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Chapter 1
Physics and Measurement
UNITS
Measurement of any physical quantity involves its comparison with a certain basic, reference standard called
unit.
Measurement = nu
Here, n is numerical value and u is unit. The numerical value is inversely proportional to the size of unit.
n × u = constant
1
n
u
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

All the physical quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination of
seven fundamental quantities. These seven fundamental quantities are called seven dimensions of the physical
world. They are denoted with square brackets [ ].
S. No. Physical quantity Dimensional formula Useful result

–1 –3 4 2
Absolute permittivity ( 0 ) M L T A 1 q1q 2
1. F
4 0 r2
–2 –2
Absolute permeability ( 0) MLT A F 0i1i 2
2.
l 2 r
–2 –2 2
3. Resistance R MLT A P=IR
Inductance L ML2T –2 A–2 1 2
4. U LI
2
Capacitance C M –1 L–2T4 A2 q2
5. U
2C
6. L/R (time constant) [M0 L0T 1] –
0 0 1
7. RC (time constant) [M L T ] –
0 0 1
8. LC MLT –
Stress, Pressure, Energy ML –1 T–2 –

9. 1 2 2
density, 0E , B / 2 0
2
2 –2 –1
Heat capacity, Boltzmann ML T K –
10.
constant
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2 Physics and Measurement Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions : It is based on the simple fact that length can be added to length.
It states that in a correct equation, the dimensions of each term added or subtracted must be same. If two
quantities are being added or subtracted, they must be of same dimensional formula. Every correct equation
must have same dimensions on both sides of the equation.
Note : Although torque and work done by a force have same dimensional formula yet they cannot be added
as their nature is different.
Conversion of units : The numerical value of a physical quantity in a system of units can be changed to
another system of units using the equation n[u] = constant i.e., n1[u1] = n2[u2] where n is the numerical value
and u is the unit.
a b c
M  L   T 
n2 n1  1   1   1  where the dimensional formula of the physical quantity is [MaLbTc].
 M2   L 2   T2 
To find a relation among the physical quantities. If one knows the quantities on which a particular physical
quantity depends and guesses that this dependence is of product type, method of dimensions are helpful in
deducing their relation.
Suppose we want to find the relation between force, mass and acceleration. Let force depends on mass and
acceleration as follows.
F = Kmbac when K = dimensionless constant, b and c are powers of mass and acceleration.
According to principle of homogeneity,
[F] = [K] [m]b [a]c
[MLT–2] = [M0L0T0] [M]b [LT–2]c
[MLT–2] = MbLc T–2c
Equating the dimension on both sides we get 1 = b, 1 = c, –2c = –2.
b = 1 and c = 1.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy
The closeness of the measured value to the true value of the physical quantity is known as the accuracy of
the measurement.
Precision
It is the measure of the extent to which successive measurements of a physical quantity differ from one
another.
Suppose the true value of a measurement is 35.75 and two measured values are 35.73 and 35.725. Here 35.73
is closest to 35.75, so its accuracy is more than 35.725 but 35.725 is more precise than 35.73 because 35.725
is measured upto 3 decimal places.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The number of digits in the measured value about the correctness of which we are sure plus one more digit
are called significant figures.
Rules for counting the significant figures

Rule I : All non-zero digits are significant.
Rule II : All zeros occurring between the non zero digits are significant. For example 230089 contains six
significant figures.
Rule III : All zeros to the left of non zero digit are not significant. For example 0.0023 contains two significant
figures.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Physics and Measurement 3

Rule IV : If a number ends in zeros that are not to the right of a decimal, the zeros are not significant.
For example, number of significant figures in
1500 (Two)
1.5 × 103 (Two)
1.50 × 103 (Three)
1.500 × 103 (Four)
Note : Length of an object may be represented in many ways say 5 m, 5.0 m, 500 cm, 5.00 m,
5 × 102 cm. Here 5.00 m is most precise as it contains 3 significant figures.
Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

Rule I : In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as there are in the
number with the least decimal places.
Rule II : In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in
the original number with the least significant figures.
Rounding Off of Uncertain Digits

Rule I : The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the insignificant digit to be removed is more than 5 and is left
unchanged if the later is less than 5.
Rule II : When the insignificant digit to be removed is 5 and the uncertain digit is even, 5 is simply dropped
and if it is odd, then the preceding digit is raised by 1.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
1. Mean Absolute Error :- If a1, a2, a3, ........ an are n measurements then
a1 a2 ...... an
am is taken as the true value of a quantity, if the same is not known.
n
a1 = am – a1
a2 = am – a2
.....................
an = am – an
| a1 | | a2 | ...... | an |
Mean absolute error, a
n
Final result of measurement may be written as :
a = am ± a
2. Relative Error or Fractional Error : It is given by
a Mean absolute Error

am Mean value of measuremen t
a
3. Percentage Error 100%
am
4. Combination of Errors :
(i) In Sum : If Z = A + B, then maximum absolute error in Z is given by, Z = A+ B, maximum
Z A B
fractional error in this case i.e., when two physical quantities are added then
Z A B A B
the maximum absolute error in the result is the sum of the absolute errors of the individual quantities.
(ii) In Difference : If Z = A – B, then maximum absolute error is Z = A + B and maximum fractional

Z A B
error in this case .
Z A B A B
Z A B Z
(iii) In Product : If Z = AB, then the maximum fractional error, where is known as
Z A B Z
fractional error.
Z A B
(iv) In Division : If Z = A/B, then maximum fractional error is
Z A B
Z A
(v) In Power : If Z = An then n
Z A
A pB q
In more general form if Z then the maximum fractional error in Z is
Cr
Z A B C
p q r
Z A B C
Applications :
T 1 l
1. For a simple pendulum, T l1/2
T 2 l
2. For a sphere, surface area and volume are given by
4 3 A r V r
A 4 r 2, V r 2. and 3.
3 A r V r
3. When two resistors R1 and R2 are connected
(a) In series
Rs = R1 + R2 Rs = R1 + R2
∆Rs R1 R2
Rs R1 R2
(b) In parallel,
1 1 1 Rp R1 R2
RP R1 R2 R p2 R12 R22
Rp R1 R2 R1 R2
Also, Rp R1 R2 R1 R2
4. If x = 2a – 3b then, x=2 a+3 b
LEAST COUNT OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The smallest measurement that can be taken by an instrument is equal to least count of the instrument.
For example, a meter scale has smallest division 1 mm. This represents the least count (and also the absolute
error) in the measurement.
Let a length measured by the meter scale = 56.0 cm
This implies that x = 56.0 cm
Absolute error x = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
x 0 .1
Relative error =
x 56.0
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Physics and Measurement 5
Vernier Callipers
It consists of two scales viz main scale and vernier scale. Vernier scale moves on the main scale. The least
count of the instrument is the smallest distance between two consecutive divisions and it is equal to
1 MSD – 1 VSD.
VS
0.9 cm
0 1
1 cm
In the figure shown, 1 MSD = 0.1 cm
1 VSD = 0.09 cm
Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD = 0.01 cm
Screw Gauge
It contains a main scale and a circular scale. The circular scale is divided into a number of divisions. In other
words, the complete rotation of circular scale is divided into a number of parts. The least count of a screw
gauge is pitch divided by no. of circular scale divisions.
Pitch
Least count of spherometer and Screw Gauge =
No. of CSD
Total reading of screw gauge = Main scale reading + [(Circular scale reading) × Least count]
Table : SI Units and Dimensions of Some Important Physical Quantities
S.No. Quantity SI Unit Dimensional Formula
1. Volume m3 [M0L3T0]
2. Density kg m–3 [M1L–3T0 ]
3. Velocity ms–1 [M0L1T–1]
4. Acceleration ms–2 [M0L1T–2]
5. Angular Velocity rad s–1 [M0L0T–1]
6. Frequency s–1 or hertz (Hz) [M0L0T–1]
7. Momentum kg ms–1 [M1L1T–1]
8. Force kg ms–2 or newton (N) [M1L1T–2]
9. Work, Energy kg m2s–2 or joule (J) [M1L2T–2]
10. Power kg m2 s–3 or Js–1 [M1L2T–3]
or watt (W)
11. Pressure, Stress Nm–2 or pascal (Pa) [M1L–1T–2]
12. Modulus of Elasticity Nm–2 [M1L–1T–2]
13. Moment of Inertia kg m2 [M1L2T0]
14. Torque Nm [M1L2T–2]
15. Angular Momentum kg m2 s–1 or J.s [M1L2T–1]
16. Impulse Ns [M1L1T–1]
17. Coefficient of Viscosity kg m–1 s–1 [M1L–1T–1]
18. Surface Tension Nm–1 [M1L0T–2]
19. Universal Gravitational Nm2 kg–2 [M–1L3T–2]

Constant
20. Latent Heat J kg–1 [M0L2T–2]
21. Specific Heat J kg–1 K–1 [M0L2T–2K–1]
22. Thermal Conductivity J m–1 s–1 K–1 [M1L1T–3K–1]
23. Electric Charge Coulomb (C) or A.s [M0L0T1A1]
24. Electric Potential JC–1 or volt (V) [M1L2T–3A–1]
25. Electric Resistance VA–1 or ohm ( ) [M1L2T–3A–2 ]
26. Electric Resistivity m [M1L3T–3A–2 ]
27. Electric Conductance –1 or siemen (S) [M–1L–2T3 A2 ]
28. Electric Conductivity –1 m–1 or S m–1 [M–1L–3T3 A2]
29. Capacitance CV–1 or farad (F) [M–1L–2T4 A2]
30. Inductance Vs A–1 or henry (H) [M1L2T–2 A–2]
31. Electric field NC–1 or Vm–1 [M1L1T–3 A–1]
32. Magnetic Induction NA–1 m–1 or tesla (T) [M1L0T–2 A–1]
33. Magnetic Flux Tm2 or weber (Wb) [M1L2 T–2A–1]
34. Permittivity C2 N–1 m–2 [M–1 L–3 T4A2]
35. Permeability Tm A–1 or Wb A–1 m–1 [M1L1T–2 A–2]
36. Planck's Constant Js [M1L2 T–1]
37. Boltzman Constant JK–1 [M1L2 T–2 K–1]
38. Stefan’s Constant W m–2K–4 [M1L0T–3K–4]

