of planet, so that there is no normal force.
Orbits
• Orbital speed (𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 ): √𝐺𝑀/𝑟
• Orbital period (𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 ): √4𝜋²𝑟³/(𝐺𝑀)
• Polar orbit: for satellites close to the Earth's surface (100
km).
• Geostationary orbit: for geosynchronous satellites, whose
period is equal to 24 hours.

PAGE 8 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Total energy (𝑬𝑻 ) = kinetic energy (𝑬𝑲 ) + gravitational • Electric field strength is the force per unit charge, and
potential energy (𝑬𝑷 ). thus, the area under the graph of electrical field strength
• 𝑬𝑻 = 𝑬𝑲 + 𝑬𝑷 = 1/2𝑚𝑣² − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚/ against distance is the work per unit charge, i.e. the
2𝑟 − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/𝑟 = − 𝐺𝑀𝑚/2𝑟 electric potential charge.
• Graph of the kinetic, potential and total energy of a mass
in circular orbit around a planet as function of distance.

Inside a hollow conducting charged sphere

• As the sphere is a conductor, all the surplus must reside
on the outside of the sphere.
o Charges will move until they are as far apart as
• Increase in the orbit: total energy increases, potential
possible and in equilibrium equidistant on the
energy increases and kinetic energy decreases.
surface.
• Air friction: radius decreases, causing the total energy to
• Inside a sphere, the force acting on a test charge are
decrease, potential energy to decrease and kinetic
always equal in sizer and opposite in direction, and thus,
energy to increase.
cancel out: 𝐸 = 0, which is the gradient ∆𝑉𝑒/∆𝑟, which
• Launching a body from a planet's surface cases:
means that 𝑉 is constant.
o If total energy is positive: object will follow a
hyperbolic path and never return.
o If total energy is zero: object will follow a parabolic
path to infinity, where it will stop.
o If total energy is negative: object will go into a
circular or elliptical orbit or crash.
• Escape velocity: "minimum speed of object to escape Charges moving in magnetic and electric fields
gravitational field of planet/travel to infinity, starting at Magnetic fields: force will be at right angles to velocity
the surface of a planet, without energy input" and magnetic field strength.
o 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒆 = √𝟐𝑮𝑴/𝒓 • Circular path: when the charge's direction is

Graphical interpretation of electric field strength and perpendicular to magnetic field strength.
o Magnetic force = centripetal force
potential

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 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Helical path: charge's movement when direction is not 11. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
perpendicular to magnetic field strength.
11.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction: When an electric charge
moves in a magnetic field, then a force acts on it. In a
reverse sense, a movement or change in magnetic field
relative to stationary charge gives raise to an electric
current.

Induced 𝒆𝒎𝒇 (𝜺)

• Definition: Potential difference generated by
electromagnetic induction.

Electric field produced by the uniform field in parallel

plates
• Only vertical acceleration, no horizontal.
• Combination of magnetic and electric fields opposing
each other, which may generate balance of forces and
the charge may move in a horizontal path.

Inverse square law behavior For a rod of length 𝑳 moved with velocity v in a region of
• Geometric explanation: influence per unit area reduces magnetic field 𝑩:
to the power of 2. • If the rod moves from left to right, and thus, its
electrons move perpendicular to the magnetic field, they
experience a downward force along the rod and an
electric field is established.
• Flow of electrons quickly stops due to electrostatic
repulsion at the bottom, and thus, the current exists for
a short period of time.
• Without movement, 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is not induced.
• Formula if the rod is moved connected to wires (the
work done to separate electrons leads to an induced
emf): 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝐿.

Magnetic flux (Ф)

• Definition: "Product of the magnitude of the normal
component of magnetic field strength and area through
which it passes."
• Intuitive picture: Number of magnetic field lines crossing
a certain area.
• Formula: Ф = 𝑩𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, where 𝐴 is the area and 𝜃 is
the angle between the magnetic field strength direction
and the direction normal to the loop area.
• Units: Weber (𝑊𝑏)

PAGE 10 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Definition for a rod: "Product of magnitude and the rate Examples:
at which the area swept out by the rod is changing" = • Rod: Force in the rod must oppose the motion. Hence, if
∆Ф/∆𝑡 it moves towards the right, a leftwardsforce will appear
indicating a counter-clockwise induced current.
o Use left-hand rule twice: Firstly to find the direction
of the current in the loop. Secondly, to find the force
induced on the rod due to the current.