Chapter 2
Kinematics
DISTANCE TRAVERSED AND SPEED
Distance traversed (Path length)

1. The total length of actual path traversed by the body between initial and final positions is called distance.
2. It has no direction and is always positive.
3. Distance covered by particle never decreases.
4. Its SI unit is metre (m) and dimensional formula is [M0L1T0].
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
General equations of motion :
dx
v
dt
 dx 
vdt  dx  vdt = area enclosed by velocity-time graph
dv
a
dt
 dv 
adt  dv  adt = area enclosed by acceleration-time graph
vdv
a
dx
 vdv adx  vdv  adx = area enclosed by acceleration-position graph
Equations of motion of a particle moving with uniform acceleration in straight line :
1. v = u + at
1 2 v u 1 2
2. S ut at =  t vt at
2  2  2
3. v2 = u2 + 2aS
1
4. Sn th u a(2n 1)
2
1 2
5. x x0 ut at
2
8 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Here,
u = velocity of particle at t = 0
S = Displacement of particle between 0 to t
= x – x0 (x0 = position of particle at t = 0, x = position of particle at time t)
a = uniform acceleration
v = velocity of particle at time t
Sn th = Displacement of the particle in nth second
GRAPHS
The important properties of various graphs are given below :
1. Slope of the tangent at a point on the position-time graph gives the instantaneous velocity at that point.
(x - t) curve
Position
(x) P
dx
tan v (Instantaneous Velocity at point P)
dt
Time (t)
2. Slope of a chord joining two points on the Position-time graph gives the average velocity during the time
interval between those points.
(x - t) curve
Position (x)
xi
xf xf xi
tan v av
tf ti
ti tf
Time (t )
3. Slope of the tangent at a point on the velocity-time graph gives the instantaneous acceleration at that point.
Tangent (v-t graph)
v P
dv
tan a (Instantaneous acceleration at P)
dt
Time (t)
4. Slope of the chord joining two points on the velocity-time graph gives the average acceleration during the
time interval between those points.
vf
v
vi vf vi
tan aav Average acceleration in time interval tf – ti
tf ti
ti tf t
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 9

5. The area under the acceleration-time graph between ti and tf gives the change in velocity (vf – vi) between
the two instants.
Shaded area = vf – vi = change in velocity during interval ti to tf

ti tf t
6. The area under speed-time graph between ti and tf gives distance covered by particle in the interval tf – ti.
v
speed
Shaded area = distance covered in time (tf – ti)
ti tf t (time)
7. The area under the velocity-time graph between ti and tf gives the displacement (xf – xi) between the two
instants.
v
A1
Velocity
time
Shaded area (A1 – A2) = Displacement in time (tf – ti)
A2
Also, A1 + A2 = Distance covered in time (tf – ti)
8. In velocity-position graph, the acceleration of particle of any position x0 is given as.
v
(v - t graph)
v0
dv
a v 0 tan v0
dx x x0
O x0 x
9. The position-time graph cannot be symmetric about the time-axis because at an instant a particle cannot
have two displacements.
10. The distance-time graph is always an increasing curve for a moving body.
11. The displacement-time graph does not show the trajectory of the particle.
Applications
1. If a particle is moving with uniform acceleration on a straight line and have velocity vA at A and vB at B,
v A2 v B2
then velocity of particle midway on line AB is v .
2
2. If a body starts from rest with acceleration and then retards to rest with retardation , such that total
time of journey is T, then
  v
(a) Maximum velocity during the trip vmax.  .T
  vmax
1  2 x1 x2
(b) Length of the journey L  T
2   1 2
t
T
v max . T t1 t2
(c) Average velocity of the trip =
2 2( )
x1 t1
(d) .
x2 t2
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

If height of object is very small as compared to radius of earth, motion of object will be uniformly accelerated.
Equation of motion can be applied with proper sign convention.
Following are the important cases of interest.
1. Object is released from a height h. t=0
O u=0
Time taken to reach ground
1 2 h
h 0 gT (taking up as positive)
2
zulema_task@hotmail.com
2h
T
g
Velocity of ball when it reaches ground
2h '
v 0 gT g 2gh
g
‘–’ sign indicate that velocity will be in downward direction.

2. A particle is projected from ground with velocity u in vertically upward direction then
Time of flight T u
(a) Time of ascent = Time of descent =
2 2 g
u2
(b) Maximum height attained =
2g
(c) Speed of particle when it hits the ground = u

(d) Graphs
+ +
a
u
Velocity
(g = const)
O O
t u 2u Time
g g
–g –u
– –
Speed
Displacement
u u
2
2g
(Parabolic)
O
u 2 u Time O u
g g 2u Time
g g
Distance
O u 2u Time
g g
(e) Displacement of particle in complete journey = zero average velocity vav = 0
u2
(f) Distance covered by particle in complete journey =
g
u
Average speed in complete journey =
2
3. A body is thrown upward such that it takes t seconds to reach its highest point.
(a) Distance travelled in (t)th second = distance travelled in (t + 1)th second.
(b) Distance travelled in (t – 1)th second = distance travelled in (t + 2)th second.
(c) Distance travelled in (t – r)th second = distance travelled in (t + r + 1)th second.
4. A body is projected upward from certain height h with initial speed u.
(a) Its speed when it acquires the same level is u.
T
(b) Its speed at the ground level is A t=
2
x
v u2 2gh
u u Here x = 0
(c) The time required to attain same level is t =0 t =T particle follows
– 0 B same path during
h ascent and descent
2u
T=
g
(d) Total time of flight (T') is obtained by solving v = u2+2 gh
C t =T
1 u u2 2gh
h uT ' gT '2 or T '
2 g t =0
5. A body is projected from a certain height h with initial g
u
speed u downward.
h
(a) Its speed at ground level is v u2 2gh
(b) Time of flight (T)
t=T
u u2 2gh
T
g
v
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition : If two vectors having common origin are represented both in
magnitude and direction as the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal which originates from
the common origin represents the resultant of these two vectors. The results are listed below
(a) R A B B
(b) | R | ( A2 B2 2 AB cos )1/ 2

R
B sin A sin
(c) tan , tan
A B cos B A cos A
(d) If | A | | B | x (say) , then R = x 2(1 cos ) = 2 x cos and i.e., resultant bisect angle
2 2
between A and B .
(e) If | A | | B | then <
(f) Rmax = A + B, when = 0 and Rmin = |A – B| when = 180°.
(g) R2 A2 B 2 , if = 90° i.e., A and B are perpendicular.
(h) If | A | | B | | R | , then = 120°.
A
(i) If R is perpendicular to A , then cos and A2 + R2 = B2.
B
(j) For n coplanar vectors of same magnitude acting at a point such that angle between consecutive vectors
 360 
are equal   , the resultant is zero.
 n 
VECTOR SUBTRACTION
Subtraction of vector B from vector A is simply addition of vector B with A i.e., A B A ( B)
Using parallelogram law,

B
O A
( – ) A–B
–B
B sin B sin
Result : R = | A B | A2 B2 2 AB cos , tan
A B cos( ) A B cos
Note : If | A | | B | x (say) , then R = x 2(1 cos ) = 2 x sin .

2
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
Any vector V can be represented as a sum of two vectors P and Q which are in same plane as
V P Q , where and are two real numbers. We say that V has been resolved in two component
vector P and Q along P and Q respectively.

Rectangular components in two dimensions :

V Vx V y,V Vx iˆ Vy ˆj , V Vx2 Vy2 Y
V
V x and V y are rectangular component of vector in 2-dimension.
Vy
Vx = V cos
Vy = V sin = V cos(90 – )
Vz = zero.
X
O
V V cos iˆ V sin ˆj Vx

Note : Unit vector along V is cos iˆ sin ˆj
SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

Scalar (dot) Product of Two Vectors : The scalar product of two vectors A and B is defined as

A . B AB cos
B
A.B
cos
AB

If A and B are perpendicular, then A . B 0

If < 90°, then A . B 0 and if > 90° then A . B 0.
A

B
Projection of vector A on B is ( A. B ) 2 .
B
A2 A.A
iˆ . iˆ jˆ . ˆj kˆ . kˆ 1.
Scalar product is commutative i.e., A . B B.A .

Scalar product is distributive i.e., A (B C ) A B A C
Vector Product of two Vectors :
Mathematically, if is the angle between vectors A and B , then
A B AB sin nˆ …(i)
A ×B
A ×B
A
B A B
(a) (b)
The direction of vector A B is the same as that of unit vector n̂ . It is decided by any of the following two rules :
(a) Right handed screw rule : Rotate a right handed screw from vector A to B through the smaller angle
between them; then the direction of motion of screw gives the direction of vector A B (Fig. a).
(b) Right hand thumb rule : Bend the finger of the right hand in such a way that they point in the direction
of rotation from vector A to B through the smaller angle between them; then the thumb points in the
direction of vector A B (Fig. b).
RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
Relative velocity :

Velocity of object A w.r.t. object B is v AB vA v B , v BA vB vA
1. Direction of Umbrella : A person moving on straight road has to hold his umbrella opposite to direction
vM
of relative velocity of rain. The angle is given by tan with vertical in forward direction.
vR
Umbrella
vRM
vR vR
 –vM
vM
2. Closest approach : Two objects A and B having velocities vA and v B at separation x are shown in figure
vA
vB
A B
x

The relative velocity of A with respect to B is given by -vB
v AB vA vB
vA vAB
vA
tan
vB
-vB
The above situation is similar to figure given below.
y is the distance of closest approach.
) on
. B ti
r.t o
y
w. f m
Now, sin vAB
A no
x
of tio
c
ire
y = x sin
(D
y
x tan xVA
y v=0
1 tan 2 VB2 VA2
A x B
3. Crossing a river :
y
v = velocity of the man in still water.
D
= angle at which man swims w.r.t. normal to bank such that B
vx = – v sin , vy = v cos
Time taken to cross the river is given by v d
v cos
d d x
t v sin A u
v y v cos
Velocity along the river
vx u v sin
Distance drifted along the river D t vx
d
D (u v sin )
v cos
Case I : (Shortest time)
The Minimum time to cross the river is given by
d
min (when cos = 1, = 0°, u v)
v
Distance drifted is given by
d
D u
v
Case II : (Shortest path)
To cross the river straight
drift D = 0 u – v sin =0 v
u
u
sin provided v > u
v
Time to cross the river straight across is given by
v2 – u2
d d
t
v cos v 2
u2
PROJECTILE MOTION
An object moving in space under the influence of gravity is called projectile. Two important cases of interest
are discussed below :
1. Horizontal projection :
A body of mass m is projected horizontally with a speed u from a height h at the moment t = 0. The path
followed by it is a parabola.

It hits the ground at the moment t = T, with a velocity v such that
2H t=0
T x-axis
g O

v u2 2gH uiˆ gTˆj y y-axis
t = t0
The position at any instant t0 is given by H
x
x = ut0
1 2
y gt 0
2
t=T
gx 2 v
y (trajectory of particle) R
2u 2
The velocity at any instant t0 is given by
v0 uiˆ gt 0 ˆj
2H
The range R will be given by R u
g
2. Oblique projection : A body of mass m is projected from ground with speed u at an angle above
horizontal at the moment t = 0.
It hits the ground at a horizontal distance R at the moment t = T.
T
t= 2
v
uy u cos = ux
u
H
t=0 t=T
ux
R
2u y 2u sin
1. Time of flight T
g g
u y2 u 2 sin2
2. Maximum height H
2g 2g
2u x u y u 2 sin 2
3. Horizontal range R ux T
g g
gx 2
4. Equation of trajectory: y x tan
2u cos 2
2
 x
or y x tan 1 
 R
5. Instantaneous velocity v u2 (gt )2 2u(gt ) sin
v sin
u sin – gt v
and direction of motion is such that, tan
u cos
v cos
u cos
(a) v [∵ Horizontal component is same everywhere]
cos
(b) v sin = u sin – gt

(c) When v (velocity at any instant ‘t’) is perpendicular to u (initial velocity)
= – (90° – ) u
u cos
(i) v u cot
cos(90 )
u
(ii) t v
g sin
Applications :
1. The height attained by the particle is largest when = 90°. In this situation, time of flight is maximum
and range is minimum (zero).
2. When R is range, T is time of flight and H is maximum height, then
gT 2
(a) tan
2R
4H
(b) tan
R
Rmax
3. When horizontal range is maximum, H
4
4. The horizontal range is same for complimentary angles like ( , 90° – ) or (45° + , 45° – ). It is maximum
for = 45°.
5. If A and B are two points at same level such that the object passes A at t = t1 and B at T = t2, then
y
t = t1 t = t2
A B
u
h h
t=T
t=0 x
2u sin
(i) T t1 t2
g
1
(ii) h gt1t 2
2
(iii) Average velocity in the interval AB is
vav = u cos [∵ vertical displacement is zero]
6. If a projectile is projected from one vertex of a triangle such that it grazes second vertex and finally fall
down on 3rd vertex of the triangle on the same horizontal level, then tan tan tan .
7. A projectile has same range for two angle of projection. If time of flight in two cases are T1 and T2,
maximum height is H1 and H2 and the horizontal range is R. Then
1
(i) Range of projectile is R gT1T2
2
1  2 1/2
(ii) Velocity of projection of projectile is u g T1 T22 
2 
(iii) R = 4 H1H2
CIRCULAR MOTION
An object of mass m is moving on a circular track of radius r. At t = 0, it was at A. At any moment of time
‘t’, it has moved to B, such that AOB . Let its speed at this instant be v and direction is along the
tangent. In a small time dt, it moves to B such that B OB d .
The angular displacement vector is d d kˆ y

v+dv
d ˆ B
The angular velocity vector is k.
dt B
d
At B , the speed of the object has become v + dv. r
x
dv O A
The tangential acceleration is at r
dt
v2 2
The radial (centripetal acceleration) is ac r
r
d
The angular acceleration is
dt
Relations among various quantities.

1. v r

dv dr d
2. a r ac at
dt dt dt

3. ac v

4. at r

Uniform Circular Motion :
1. In uniform circular motion, the speed (v) of particle is remain constant ( = constant)
d
2. aT 0 and 0
dt
y
v
a
v
x
a v
a
3. Only centripetal acceleration (also called normal acceleration) exists in uniform circular motion
2 v2
ac = r
r

4. In uniform circular motion v a
Nonuniform Circular Motion :

1. In nonuniform circular motion the speed (v) and angular velocity ( ) change w.r.t. time.
2. Net acceleration of particle in non-uniform circular motion.
y
at
a
ac
x
2
v2  2
a ac 2 at 2 r
 r 
 

Chapter 3
Laws of Motion
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
If three forces P , Q and R are acting on an object such that forces are concurrent and the object is in
P Q R
equilibrium then .
sin sin sin
P
Q
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

The strings connected to pulley are considered as ideal. Their length is fixed, so the ends of string follow a
fixed relation between displacement velocity and acceleration. These relations are called constraint relation.
Case I : When the middle end is fixed
x1 = x2
v1 = v2
a 1 = a2
x1 x2
Case II : When the side end is fixed
x1 x2
OR x2 = 2x1
v2 = 2v1
x2 x1 a2 = 2a1
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Laws of Motion 21

Case III : When all the three ends are free to move
x2 x3
x1 x1
2
v2 v3
v1
2
x2 x3 a2 a3
a1
2
Note : In all the above relations downward direction is taken as positive. If any of the direction is
upward in any case then –ve sign must be incorporated in the corresponding equation.
1. A machine gun fires n bullet per second with speed u and mass of each bullet is m.
m,u
M
The Force required to keep the gun stationary is

F nmv
2. Bullets moving with a speed v hit a wall normally.
(i) If the bullets come to rest in wall
m
Force on wall Fwall = nmv
v
(Here n is number of bullets hitting the wall in one second)
(ii) If the bullets rebound elastically,
Fwall = 2nmv
3. Liquid jet of area A moving with speed v hits a wall
A v
(i) Force required by a pump to move the liquid with this speed is
dm
F v = v × Av = Av2
dt
(ii) As jet hits a vertical wall and does not rebound, the force exerted by it on the wall is, Fwall = Av2
(iii) When water rebounds elastically, Fwall = 2 Av2
(iv) For oblique impact as shown, Fwall = 2 Av2 cos
Liquid jet
v v
wall
22 Laws of Motion Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
4. The blocks shown are being pushed by a force F. F1, F2 are contact forces between M1 & M2 and M2 &
M3 respectively
a
F M1 M2 M3
a
F2
F M3
a FBD of M3 F2 = M3a
M1 M2 M3
a
F1 F2
F1 – F2 = M2a F1 = (M3 + M2)a FBD of M2 M2
M3  M2 M3 
or F2 F , F1  F
M1 M2 M3 M M M3 
 1 2 
5. The strings are massless. Let T1 and T2 be the tensions in the two strings and ‘a’ be the acceleration.
F (M2 M3 )F M3 F F T1 T2
a , T1 , T2 M1 M2 M3
M1 M2 M3 M1 M 2 M 3 M1 M2 M3
6. Tension in the block at a distance x from left end is given as

L
M F
(a) Mx F Fx
Tx
L M L
x
L
F (L x ) F M
(b) Tx
L
x
L
F1x F2 (L x ) F2 M F1
(c) Tx
L L
x
ceiling
T T
massless
7. string M FBD of M w.r.t. ground
T
M Mg
(a) When system is stationary

T – Mg = 0
(b) System moves up with acceleration ‘a’
T = M(g + a)
(c) System moves down with acceleration a
T = M(g – a)

8. Uniform rope of mass Ms. FBD of lower portion
Tx
x
L
x Ms gx
L
The tension in the rope at a distance x from free end is given below for different cases.
(a) Stationary system
M s gx
Tx
L
Ms x
(b) If the rope is accelerating upwards, then Tx (g a)
L
Ms x
(c) If the rope is accelerating downwards, then Tx (g a ) (g a)
L
IMPORTANT PROBLEMS
Pulley mass systems massless
(i) Stationary pulley
T
M2 M1 T
a g
M2 M1 a M1 a
 M1M 2  M1 g M2
T 2 g
 M1 M 2  M2 g
(ii) Pulley is moving upward with acceleration a0
a0
 M1M 2 
T 2  (g a0 )
 M1 M 2 
The acceleration of each block with respect to pulley is
ar T
 M2 M1  T ar
ar   (g a0 )
 M2 M1  a1 M1
The absolute accelerations of the two blocks are a1 and a2 M1 g M2 a2

M1 a0
  a1 a2   M2 g
 a0  
a1 = – (a0 + ar)
  2   M2 a0 (pseudo)
a2 = ar – a0
a a
M1M 2 g T T
(iii) T (sin sin )
M1 M 2
M1 Fixed M2
 M 2 sin M1 sin  and smooth
a   g
 M2 M1 
aB
T
(iv)
B
T
T
2T
A aA
MAg
2aA = aB …(i)
MAg – 2T = MAaA …(ii)
T = MBaB …(iii)
Two block system :

Case - I :
Let ‘m’ does not slide down relative to wedge ‘M’
a
The force required is given by
m F
F = (M + m)g tan
M
a = g tan (in horizontal direction w.r.t. ground)
Wedge
Contact force R between m and M is
smooth
mg
R
cos
Case - II :
Minimum value of F so that ‘m’ falls freely is given by m F
F = Mgcot
M
Wedge M moves with acceleration = gcot Wedge
The block falls vertically with acceleration ‘g’. smooth
Contact force between M and m is zero.
Angle of Repose
Consider a situation in which a block is placed on an inclined plane with co-efficient of friction ‘ ’. The
maximum value of angle of inclined plane for which the block can remain at rest is defined as angle of repose.
N=
s s mg cos
mg sin mg cos tan 1( )

s
Two blocks placed one above the other on smooth ground

Case - I : If a force F is applied on lower block
(a) F (M1 + M2)g
' ' M2
M1 F
Smooth
F
Both blocks move together with same acceleration a
M1 M2
amax = g
(b) F > (M1 + M2)g
M2 moves with constant acceleration a2 = g
F M2g
M1 moves with acceleration a1
M1
M2 slips backward on M1.