• Magnetic flux linkage: Magnetic flux multiplied by the

𝑁 turns in a loop. Ф = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
• Magnetic flux density: numerically equivalent to
magnetic field strength.
o Induced emf = magnetic flux density × rate of
change of area = 𝐵∆𝐴/∆𝑡.

• Loop wire and a wire with increasing current: Magnetic

Faraday's Law
flux is increasing into the page. Hence, to oppose the
• Definition: "Induced emf is equal to the negative rate of
increase in magnetic flux (inside the loop), a magnetic
change of magnetic flux linkage."
field out of the page must exist, and thus, a counter-
• Negative sign exists due to Lenz's law (see below)
𝑵∆Ф clockwise current is induced.
• Formula: 𝜺 = −
∆𝒕

• Rod (perpendicular to field): in time ∆𝑡, a rod of length

𝐿 will move a distance 𝑠 = 𝑣∆𝑡, cutting magnetic field
lines as it moves in the magnetic field. 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑠
o Formula: ∆Ф = ∆𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = ∆𝐵𝐴 = ∆𝐵𝐿𝑠 =
𝐵𝐿𝑣∆𝑡, and hence, 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝐿
Lenz's Law
• Definition: "The induced emf will be in such a direction to
oppose the change in the magnetic flux that created the
current". It is equivalent to energy conservation.
• Work done by magnetic forces that arises due to current
is dissipated as thermal energy.
(Tsokos, 2014)
• Bar magnet through a loop of wire:
o When approaching the loop, magnetic flux is
increasing, and thus, magnetic field must oppose the
increase, with a counter-clockwise current.
o When leaving the loop, the magnetic flux is
decreasing, and the current is now clockwise.

PAGE 11 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
The opposite magnet (south pole first) would have the
exact opposite effect.
11.2 Transmission of Power
The alternating current (𝒂𝒄) generator
• Rotating coil in a region of magnetic field.
• A magnetic field that cuts the rotating coil.
• Relative movement between the coil and the magnetic
field, causing 𝑒𝑚𝑓 to be induced and current to flow.
o Rotation of coil: caused by a turbine in a power plant.
• Two slip rings attached to the ends of the coil, rotating
along with it and touching carbon brushes that transfer
current to the outside world
• Current: When the left-hand wire is moving upwards and
the right-hand wire is moving downwards, current is
counter-clockwise. Half a period later, the current will be
opposite.
PAGE 12 OF 20
• Induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓, by Faraday's law, is the minus rate of
change of the flux linkage.
o If the angle speed (𝑤) increases, frequency and
𝑒𝑚𝑓 amplitude increase.
o Increasing 𝑁, 𝐵 or 𝐴 causes the 𝑒𝑚𝑓 to increase,
without changing the frequency
• Power in ac circuits always positive, with a period of half
the frequency.
o Average power dissipated: half the peak's value.
o Same phase as current and 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
o 𝝅/𝟐 out of phase with the graph of change of
magnetic flux linkage (it is its derivative)
Root mean square (𝒓𝒎𝒔)
In order to fund the average value of the current and of
the 𝒆𝒎𝒇 (given that they are both negative and positive),
we the root of the peak value divided by 2.
• Current 𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝑰𝟎 ²/𝟐
• Voltage 𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √𝑽𝟎 ²/𝟐
• Mean power = (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 )(𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 )/𝟐 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ²𝑹/𝟐 =
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 ²/(𝟐𝑹)
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
The transformer
Changes the potential difference from one alternating
current into another potential difference.

Rectification of alternating current

Process of converting an alternating current supply into
direct current.
• Process:
• Rectifier: a diode, which only allows current to pass in
1. Alternating current produces magnetic field in one direction.
primary coil. o When current passes through it, the diode is said to
2. Flux in the core is created. be forward biased.
3. Changing flux is linked to the secondary coil. o When no current passes through it, it is reverse
4. If coil is part of a circuit, current flows. biased
• Formulas: 𝜀𝑝 /𝜀𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 / 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 /𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 /𝐼𝑝 . (primary
Half-wave rectification: half of the power is lost
= 𝑝; secondary = s). • Current and voltage is not constant: It is zero during half
o 𝑁 = number of coils.
a period
o Frequency remains unchanged.
• Step-up transformer: Output voltage > Input voltage:
𝑁𝑠 > 𝑁𝑝
• Step-down transformer: Output voltage < Input voltage:
𝑁𝑠 < 𝑁𝑝
• Graph of secondary coil = gradient of graph of primary
coil

Real transformers:
• Core material: soft magnetic
Full-wave rectification: usage of the whole power.
material (avoids magnetic
• Two different cycles, as shown below: Forward Bias and
hysteresis)
Reverse Bias.
o Can be rapidly magnetized and
demagnetized.
• Core design/shape: ensures flux
does not leak out of the core (less
power loss)
• Laminators: prevent the formation of currents inside the
core itself, known as eddy currents, which lead to
heating and power loss

Transformers and power transmission

• Power loss in cables proportional to 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡²
• Reducing power loss: If 𝑝𝑑 is increased by transformer
then I is decreased, so power falls, as 𝑅 is constant
o Other benefits: Smaller 𝐼 - Smaller temperature -
Smaller 𝑅 - Lower genetic damage

PAGE 13 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Rectification with capacitors: using a circuit with a • Combining capacitors: Opposite as with resistors!
capacitor (in parallel with resistor), which charges when o In parallel: ∑𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 +. .. (same 𝑝𝑑
alternate current is forward and discharges with reverse across them)
bias. o In series: 1/∑𝐶 = 1/𝐶1 + 1/𝐶2 + 1/𝐶3 +. ..
• Useful to overcome the problem of zero current, by (same charge across them)
creating small ripples. • Energy stored: total work done to charge the capacitor
o 𝐸 = 1/2 𝐶𝑉² = 1/2 𝑄𝑉 = 1/2 𝑄²/𝐶

The effect of dielectric

• Dielectric material: 𝜺 > 𝜺𝟎 (vacuum),
and thus, 𝑪 > 𝑪𝟎
• Charge polarization: In the dielectric,
there is separation of charges, known
as charge polarization.
o Small electric field is created,
reducing the net electric compared
11.3 Capacitance to 𝜀0
Capacitor: Two conductors o 𝑝𝑑 across capacitor is also reduced, since some
separated from each other electric energy is used to align molecules, raising the
by an insulating (dielectric) potential of the negative plate and lowers the
material (or vacuum). potential of the positive plate
• Storage: Stores electric
charge and electric Charging and discharging
energy. • Charging: Accumulating charge on the negative plate
• Design: Formed by two o Current starts out large, as if the capacitor was not
parallel plates with area 𝐴 and distance 𝑑 in between. there, i.e 𝐼0 = 𝜀/𝑅, but decreases and reaches zero,
• Capacitance: charge (𝑞) per unit voltage (V) that can be since the electrons on the negative plate push back
store in a capacitor new electrons.
o Charge distribution: +𝑞 on one plate and −𝑞 on the o When fully charged, no current passes through the
other plate capacitor.
o 𝐶 = 𝑄/𝑉 = 𝜀𝐴/𝑑
o Units: Farad (𝐹)

In a Closed Circuit
Capacitor:
• Electrons move from the
plate connected to the
positive terminal and
transfer to the plate
connected to the negative
terminal
• Potential difference across capacitor is greater or equal
to 𝑒𝑚𝑓 across it