Case - II : If a force F is applied on upper block
(M1 M 2 )M 2 F M2
(a) F g , both blocks move together with acceleration a with amax g.
M1 M1 M 2 M1
(M1 M 2 )M 2 g
(b) If F ,
M1
M2 F
M1
Smooth
M2
M1 moves with constant acceleration a1 g
M1
F M2g
M2 moves with acceleration a2
M2
M2 slips forward on M1.
Minimum force required to move a body on a rough horizontal surface

F cos > R (R = mg – F sin )
R F
mg
F
cos sin M
R
mg
Fmin at = tan–1( ) R F sin
2
1
F cos
R
mg
DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

Neglecting Gravity
axis
O r
T v
m
mv 2 2
T = Centripetal force = m r
r
Considering gravity (Conical pendulum)
l T cos
h T
r C T sin
mg
mg
Tsin = m 2r …(1)
Tcos = mg
mg
T …(2)
cos
(a) For to be 90º (i.e., string to be horizontal)

T=
It is not possible.
(b) Tsin = m 2r =m 2lsin
2
T m l
h
(c) Time period = 2 (h = l cos )
g
Vehicle negotiating a curve on a banked road

The maximum velocity with which a vehicle can safely negotiate a curve of radius r on a rough inclined road is
rg ( tan )
Vmax
1 tan
N cos
N
N sin
f cos
f mg
f sin
mg
Special Cases :
For a smooth inclined surface =0 v max rg tan
For a horizontal rough surface, =0 v max rg

Chapter 4
Work, Energy and Power
CONCEPT OF WORK

W f .s (s s2 s1 ) f
f cos
= f s cos
= s (f cos )
s
KINETIC ENERGY
1 p2
K.E. mv 2
2 2m
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
WTotal K.E.
or
Wext. Wint . K.E
Work Done by Spring Force

x2
1
W  kxdx
x1
2
k ( x 22 x12 )
when x2 > x1 , W < 0

when x2 < x1 , W > 0
COLLISION
One dimension
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2  m1 m2 (u1 > u2 and v2 > v1)
1 m1m2
KE (u1 u 2 )2 (1 e2 )
2 m1 m2
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Work, Energy and Power 29

Following are the important cases
1. Elastic collision e = 1
v2 – v1 = u1 – u2
m1 m2 2m2u 2
v1 u1
m1 m2 m1 m2
m2 m1 2m1u1
v2 u2
m2 m1 m2 m1
KE = 0 Final KE = Initial KE
2. Coefficient of restitution = e
u sin = v sin …(1) m
u v
eu cos = v cos …(2)
v u sin 2 e 2 cos 2
tan
tan (i.e. > )
e
3. A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h0 on an inelastic floor.
t=0 m u=0
h0
h1 h2
The coefficient of restitution = e

(a) Maximum height after nth bounce is hn = e2nh0
n
(b) Speed of rebound after nth bounce = e 2gh0
(c) Total distance travelled before the body comes to rest
1 e2 
= h0  
 1 e 2 
(d) The time after which the body comes to rest
2h0 1 e
= . 
g 1 e
(e) Average force exerted on the ground is mg

(f) Displacement of ball when it stops is h0
30 Work, Energy and Power Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
4. Oblique elastic collision

A body of mass m collides with a stationary body of same mass.
v1
(a) + = …(1)
2 u u=0
(b) v1cos + v2cos = u …(2) m m After
90° collision
(c) v1sin = v2sin …(3) Before
collision
(d) u2 = v12 + v22 …(4) v2
MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

A particle of mass m is tied to a string of length l whose other end is fixed. The particle can revolve about O
in a vertical circle. when it is at position L (lowest point), it is given a speed VL horizontal. Following results
are useful in describing its motion.
1. aT = g sin …(1) vH H
Tp mg cos v p2 TH
2. aC mg
m l
M M
mv p2 O TP vP
3. Tp mg cos …(2) P
l l
TL mg cos
vL mg sin
mv L2 L
4. TL mg
l
mg
5. vL 2gl , it oscillates between M and M
6. 2gl vL 5gl , it will leave the circular path somewhere between M and H.
7. When v L 5gl , it completes vertical circle (Also vH gl )
mv H2
8. TH mg
l
9. TL – TH = 6 mg (always)

Chapter 5
Rotational Motion
CENTRE OF MASS OF A RIGID BODY (CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION)

Mathematically position coordinates of the centre of mass of rigid body are given by
x cm
 xdm y cm
 ydm zcm
 zdm
; ;
 dm  dm  dm
Centre of mass of some commonly used objects.
1. Semi circular wire of radius R.
C Semi-
2R circular
OC , where C is centre of mass
wire
O
2. Semi circular disc of radius R
4R
OC Semi-
3 C
circular
3. Non-uniform rod of length L. The linear mass density disc
O
varies linearly from zero at O to maximum at B.
2L/3
2L
OC
3 O C B
L
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF CENTRE OF MASS
Velocity of Centre of Mass

The instantaneous velocity of centre of mass is given by

P system
m1v 1 m2 v 2 ....mn v n v cm
v cm n
; or
M system
m
i 1
i
Where P system is the total linear momentum of the system of particles.
32 Rotational Motion Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Acceleration of Centre of Mass
Differentiating v cm
w.r.t. time we get a cm as

F ext
m1 a 1 m2 a 2 ....mn a n a cm
a cm n
; or Msystem
 mi
i 1
Where Fext is the vector sum of forces acting on the particles of system.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS
For an axis perpendicular to the plane of the ring A hollow cylinder

2
I = MR
2 Ic = MR
R M
The axis perpendicular to the plane of the disc. A solid cylinder
MR 2 MR 2
I cm I cm
2 2
A thin rod A plate
M, L
L
ML2 ML2
Ic Ic
12 12
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Rotational Motion 33

A thin rod about a perpendicular A plate about one edge
axis through its end
ML2 ML2
I I
3 3
z
A Rectangular Plate
y Mass = M
Mb 2
(a) I xx l x
12
Ml 2
(b) I yy O
12
(c) Izz = Ixx + Iyy b
x
M (l 2 b 2 ) y
(d) I zz
12
z
A Thick Rod (Solid cylinder)
The axis is perpendicular to the rod and passing through the centre of mass
B A
M
L
ML2 MR 2 ML2 MR 2 R O
I AA ; IBB
12 4 3 4
B A
A Solid Sphere A Hollow Sphere

About its diameter About its diameter
M, R
2 2
Icm MR 2 I cm MR 2
5 3
RIGID BODY ROTATION

In this section, rotation of a body about a stationary fixed axis has been discussed
1. Rotating Disc
A tangential force F is applied at the periphery, as a result disc is rotating above an axis passing through
its CM, normal to plane of disc
A
= F × R [about O] F
R
1 R
I mR 2 B
2 r O
2F C
I MR
2F
(1) Tangential acceleration of A is a A R (along horizontal)
M
2F
(2) Tangential acceleration of B is aB R (vertically downwards)
M
2Fr
(3) Tangential acceleration of C is aC r (along horizontal, opposite to the direction of tangential
MR
acceleration of A)
2. Hinged Rod
The rod is released from rest from horizontal position
N
L L
mg (about A)
2 A C 2
ML2 L B
I
3 2
mg
3g
I 2L
L 3g mg
(1) Linear acceleration of COM C is acm . Also, N = mg – macm =
2 4 4
3g
(2) Linear acceleration of point B is aB L
2
(3) The rod is released from unstable equilibrium position {from position A}
L 1  ML2  2
(a) When at B, Mg (1 cos )
2 2  3  u=0
A
6g L
cos
L 2
O P
(b) at C, = 0°
6g L
l B
C
3g
(c) at P, = 90°,
l

ROLLING OF A BODY
Rolling is combination of Pure Translation and Pure Rotation Motion about Centre of Mass.
R R
vcm R vcm + R
vcm vcm
R
R vcm R vcm
vcm 
vcm O O vcm O vcm
R
R vcm
vcm 180 –
Mass = m vcm R R vcm R
R
Pure translation Pure rotation Rolling
(about cm)
Case - I : Forward slipping

vcm > R
vcm
f
Surface at rest
kinetic friction vcm–R
Case - II : Backward slipping

vcm < R
vcm
f
R – vcm friction (kinetic) Surface at rest
Case - III : Pure Rolling

vcm = R
/2
2R
s
co
2R
2R
/2
R R
sin
2R
2R
I v=0 I v=0
(instantaneous centre of rotation) (instantaneous centre of rotation)
Note : In this case, friction is static. It may or may not be zero.
Kinetic energy of the body during pure rolling (E)

E = Translational KE + Rotational KE
= ET + ER
1 2 1 2
= mv cm I cm
2 2
1 I cm  2 1 2 
 K2 

= 2 m v cm mv cm 1
 R 2  (where k is radius of gyration)
 R2  2  
 K2 
E ET 1 
 R2 
 
 R2 
Similarly, E E R 1 
 K2 
 
Fraction of total energy Fraction of total energy
1 1 Y
Type of body K  K 2  R2 
translational X  1  rotational Y  1  X
2 
 R   K 2 
1. Ring or hollow 1 1
R 0.5 50% 0.5 50% 1: 1
cylinder 2 2
2 3 2
2. Spherical Shell R 0.6 60% 0.4 40% 2:3
3 5 5
3. Disc or solid R 2 1
0.666 66.67% 0.333 33.33% 1: 2
cylinder 2 3 3
2 5 2
4. Solid sphere R 0.714 71.4% 0.286 28.6% 2:5
5 7 7
Note : Above values X and Y are independent of mass and radius of the body. They only depend on the
type of body.
Applications
1. A force is applied at the distance h from centre of mass as shown in figure
 h
F1 
 R F
aC.M h
 K2 
M1
 R 2  fr
2
F (K hR ) Rough ground
fr N (must be less than mg for Rolling)
K2 R2
K2
If h friction is backward
R
K2
hfriction become forward
R
2. If force is applied at centre of mass then (h = 0)
F FK 2 F
So, a and fr
 K2  K 2 R2  R2 
M 1  1
2   K 2 
 R 