PAGE 14 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Discharging: Capacitor becomes a power source, which
is discharge by resistors
o Formulae: 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ; 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ; 𝐼 =
𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 and 𝐼0 = 𝑞0 /𝑅𝐶
o Time constant (𝜏) = 𝑅𝐶, is the time scale for discharge
(measured in seconds).
▪ Time took for 𝑞 to decrease to 37% of
its original value as it discharges
▪ Similar to half-life in radioactive
decay.
12. QUANTUM AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
12.1 The Interaction of Matter with
Radiation
The photoelectric effect
• Definition: Phenomenon in which light (or other forms
of electromagnetic radiation) incident on a metallic
surface causes electron to be emitted from the surface.
• Experiment: Evacuated tube, with a metallic photo-
surface (𝑃), in which light passes through a small
opening and causes electrons to be ejected. These
electrons are collected by a collecting surface (𝐶).
• Since the collecting plate is connected to the negative
terminal of the power supply, it will repel normally repel
electrons and only absorb the energetic ones.
• As the voltage is made more negative, there is a point at
which the current ceases, called stopping
voltage/potential (𝑽𝒔 )
PAGE 15 OF 20
Tip: The 𝑰 − 𝑽 graph will change if the frequency of the
light is increased. Each photon will have more energy, and
hence, the stopping potential will be greater. The
saturation current will depend upon the intensity of the
light, but in the case of two lights with the same intensity,
the saturation current for the higher frequency will be
less. This follows logically from the photon nature of light:
Same current means the same amount of electrons
(charge-carriers) per second, but higher frequency means
that electrons have more energy. Less photons per second
means that fewer electrons are emitted, and so, smaller
saturation current.
Observations
1. The intensity of the incident light neither affects the
kinetic energy or the stopping voltage, solely the
number of electrons emitted.
2. The frequency of light influences the emitted
electrons' energy.
3. Electrons are emitted without a time delay.
4. There is a minimum/threshold frequency, 𝒇𝒄, below
which no electrons are emitted.
If light was only a wave
1. Intense beams, which have more energy, should cause
the emissions of electrons with higher kinetic energy.
2. Frequency should play a role in the energy of
electrons
3. Low intensity beams should cause a time delay, since
energy would need to accumulate before the emission
of an electron.
Einstein's explanation: Light consists of photons, which
are quanta or bundles of energy and momentum.
• Photon's energy: 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝒄/𝝀
• Planck's constant = 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Photoelectric effect: Single photon of frequency 𝑓 is
absorbed by a single electron in the photo-surface, so
the electron's energy increases by ℎ𝑓. The electron will
spend Ф Joules, called the work function, to free itself.
• Electron's kinetic energy (after emission): 𝐸 = 𝑒 𝑉𝑠 =
ℎ𝑓 – Ф
at orbitals: fixed multiples of angular momentum that can
be represented as a wave function.
• Electrons in any atom have a definite/discrete energy
(which explains the emission and absorption spectra).
o Energy levels = electron wave = standing wave, since
there is no energy transfer in standing waves
o Hydrogen atom: Energy is given by 𝑬 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔/𝒏²,
where 𝒏 is the principal quantum number and
represents the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 energy level.

Matter (or "de Broglie") Waves

As suggested by de Broglie, to any particle of momentum Hydrogen atom's electrons
𝒑, there corresponds a wave of wavelength given by the
formula 𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒑, something known as the duality of
matter.
• Electron diffraction: Electrons shot through or to a thin
slice of crystal have a low probability of reaching a place
where the path difference is not an integer number of
wavelengths (constructive and destructive interference).
o Electrons accelerated through a 𝑝𝑑, they gain kinetic
energy. Hence, we have 𝑒𝑉 = 1/2 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑝²/2𝑚.
o 𝜆 = ℎ/√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
• Davisson-Germer experiment verifies de Broglie
hypothesis.

• Angular momentum (mvr): A vector product of the

momentum of a particle and the radius of its orbit, of an
electron in a stationary state is an integral value
of 𝒉/𝟐𝝅. Hence, we have 𝒎𝒗𝒓 = 𝒏𝒉/𝟐𝝅.
• Assumptions:
o Electrons in an atom exist in stationary states,
without emitting any electromagnetic radiation.
o Electrons may move from one stationary state to
another by absorbing or emitting a quantum of
The Bohr Model electromagnetic radiation, with difference in energy
Model proposed by Niels Bohr to interpret the scattering between stationary states given by ∆𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇.
of alpha particles, which states that electrons are found

PAGE 16 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• Limitations Bohr's Model failed to explain: • Electron in a box: If an electron is confined to a region of
o Why some energy transitions are more likely to occur length L where it can only move back and forth, the
than others uncertainty in position is ∆𝑥 = 𝐿/2, and thus, ∆𝑝 =
o Predict behavior of other elements ℎ/4𝜋∆𝑥 = ℎ/2𝜋𝐿.
o Explain behaviors theoretically o Kinetic energy = 𝒑²/𝟐𝒎 = 𝒉²/𝟖𝝅²𝒎𝑳²

Schrödinger's equation (wave function) Pair production and annihilation

Describes the quantum state of the particles, where the
square of the amplitude of the wave function │𝜳│² is
proportional to the probability per unit volume of finding
the particle at a distance r from the nucleus 𝑷(𝒓) =
│𝜳│𝟐 ∆𝑽 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒕 (𝒙, 𝒚), 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚) = │𝜳│²∆𝑽.
• Copenhagen interpretation: For double-slit interference,
the wave function is considered to be such that a single
photon or electron passes through both slits and be
everywhere on the screen until it is observed or
measured.
o Nothing is real unless it is observed. When observed,
the wave function collapses.
• Pair production: close to an atomic nucleus, where the
electric field is very strong, a photon with minimum
energy given by 𝐸 = 2𝑚𝑐² can produce a particle and
its anti-particle (e.g. 𝑒 − and 𝑒 +), where 𝑚 is the rest
mass.
o The atomic nucleus helps conserving energy and
momentum.
o Any excess energy (above 2𝑚𝑐²) will be converted
into kinetic energy of the particles

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

It is impossible to simultaneously measure the position
and momentum of a particle with indefinite precision. The
same applies to energy and time
• Uncertainty in position and momentum: ∆𝒙∆𝒑 ≥ • Pair annihilation: when a particle collides with its anti-
𝒉/𝟒𝝅 particle, producing 2 photons
o Example: Since we know the wavelength of the o When they move in the opposite directions, the total
electron and momentum and wavelength are related energy of the system is 𝐸𝑇 = 2(𝑚𝑐² + 𝐸𝐾 ) and the
by 𝑝 = ℎ/𝜆, ∆𝑥 is infinite. Single-slit diffraction: The photons will travel in opposite direction.
uncertainty in position for beam going through a hole
of diameter b is approximately ∆𝑥 = 𝑏/2. When the
opening is approximately of the same order as the de
Broglie wavelength of the electrons, the wave will
diffract. 𝜃
• Uncertainty in energy and time: ∆E∆t ≥ h/4π (where 𝐸 is
half the difference between the excited state and the
ground state)
o Useful to estimate the lifetime of an electron in
excited state Quantum Tunneling
• Single-slit diffraction: The uncertainty in position for • Tunneling: A particle can effectively "borrow" energy
beam going through a hole of diameter b is from its surroundings, pass through a barrier and pay
approximately ∆𝑥 = 𝑏/2. When the opening is the energy back
approximately of the same order as the de Broglie • The energy required to go through a potential barrier
wavelength of the electrons, the wave will diffract is due to the uncertainty principle less than 𝑒𝑉
o Formula: ∆𝑥∆𝑝 = 𝜆𝑝/2 = ℎ/2.