3. If force is applied at highest point (h = R)
2F
aC.M.
 K2 
M 1 
 R2 
 R2 K 2 
fr  K 2 R2  F , forward direction
4. (i) (ii)
fr
R
C F
R Rough inclined plane
in
fr
mgs
F =
Rough horizontal
surface
a
R
R
(iii) (iv) a
T T R
R
T
a a
m
F = mg F=mg
For all the four situations shown above,
F
a= I
m c.m.2
R
Ic.m.a
fr or T =
R2
In the situations described above, the linear acceleration of the moving object can be calculated by same
formula, the value of F, and moment of inertia will depend on the kind of problem.
Also consider the following situation.
F
a=
I R
(m1 m2 )
R2 T1 T2
Ia
T2 – T1 =
R2 m1
Here, F = (m2 – m1) g = Net pulling force m2
Rolling of a Body on an Inclined Plane
1 2 1 2
By conservation of energy, mgh I mv cm
2 2
(Total energy) (Rotatory) (Translatory)
Icm K2
Let 1 2 = 1 (where k is radius of gyration)
MR R2
R
mg sin g sin g sin
1. acm =
Icm K2 fr )
m 1 ping
ip
sin sl
2
R R2 h
mg ( no
gh
rou s
2gh K2 vcm
g co
2. v cm = 2gh 1 m
R2
1 2h mg sin
3. Time . ∵ Force of friction fr
sin g R2
1
K2
i.e., t
mg sin
4. Force of friction fr
R2
1
K2
5. Instantaneous power P = (mg sin )v
  R2  
tan 1   1
6. Maximum angle of inclination for pure rolling, max   
2 
  K 
Ring : max = tan–1 (2 ),

Spherical Shell : max = tan–1(2.5 )
Disc : max = tan–1 (3 )
Solid sphere : max = tan–1(3.5 ).
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The general formula for angular momentum about any point is

L Mv cmR I
Case - I : Pure translation

| LO | Mv cm h
LC = 0
z
M
C
vcm
h
O x

Case - II : Rolling body
Lc = Ic
LA = IC + MvcmR
LO = Ic + Mvcmb
LB = Ic – Mvcma
LD = Ic
B
z a
D C
vcm
R
b
A
O x
Case - III : Centre of mass is fixed
Put vcm = 0 in the above results so L0 = LA = LC = IC
Case - IV
Lc = – Ic
LA = – IC + MvcmR
LO = – Ic + Mvcmb
z
C
vCM
R
b
A
x
O
Case - V
Lc = Ic
LA = IC
LO = Ic – Mvcmb vCM
C
R
A
x
O
b
Note : In all above situations, anticlockwise sense has been assigned a negative sign.

Chapter 6
Gravitation
VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF g

1. At height h (Above earth’s surface)
g
g 2
 h 
1 
 Re 
g
If h = Re , g
4
 2h 
If h < < Re then g g1
 Re 
2. At depth “x” (below earth’s surface)
 x 
g g 1 
 Re  , at the centre of earth g = 0, weight = 0
3. Due to Rotation of Earth :

Apparent value of acceleration due to gravity.
g = g – Re 2cos2
angle of latitude
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD INTENSITY AND POTENTIAL (V)

1. Gravitational field intensity
GM
I rˆ
r2
2. Gravitational potential
W GM
V V (units J/kg)
m r
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Gravitation 41
Variation of Intensity and Potential

1. For a spherical shell of mass M and radius R
Case-I : r < R (internal point)
GM
Ii = 0, Vi =
R
Case-II : r = R (on the surface)
GM GM
Is = 2
, Vs
R R
Case-III : r > R (outside the shell)
Io = GM , Vo GM
r2 r
|I| V
r=R r
O r O
r=R
GM
R
2. For Uniform solid Sphere

Case-I : r < R (internal point)
GMr GM 3GM 3
Ii = 3
, Vi 3
(3R 2 r 2 ) At centre Vc VSurface
R 2R 2R 2
Case-II : r = R (on the surface)
GM GM
Is , Vs
R2 R
Case-III : r > R (outside the surface)
GM GM
Io 2
, Vo
r r
|I| V
|Imax|
1
I r I r=R
r2 O r
O r hyperbolic
r=R VS `
3 parabolic
Vs Vc
2
42 Gravitation Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
3. Gravitational intensity and potential on the axis of uniform ring of mass M radius R at distance x from
centre.
GMx GM
I 3
,V
2
(R x2 ) 2 R 2
x2
R 2GM
At centre I = 0. I is maximum at x ; Imax =
2 3 3R 2
R
V 2 x
|I|
R x GM
–
2 R
4. Neutral point : The point P at which gravitational field is zero between two massive bodies, is called
neutral point.
M1 P M2
M1 M2
r12 r22
r1 r2
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

GM e m GM e m
At earth surface U , At height h, U
Re Re h
GM e m
Energy required to escape = Escape energy = + = Binding energy.
Re
ESCAPE VELOCITY
2GM e 8 2
ve GRe 2gRe
Re 3
At earth surface, ve = 11.2 km/s
KEPLER’S LAWS
(1) All planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbit having the Sun at one focus.
If e = eccentricity of ellipse then distance of the planet from the Sun at perigee is
rp = (1 – e)a
and distance of the planet from the Sun at apogee is
ra = (1 + e)a (a = semi major axis)
Ratio of orbital speeds at apogee and perigee is
va rp 1 e
vp ra 1 e
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Gravitation 43

Ratio of angular velocities at apogee and perigee is
2 2
a  rp   1 e
   
p  ra   1 e
vp
ea rp Perigee
Apogee ra
a
Sun
va
2a
(2) A planet sweeps out equal area in equal time interval i.e., Areal speed of the planet is constant
dA 1 L
vr = constant (L represents angular momentum of planet about the Sun)
dt 2 2m
(3) Square of time period is proportional to cube of semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet.
i.e., T 2 a3
SATELLITES
Important results regarding satellite motion in circular orbit.
1. Orbital Velocity (v0) : Gravitational attraction of planet gives necessary centripetal force.
GM
v0
r
GM gRe2
v0 (h = height above the surface of earth)
r Re h
ve 2v 0
2. Time Period : The period of revolution of a satellite is
T
2 r
2 r
r r3
2
v0 GM GM
For a satellite orbiting close to the earth’s surface (r ~ Re), the time period is minimum and is given by
Re3 Re
Tmin 2 2
GM g
For earth Re = 6400 km,

g = 9.8 m/s2
Tmin = 84.6 min.= 1.4 h
R
Thus, for any satellite orbiting around the earth, its time period must be more than 2 or
g
84.6 minutes.
44 Gravitation Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
3. Potential Energy (U), Kinetic Energy (K) and Total Energy (E) of satellite
GMm
U
r
GMm
K
2r
GMm
E [K = –E & U = 2E ]
2r
BINARY STAR SYSTEM

Two stars of mass M1 and M2 form a stable system when they move in circular orbit about their centre of mass,
under their mutual gravitational attraction.
GM1M 2
(1) F , where r is distance between them (i.e., r = r1 + r2)
r2
V2
(2) M1r1 = M2r2 M1 M2
cm
V1 r1 r2
GM1M 2 M1V12
(3)
r2 r1
GM1M 2 M 2V22
(4) 2
r r22
M2r M1r
(5) r1 , r2
M1 M 2 M1 M 2
G
V1 M2 ,
(M 1 M 2 )r
G
V2 M1
(M1 M 2 )r
when M1 = M2
GM
V1 V2
2r
r
r1 = r2 =
2

Chapter 7
Properties of Solids and Liquids
Strain Stress
l ‘A’ (area)
(1) Longitudinal strain = (1)
l
F
l
l
Normal Stress (Tensile) = F/A
V
(2) Volumetric strain = (2)
V
r 2
A=4 r
Normal Stress (Compressive) = P (pressure)
A(area) L
L
(3) Shear strain = (3)
L F
F
Tangential Stress or Shear Stress = A
MODULI OF ELASTICITY
(1) Young’s modulus of elasticity Y Tensile stress Fl

Longitudinal strain A l
Normal or compressive stress P or, dP
(2) Bulk modulus of elasticity V V
Volumetric strain V dV
1
Compressibility =
Shear stress F FL
(3) Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus or G
Shear strain A A L
46 Properties of Solids and Liquids Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Applications :
Fl YA
1. For a wire Y F l
A l l
i.e. a wire behaves like a spring of spring constant (k)
YA  1
k  i .e., k 
l  l
2. When this wire is stretched by applying an external force F, and l is extension produced, then
(a) Work done by external force = F l
1
(b) Work done by restoring force = F l
2
1
(c) Heat produced = F l
2
1
(d) Elastic potential energy stored = F l
2
1 F l 1F l
Energy density U
2 volume 2 Al
1
= stress × strain
2
1 (stress)2 1
= Y (strain)2
2 Y 2
3. A rod of mass m and length l hangs from a support
Area of cross-section = A
Extension produced due to its own weight,
l
Mgl gl 2
l = ( = density of wire)
2 AY 2Y
Thermal Stress : Rod Fixed between Rigid Support
l
F Y, A F
Heated
If = Rise in temperature
l
Compressive strain =
l
Compressive stress = Y × strain = Y
F=Y ×A
Note : If the rod is placed on horizontal frictionless surface, then stress developed on heating is zero.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Properties of Solids and Liquids 47

Poisson’s Ratio
Consider a uniform bar being stretched by applying two forces at its ends.
R R– R
F F
l
l+ l
l
Longitudinal strain =
l
R
Lateral strain =
R
R /R
Poisson’s ratio,
l /l
(a) Theoretically – 1 0.5
(b) Practically 0 0.5
(c) When density of material is constant = 0.5
Equilibrium of Different Liquids in a U tube

1. PA = PB (as A & B are at same level in same liquid)
P0 + h1 1g = P0 + h2 2g (where P0 is atmospheric pressure)
h1 1g = h2 2g
1h1 = 2h2
P0 P0
h2 h1 1
A B
2. When the U tube accelerates horizontally, difference of levels of liquid satisfies the relation,
a h
tan
g L
L
a
h
3. When U-tube is rotated about on limb
L
2 2 2
L h L
Here h and tan  tan .
2g L 2g
Excess pressure
If Po = Atmospheric pressure
Pi = Inside pressure
then Pi – Po = Excess pressure
Liquid drop
PO
(1) Pi
r
2T
Pi = Po +
r
Soap bubble
PO
Pi
(2)
4T
Pi – Po =
r
Air bubble
Po
Pi
(3) r
2T
Pi = Po +
r

(4) Capillary tube, concave meniscus
O
R
r PO
Pi
Capillary tube,
Concave Meniscus
2T
(a) Pi Po
R
Fc
(b) Fa
2
(5) Capillary tube, convex meniscus.
PO
r
Pi
R
o
Convex Meniscus
2T
(a) Pi Po
R
Fc
(b) Fa
2
Combining of Bubbles
1. If the soap bubble coalesce in vacuum, then Po = 0
r2 = r12 + r22
2. If two soap bubbles come in contact to form a double bubble then
r = radius of interface, r1 > r2
1 1 1
r r2 r1
The interface will be convex towards larger bubble and concave towards smaller bubble because
P2 > P1 > P0.
r2
P2
r1
P0
P1
Radius ‘r’
CAPILLARY ACTION
Rise or fall of liquid in a tube of fine diameter. O
R
Ascent formula r
2T 2T cos
h
R g r g
Energy of a Liquid
Various energies per unit mass :
1. Potential energy/mass = gh
1 2
2. Kinetic energy/mass = v
2
P
3. Pressure energy/mass =
Energy Heads
Various energy heads per unit mass :
1. Gravitational head = h
v2
2. Velocity head =
2g
P
3. Pressure head =
g
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
It is based on conservation of energy.
For an ideal, non-viscous and incompressible liquid,
P1 v 12 P2 v 22
gh1 gh2 = constant
2 2
Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

(1) To find rate of flow of liquid Q = av. Value of Q in various cases has been given below
Case - (a) :
2(P1 P2 )
Q a1a2
(a12 a22 )
P1, a1
P2, a2
v1 v2

Case - (b) :
Venturimeter
2g (h1 h2 )
Q a1a2
a12 a22
h1
h2
a1 v1 v2 a2
(2) Hole in a tank
(a) Speed of efflux v e 2gh (If a << A). This is known as Toricelli’s theorem.
If a is comparable to A then
A2
ve 2gh 2
A a2
h
H
ve 2gh
Hole area = ‘a’

Area = A
(b) Time taken by water level to fall from h1 to h2
A 2
t h1 h2
a g
(c) Time taken to completely empty the container by a hole at bottom
t H [Put h1 = H, h2 = 0]
 1h1 
(d) ve 2g  h2   in the situation shown in figure
 2 
h1 1
2 ve h2
(e) Range of liquid
R 2 h( H h)
For a given value of total height (H)
H
Rmax = H when h
2
h
H
(f) H
R = 2 h(H - h) for both holes
(3) If A0 = area of cross-section of mouth of tap

A = area of cross-section of water jet at a depth h
A0v0 = Av = Q [rate of flow]
A0
v 02 v 12
By Bernoulli’s theorem gh h
2 2 A
[∵ pressure is atmospheric at both points]
Reynold’s Number
vD Inertial Force
NR
Viscous force
Value of NR for various cases :

(1) NR < 2000, flow is streamline
(2) NR > 3000, flow is turbulent
(3) 2000 < NR < 3000, flow is unstable
(4) When NR = 2000, flow is critical
vD
2000 vc 2000 (Critical velocity)
D

Viscosity and Viscous Force
Plate F
v
Stationary plate Fluid at rest

Viscous force is given in this case by,
dv
F A
dy
Units of : SI 1 Pa.s = 10 poise = 1 decapoise
C.G.S 1 dyne/cm2-s = 1 poise
Poiseuille’s Equation
Volume flow rate across a tube with pressure difference between its ends is,
dV Pr 4
Q
dt 8 l
Series combination of two tubes

Two tubes of radius r1, length l1 and radius r2, length l2 are connected in series across a pressure difference
of P. Length of a single tube that can replace the two tubes is found using,
l l1 l2
r4 r14 r24
STOKES LAW
When a small spherical body of radius r is moving with velocity v through a perfectly homogeneous medium
having coefficient of viscosity , it experiences a retarding force given by
F=6 rv.
Important case :
(1) A body of radius r released from rest in a fluid
If = density of body
= density of liquid or fluid
Terminal velocity is given by,
2 r 2g
vT ( )
9
Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of a body increases, its all dimensions (length, area, volume) increase.
(1) Coefficient of linear expansion is given by
L
L
L = L0 (1 + ), is the change in temperature in °C or K & L0 is initial length
(2) Coefficient of superficial expansion is given by

A
A
A = A0 (1 + )
(3) Coefficient of cubical expansion is given by
V
or V = V0 (1 + )
V
m m
(1 ) = 0(1 – )
θ 0
An Isotropic body expands equally in all directions and we can obtain the following relations
3
=3 , =2 or , =
1 2 3 2
CALORIMETRY
(1) Specific heat capacity or Gram specific heat (c) : If Q heat is given to a substance of mass ‘m’, and
rise in temperature is , then
Q
c= (cal/g°C)
m
(2) Molar heat capacity (C) :
C = Molar mass (M) × specific heat capacity
M. Q Q
C = Mc = =
m n
Q m
C :n= is number of moles
n M
(3) Heat capacity of an object is defined as product of mass and specific heat.
(4) In general if Q heat is given to a substance of mass ‘m’ which increases its temperature by then
Q mc c is specific heat capacity
or Q nC C is molar heat capacity, n is number of moles of the substance.
Specific Latent heat

Q
(1) Latent heat of fusion Lf
m
Q
(2) Latent heat of vaporisation Lv
m
During phase change (liquid solid or liquid vapours) temperature remains constant, but internal
energy changes.
Water
Specific heat C = 1 cal/gm/°C = 4.2 J/gm/°C = 4200 J/kg/°C
Lf = 80 cal/gm = 336 J/gm
Lv = 540 cal/gm = 2268 J/gm
For ice : Cice = 0.5 cal/g °C = 2100 J/kg °C

Law of Conduction
Consider a rod of length l, cross sectional area A, with its ends maintained at temperatures T1 & T2
(T1 > T2). In steady state
l
T1
 A Q
A
T2
x
dx
Rate of heat flow across any section is given by
dQ dT
H= – kA
dt dx
dT
Here k = Thermal conductivity and is known as temperature gradient i.e. rate of change of temperature
dx
with distance. k depends only on the nature of the material.
S.I. units of thermal conductivity is Wm–1K–1
THERMAL RESISTANCE OF A ROD
T1 T2
A k dQ/dt
dQ (T1 T2 )
In steady state kA
dt l
l  l l 
Thermal resistance, R as in current electricity R
kA  A A 
Weidmann – Franz law
k
constant a substance which is good conductor of heat (silver) is also a good conductor of
T
electricity (mica & human body is exception to above law)
where is electrical conductivity
Composite Rod :
(1) Series
In steady state
dQ/dt dQ/dt
l1 l2 l1 l2 A A
R k1 k2
k 1A k2 A kA T1 T2
Where k = effective thermal conductivity given by l1 T l2
For same area of cross section,
l1 l 2 .......... ln
k
l1 l 2 ln
..........
k1 k 2 kn
For two slabs of equal length
2k1k 2
k = k k2
1
Temperature of junction
k1 k2
T1 T2
l1 l2
T .
k1 k2
l1 l2
For same geometrical dimensions,
k1T1 k 2T2
T
k1 k 2
(2) In parallel l
Q
dQ dQ1 dQ2 dQ1
A1 k1
dt dt dt dt
T1 T2
dQ2
A2 k2
1 1 1 k ( A1 A2 ) k1A1 k 2 A2 dt

R R1 R2 l l l
where k = effective coefficient of thermal conductivity given by
k1A1 k 2 A2
k
A1 A2
k1 k2
Example, for two slabs of equal area k =
2
STEFAN’S LAW
The radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body per second per unit area (emissive power) is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.
R T4 R = T4
Power
R P = A T4 ( = 5.67 × 10–8 Wm–2 K–4)
Area
For other bodies P = A T4, is emissivity of the body.
Rate of heat loss

For a sphere of radius r at a temperature T placed in a surrounding of temperature T0, the rate of heat loss
dQ
is 4 r2 (T 4 T04 ) , where is emissivity.
dt
T0
Rate of cooling
For a sphere of radius r, density and specific heat capacity s. T
dT 3 (T 4 T04 ) r
The rate of fall in temperature is given by
dt sr

Newton’s Law of Cooling
If the temperature T of a body is not much different from surrounding temperature T0, then rate of cooling of
a liquid is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature of liquid T and temperature of surroundings
(T0) i.e.
Rate of – dT – dT
dt dt
cooling
T T – T0
kT0
 dT 
Rate of cooling   (T T0 )
dt 
dT
– = (T – T0)
dt
Results
(1) Tf = T0 + (Ti – T0)e– t, where Ti is initial temperature, Tf is temperature after time t.
Ti T0
(2) Another form t log
Tf T0
Ti
 
m mass of body 
dT 4 A T03   T0
(3) (T T0 ),  c specific heat 
dt mc  A surface area 
 emissivity 
  t
(4) Another approximate formula is
T1 T2  T1 T2 
 T0 
t  2 
ln(T1 – T0)
Above formula gives time ‘t’ taken by the body to cool down from T1 to T2. T0 is temperature of surrounding.
(5) If temperature of a body changes from 1 to 2 in time ‘t’ and changes from 2 to 3 in next time then
2 – 0 3 – 0
= ( = temperature of environment)
1 – 0 2 – 0
0
(6) If equal masses of two liquids having same surface area and finish, cool from same initial temperature to same
final temperature with same surrounding, then
t1 k2 c1
= = ; c1 & c2 are specific heats
t2 k1 c2
WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

This law states that the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity for a black body is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature of the body
b
m
T
where b is a constant known as Wien's constant
Results
Spectral emissive
power (e )
A1
1 T2 A1 T14
T1
2 T1 A2 T24
T2
1 2
A2
(1) max T=b

(2) b = 2.898 × 10–3 m-K
(3) Area under e – graph = T 4 (Total emissive power)
(4) If the temperature of the black body is made two fold, max becomes half, while area becomes 16 times.
(5) Temperature of the Sun,
If T = temperature of sun, then total energy radiated by sun per second = T4 (4 R2)
The Sun
R The Earth
Intensity at distance r from the sun (i.e., on earth)
T 4R 2
I = (Power radiated)(Area) = = S, where S is called solar constant [S = 1.4 kW / m2]
r2
1
14
 r 2 S   1.5 108  2 1.4 103 
4
So, T  2     5800 K
 R   7 105  8
5.67 10 
    