PAGE 17 OF 20
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
• The wave function is continuous despite the fact that
the particle requires more energy to "jump" the barrier,
which is borrowed from surroundings
• Energy level remains unchanged after barrier, but the
amplitude decreases since it is proportional to 𝑷(𝒓)
• In order to increase 𝑷(𝒓), one may reduce:
o The mass 𝒎 of the particles
o The width 𝒘 of the barrier
o The difference ∆𝑬 between the energy barrier and
that of the particles
• Responsible for the relatively low temperature fusion
that occurs in the Sun and useful in scanning tunneling
microscopes (STM).
PAGE 18 OF 20
12.2 Nuclear Physics
Rutherford Scattering
Simple energy considerations can be used to calculate the
distance of closest approach of an alpha-particle.
• If the alpha-particle initially has kinetic energy upon
approaching, when it stops close to the nucleus due to
the electrostatic repulsion, the electrical potential
energy of the alpha particle will 𝑏𝑒 𝑲(𝟐𝒆)(𝒁𝒆)/𝒅 =
𝟐𝑲𝒁𝒆²/𝒅, where 𝒁 is the atom's proton number.
• An alpha-particle approaching with high kinetic energy
will get closer to the nuclear (closest = nuclear radius).
• 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝑨𝟏/𝟑 , where 𝑹 is the radius, 𝑹𝟎 is the Fermi
radius (1.2 × 10−15 𝑚) and 𝑨 is the mass number.
o All nuclei have the same density, and so their volume
is given by 𝑽 = 𝟒/𝟑 𝝅𝑹𝟑 = 𝟒/𝟑 𝝅𝑨𝑹𝟎 𝟑 .
• Derivations from Rutherford scattering: When the
alpha-particles have very high kinetic energy, and thus,
the distance of closest approach is equal or less than
10−15 𝑚, deviations are observed, which is an evidence
of the existence of the strong nuclear force, i.e. they are
absorbed.
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
Electron diffraction
If the de Broglie wavelength
𝝀 of the electrons is about
the same as the nuclear
diameter 𝑫, then a minimum
will be formed
at 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝀𝑫. Useful to
measure nuclear radius.
• More accurate than Rutherford scattering, because
strong force does not affect electrons.
• When electrons of much higher energy are used, the
collisions are no longer elastic and energy is converted
into mass, as several mesons are emitted from the
nucleus
• At high energies, the electrons penetrate into the
nucleus and scatter off the quarks within protons and
neutrons, something known as deep inelastic scattering,
providing evidence for the quark model.
Nuclear energy levels
The emission of alpha and beta particles by radioactive
decay often leaves the daughter nuclei in an excited
discrete energy state (similar to electron energy
levels). The state depends on the energy of the alpha or
beta particle.
PAGE 19 OF 20
Alpha decay
Alpha-particles form as clusters of two protons and two
neutros inside the nucleus well before they are emitted
as alpha-particles. This is because the nucleons are in
random motion within the nucleus but their kinetic
energies are much smaller than those needed to escape.
• The wave function │Ψ│ of the alpha-particles is not
localized to the nucleus and allows overlaps with the
potential energy barrier provided by the strong nuclear
force, which means that there is a finite but very small
probability of observing the alpha-particles outside the
nucleus (thanks to quantum tunneling).
• Higher potential barriers and greater thickness to cross
means a longer lifetime (e.g. polonium).
Negative beta decay
Since the beta particles have a continuous energy
spectrum, in order to conserve mass, energy, and
momentum, the existence of the neutrino was suggested
by Pauli (and later anti-neutrino)
 IB HIHGER LEVEL: PHYSICS
The law of radioactive decay
• Decay constant (𝝀): The probability that an individual
nucleus will decay in a given time interval (e.g. 1 𝑠)
• Units: 𝑠 −1 , 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 , ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 −1 , 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1 . . .
• Relationship with half-life: 𝝀 = 𝒍𝒏(𝟐)/𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇−𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆
• Activity (𝑨): Number of nuclei decaying in a second in a
sample
• Units: becquerel (𝐵𝑞)
• In a sample of 𝑁 undecayed nuclei, the activity will be
given by 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝜆𝑁.
• Formulas: 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ; 𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ; 𝑨 = 𝝀𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ,
where 𝑨𝟎 = 𝝀𝑵𝟎 is the initial activity.

• Measuring long half-lives: Not possible to measure using

a G-M tube. In these cases, a pure sample of the nuclide
in a known chemical form needs to be separated, its
mass measured and then a count rate taken. From this
reading, the activity can be calculated by multiplying the
count rate by the ratio.

PAGE 20 OF 20
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