Chapter 8
Kinetic Theory of Gases
and Thermodynamics
Pressure Exerted by the Gas

The pressure of the gas is due to continuous bombardment of the gas molecules against the walls of the container.
According to kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by an ideal gas is given by
1M 2 M = Mass of the enclosed gas

P v
3V
V = Volume of the container
v 2 = Mean square speed of molecules
1 M 2
or P = v rm s Vrms = Root mean square velocity
3 V
1 Nm 2
or P v N = Number of molecules
3 V
2
P v rms = density of gas
3
m = Mass of the molecule
v 2 = Mean square speed of molecules
Speeds of gas molecules :

(i) Root mean square speed,
3RT 3P v12 v22 v32 ....... v n 2

vrms= Mw = n
Here, MW is molecular weight in kg.
3 kT
vrms = , k = Boltzmann’s constant, m = mass of one molecule in kg
m
8RT 8P v1 v 2 v3 ......... v n
(ii) Average speed vavg = Mw n
60 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(iii) vmp = Most probable speed is defined as the speed corresponding to which there are maximum number of
molecules.
= Density of gas
2RT 2P 2 kT
v mp = Mw = Molecular weight
Mw m R = Gas constant
P = Pressure of gas
Order of magnitude : vrms > vavg > vmp
m = Mass of one molecule
8
v rms : v av : v mp 3 : : 2 –
~ 3 : 2 .5 : 2
Relation between CP & CV :

(i) CP – CV R (CP > CV)
CP
(ii) C
V
f
(iii) Cv R
2
Degrees of f U CP
Gas U nR T CV CP=CV + R
freedom (f) 2 n T CV
3 3 3 5 5
Monoatomic nR T R R
(Translational) 2 2 2 3
3(Trans) + 5 5 7 7
Diatomic nR T R R
2(Rot) 2 2 2 5
Non-Linear 3 (Trans) + 3 4
3nR T 3R 4R
Poly atomic (Rot) 3
For a mixture of two gases A and B containing nA and nB number of moles.

( n A fA nB fB )
(i) fmix
nA nB
2
(ii) mix 1
fmix
fmix R
Cvmix
2
Cpmix Cvmix R
Thermodynamic Process
(1) Melting process : (Change of state, solid to liquid)
Q= U+W
mLf = U + 0 [W = 0 as volume remains nearly constant]
(2) Boiling process : (Change of state, liquid to vapours)
mLv = U + P[V2 – V1]
V2 = volume of vapours
V1 = volume of liquid
When 1 g of water vapourises isobarically at atmospheric pressure. U = 2091 J, P = 1.01 × 105 Pa,
V1 = 1 cm3, V2 = 1671 m3.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics 61
(3) Isochoric process : Volume is constant
dV = 0 W=0 [dV = change in volume]
Q = nCV T = U
U
CV
n T
(4) Isobaric process : Pressure is constant
P = constant, dW = PdV
W = P V = nR T
Q = nCP T = U + W
nCP T = nCV T + nR T
CP = CV + R
U W Q U W Q
or
f 2 f 2 1 1
U 1
Fraction of total heat converted to internal energy =
Q
W 1
Fraction of total heat converted to work is,
Q
(5) Isothermal process : Temperature is constant

PV = K dT = 0 dU = 0, C =
as PV = nRT (Constant)
nRT
So P
V
Work done in isothermal process
V  V   
W Q nRT loge  2  2.303 nRT log10  2  = 2.303 nRT log  P1 
 V1   V1  10
 P2 
(6) Adiabatic process : Heat exchanged (Q) is zero
PV = K [Equation of adiabatic process]
As Q = 0, nC T = 0 or C = 0
Also, 0 = nCV T + W [by first law of thermodynamics]
nR
Now, W U i.e. W = – nCV T = – (T – T1)
–1 2
(7) Polytropic Process

PVx = Constant
nR T
W
1 x
R
Molar heat capacity C CV
1 x
62 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(8) Cyclic process : System returns to its initial state (P, V & T)
For the overall process T = 0 U=0
Q= W
Indicator Diagram :
P-V graph of a process is called indicator diagram. Area under P-V graph represents the work done in a process.
Small work done, dW = PdV
Total work done, W =  dW =  PdV

= Area of curve (P – V) bounded with volume axis
P
P1
P2
V1 V2 V
CARNOT ENGINE
Heat supplied = Q1
Heat rejected = Q2 Q1 – Q2 = W
W Q1 Q2
% efficiency, 100 100%
Qsupplied Q1
Heat Supplied Q1 Q1
Coefficient of performance,
W total W Q1 Q2
T1
T1 T2 (for ideal pump)
Refrigerator : In a refrigerator, W work is done on the working substance, Hot T1

Q2 heat is absorbed from lower temperature T2 and Q1 heat is rejected Q1
to higher temperature T1. (T1 > T2).
Compressor
Q2 W
Coefficient of performance Heat exchange from sink
Wtotal Q1 Q2
Q2
T2 Cold T2

T1 T2

Chapter 9
Oscillations and Waves
Periodic Function
If f(t + T) = f(t) then function ‘f’ is periodic with period T.
Harmonic Motion
When oscillatory motion of a particle can be expressed in terms of sine or cosine functions, it is said to be
a harmonic motion.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

When a motion can be expressed in terms of a single sine or cosine (sinusoidal) function, the motion is said
to be Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). For SHM, force -(displacement)
F –x
F = – kx [Restoring Force]
k
a x
m
d 2x k d 2x 2
x 0 or x 0 (This equation represents the differential equation of S.H.M. )
dt 2 m dt 2
Velocity and acceleration of a particle executing S.H.M.

If x = A sin t, A is amplitude (maximum displacement from mean position)
dx
v A cos t
dt
 
or, v A sin t  , maximum speed = A
 2
i.e., velocity leads displacement by . (This is always true in SHM)

2
(a) Dependence of velocity v with displacement from mean position (x)
v A2 x2
64 Oscillations and Waves Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(b) Acceleration
dv 2
a A sin t , maximum acceleration = A 2
dt
a=A 2sin( t+ )
i.e., acceleration leads velocity by . Acceleration and displacement are in opposite phase.
2
(c) Dependence of acceleration with position, is a = – 2x
Graphical representation of variation of position, velocity and acceleration

(For x = A sin t)
x
v
A A
O t x
T T 3T –A A
2 2
–A –A x2 v2
1
A2 ( A )2
v a
+A
O t x
T T 3T
2 2
2
–A slope = –
2
tan =
a
a
2
+A 2
A
O t v
T T 3T A
2 2
–A
2 v2 a2
1
( A )2 ( A 2 )2
Energy in SHM
Salient points regarding energy in SHM :
Oscillating quantity Time period Frequency
Displacement T f
KE T/2 2f
PE T/2 2f
|KE ~ PE| T/4 4f
Total Energy 0
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Oscillations and Waves 65
1 2
1. KEavg m A2 .
4
1 2
2. KEmax = m A 2 at mean position.
2
3. KEmin = zero at extreme position.
1 2
4. PEavg = m A2 .
4
1 2
5. PEmax = m A 2 at extreme position.
2
1 2A2
6. Total energy, E = m which is constant i.e. doesn’t depend on x
2
7. Both kinetic and potential energy vary parabolically with x.
E
1
m 2
A2 TE
2
PE
TE = Constant
TE = (1/2)m 2A2
KE
x x = –A x=A x
A T
8. PE = KE at x and t . (Starting from mean position towards +x).
2 8
SIMPLE PENDULUM
l
Time period of oscillation of simple pendulum of length l for small angular amplitude is given by T 2
g
where g is the effective acceleration due to gravity, directed along the length of pendulum when it is at mean
position.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
On changing various factors, T changes as :
T 1 l
1. If length ‘l’ is changed, .
T 2 l
T 1 g
2. If gravity ‘g’ is changed, .
T 2 g
Simple Pendulum in Lift
l
Effective g = | g a | , where a is pseudo acceleration. T 2
g
Simple Pendulum of Length Comparable to the Radius of Earth

Time period of such a pendulum is given by,
1
T 2
1 1 
g  
l Re 
OSCILLATION OF SPRING
Horizontal Oscillations
The spring is pulled/pushed from x = 0 to x = x0 and released.
k
M M
Smooth x=0 x = x0
The block executes SHM

(1) Amplitude of oscillation = x0
M
(2) Time period T 2
k
COMBINATIONS OF SPRINGS
Series Combination :
k1 k2 k
(1)
M  M
Smooth Smooth
1 1 1 k1k 2 M
k T 2
k k1 k 2 or Effective spring constant, k1 k 2 , k
1 1 1
(2) k k1 k2
k1
Effective spring constant, k
k1k 2
k1 k 2
 k
k2
M M M
T 2
k
Parallel Combination
M
(1) Effective spring constant, k = k1 + k2 , T 2
k
k1 k
k2 M  M
Smooth Smooth
M
(2) Effective spring constant, k = k1 + k2 T 2
k
k1 k2 k
M  M
Smooth Smooth
Physical Pendulum
Figure shows an extended body (called physical pendulum) pivoted about point O, which is at a distance d
from its centre of mass.
O
d
cm
mg
I
Time period of oscillation, T 2 I = moment of inertia of the body about pivoted point.
mgd
d is the distance of centre of mass from suspension point
Oscillation of a Floating Cylinder

If = density of cylinder material
L
= density of fluid ( < ) h
L h
then, T = 2 2
g g
Oscillations of a Liquid in a Tube
l
T 2
g (sin sin )
l = total length of liquid column
Superposition of SHMs
Consider two SHMs along the same line
If y1 = a1 sin t a2
A
y2 = a2 sin ( t + )
then, equation of resultant SHM is given by,
a1
y = y1 + y2 = A sin ( t + )
 a2 sin 
where, A a12 a22 2a1a2 cos & tan 1 
 a1 a2 cos 
Damped Oscillations
If there is any dissipative force like viscous force in SHM, then the amplitude of the particle decreases with
time such type of oscillations are known as damped oscillations.
x
d 2x dx
(i) Differential equation for damped oscillation m b kx 0,
2 dt
dt
where b = Coefficient of damping.
(ii) Displacement-time equation, x = A(t) sin( t + )
b
t
(iii) Amplitude of damped oscillation, A(t ) A0 e 2m , where A0 = Initial amplitude.
2
2  b  k
(iv) Angular frequency of damped oscillation, 0  2m  , where 0
m
=natural frequency.
 
Speed of mechanical waves

(a) Transverse wave in a stretched string
T = tension in the string
= mass per unit length
D = diameter of string
= density W
T stress 2 T D2
v A
density D 4
T
v= A

(b) Transverse wave in a long bar is given by
Y
v where Y = Young’s modulus, = Density of material
(c) Longitudinal Waves
(i) In liquid v = bulk modulus of elasticity
= density
(ii) In gases v . is bulk modulus of the gas. This value is not a fixed value for gases
Case - I : Suggested by Newton
P
Taking isothermal process =P v
Put P = 1 atm, = 1.23 kg/m3 v = 280 m/s (more than 15% error)
Case - II : Corrected by Laplace
For Adiabatic = P
P
v . Taking = 1.4, we get, For air v 20 T
v = 330 m/s
Note : Propagation of sound in air is adiabatic.
Factors affecting speed of sound
RT P
v= =
M
(1) v is independent of pressure (If temperature is kept constant)
1 1
(2) v or v (If temperature is kept constant)
M
(3) Velocity of a wave depends on medium, not on the frequency of source
(4) v T
(5) Velocity of sound in humid air is more because its density is less than that of dry air.
(6) Velocity of sound in humid hydrogen is less than in dry hydrogen due to similar reason.
SOUND WAVES
These are mechanical and longitudinal waves. They propagate in form of compressions and rarefactions.
Particle displacements can be represented by wave function
S = A sin( t – kx)
As particles oscillate, pressure variation takes place according to the wave function.
P = P0 cos( t – kx), P0 = maximum pressure variation
Characteristic of Sound
Loudness : Sensation of sound produced in human ear is due to amplitude. It depends upon intensity, density
of medium, presence of surrounding bodies,
(a) Intensity of Wave
I = 2 2f 2A2 v
1 2
= A2 v
2
I f 2 and I A2
(b) Intensity Level or (Sound Level) ( )
I  I 0 minimum intensity of audible sound 10 12

W/m 2 
10log10    
 I0  I measured intensity 
Sonometer : In this case, transverse stationary waves are formed.
T = Mg
(tension in wire)
l
Mg
The wire vibrates in n loops, then
n 2l
l or
2 n
T
Velocity v where ‘ ’ is mass per unit length of wire.
v nv n T
n
2l 2l
Pipe Fundamental Ist Overtone

th
(n – 1) overtone
length l Mode
Open V V V
n 1:2:3:4
2l l 2l
st nd
I Harmonic 2 Harmonic nth Harmonic
V 3V V
Closed ( 2n 1) 1:3:5:7
4l 4l 4l
st
I Harmonic 3 Harmonic (2n –1) Harmonic
rd th
Note : Even numbered (i.e., 2nd, 4th .....) harmonics do not exist in close organ pipe.

End correction (e) :
The antinodes are formed slightly out side the open end. The distance of antinode from open end of the pipe
is called end correction. It depends on radius of pipe. (e = 0.6 r)
Thus, we have,
For closed organ pipe For open organ pipe
l + 2e
l+e
(2n 1)V nV
4(l e) 2(l 2e )
Resonance Tube: ‘ ’
If resonance is obtained first at length l1.
l1
then at length l2, then
l2
= 2(l2 – l1)
distance between two successive lengths is

2
Interference
Consider two waves of same frequency and wavelength,
y1 = a1 sin ( t – kx), I1 = Ca12
y2 = a2 sin ( t – kx + ), I2 = Ca22
Equation of resultant wave is,
 a2 sin 
y = y1 + y2 = A sin ( t – kx + ), where A a12 a22 2a1a2 cos and tan 1 
 a1 a2 cos 
Resultant Intensity is given by
I I1 I 2 2 I1I 2 cos
DOPPLER’S EFFECT
If a wave source and a observer are moving relative to each other, the frequency observed by the receiver (f) is
different from the actual source frequency (f0) given by,
 v v0 
f f0  
 where v = speed of sound, v0 = speed of observer, vs = speed of source
 v ∓ vs 

Chapter 10
Electrostatics
Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form

1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 rˆ12 r12 q1 q2
4 0 | r12 |2 4 0 | r12 |3 F12 r21 F21
1 q1q2 1 q1q2 r12
F21 rˆ21 r21
4 0 | r21 |2 4 0 | r21 |3
ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric Field due to a Point Charge (Q) :
+Q P( q )
1 Q qˆ F 1 Q ˆ
F i , E i
4 0 r2 q 4 0 r2 r F, E x-axis
1 Q ˆ
E i
4 0 r2
Application
(i) Direction of Electric Field at Various Points (when charge Q is placed at origin) :
y-axis
1 Q ˆ
EB 2
j 1 Q xiˆ yˆj
4 0 y EP rˆ , where rˆ
B 4 0
2
r x
2
y2
P
1 Q ˆ y
r
EC i
4 0 x2
–x-axis x-axis
C Q A
x x 1Q ˆ
EA i
y 4 0 x2
1 Q ˆ
ED 2
j
4 0 y
–y-axis
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Electrostatics 73
(ii) Electric field due to a uniformly charged ring on its axis.
Qx +Q
Eaxis 2
4 0 (R x 2 )3/2
Ecentre = 0 E
x P
R
At x = , E is maximum.
2
Electric Lines of Force due to Various Configurations

(1) Isolated point charge (+) (2) Isolated point Charge (–)
q –q
(3) Electric dipole (4) Two identical charges
–q +q
+q +q
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An arrangement of two equal and opposite charges separated by some distance.
–q +q
2a
Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole

1. For a point P on axial line
2pr
E axial 2
4 0 (r a 2 )2
For an ideal dipole (r >> a r2 – a2 r2)
2p
E axial 3
4 0r
74 Electrostatics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
2. For a point Q on equatorial line

Q
p Eequatorial
E equatorial 2
4 0 (r a 2 )3 / 2
r
For an ideal dipole (r >> a r2 + a2 r2)
–q +q
Eaxial
p (–a, 0) O (a, 0) P
E equatorial 3
4 0r r
E axial
3. For an ideal dipole E equatorial (For same distance from centre of dipole).
2
4. Electric field at any point in the plane of a short dipole
P is a point in x-y plane at a distance r from the centre of dipole, such that OP makes an angle with
dipole moment.
p sin Enet
Eeq 3
4 0r
2 p cos
y-axis Eax 3
4 0r
P Enet
r
s
co
p Eeq
O Eax
p x-axis
p sin P
1 p
(a) Enet 1 3 cos 2
4 0 r3
E eq1 1
(b) tan tan tan tan
E ax 2 2
(c) The net electric field makes an angle + with dipole moment.
1
(d) When E p + = 90° tan 2
Electric Dipole Placed in a Uniform Electric Field (Torque on dipole in uniform electric field)
Case-1 : p | | E Case-2 : p | | ( E )
E E
p qE –qE
–qE qE
–q +q +q p –q
(a) Net force = q E qE 0 (a) Net force = q E qE 0

(b) Net torque = Zero (b) Net torque = Zero
(c) Stable equilibrium (c) Unstable equilibrium
Case-3 : p E Case-4 : p makes an angle with E
E +q E
+q qE qE
2a
2a –qE 2a sin
–qE
–q –q
(a) Net force = Zero (a) Net force = Zero
(b) = qE × 2a = pE (This is the maximum value) (b) p E or = p E sin
In vector form p E
(c) Translational equilibrium but not in (c) Translational equilibrium but not in
rotational equilibrium. . rotational equilibrium.
Potential Energy of Dipole

1. The external work required to change the orientation from 1 to 2 is
Wext = – pE[cos 2 – cos 1]
2. Change in potential energy of dipole is
U2 – U1 = –pE[cos 2 – cos 1]
3. Potential energy of dipole is

U = –pE cos = p.E
ELECTRIC FLUX
The number of field lines that pass through a surface is directly proportional to flux of electric field through
that area.
Mathematically, E . A (If E is uniform and the surface in planar.)
In general, E . dA
N m2
Units : or V-m
C
Important cases :
(1) E | | A (2) E A (3) E and A make an angle
A
A E
E A
E
= EA =0
= EA cos
(4) E
Lateral
surface R
A
Base
h
E

base E.A E R2
lateral = –E × R2 (∵ Field lines enter through curved surface)

(5)
R Base
A
E
base =0
curved = 0 (Total flux that enters = Total flux that leave)
1 
φentered E  R2 
2 
R2
leaving E
2
(6) E
A O
Base
base E R2
curved E R2
Electric Flux
Some frequently asked cases :
q a
2 q
cube
q 0
q
1. a square
6 0 2. q
each face
6 0
a
E H q
ABCD = = DCHG = BCHE
F 24
q G
0
ABEF = 0= ADGP = FGHE
q q
3. q 4. cube
B C cube =
2 0
8 0
A D
q
5. cube
4 0
Important results for fields due to different bodies (derived by Gauss Law)
kQ
1. Point charge Q : 2 .
r
2. Shell of charge with charge Q and radius R : kQ (outside) and zero (inside).
r2
kQr kQ
3. Sphere of charge with charge Q and radius R : (inside) and (outside).
R 3 r2
2k
4. Infinite line of charge with linear charge density : (perpendicular to line charge).
r
5. Infinite plane surface of charge with charge density : .

2 0
6. Infinite conducting sheet of charge with charge density : .

0
Electric Potential Difference ( V)

1. It is the work done against electric field in moving a unit positive charge from one point to other. That is
2

V2 – V1 =  E.dr .
1
2. V for two points at a distance r1 and r2 from a point charge Q
1 1
V2 – V1 = V = KQ  r 
r1 
 2
3. Change in potential energy of a charge q when moved across V is U = q. V.

4. V between two points in electric field does not depend on path.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)

1. V at a point is work done against electric field in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to that
r

point is V  E.dr .
KQ
2. Potential due to a point charge Q at a distance r is V .
r
Kp cos
3. Potential due to a dipole at distance r at angle is V q1
r2 r1
 Kq1 Kq2 Kq3  r2
4. Potential due to system of point charges is VP  . P
 r1 r2 r3  q2
r3
x2
q3
If V and E are functions of x, then V2 V1
 E dx .
x1
x2 y2 z2
In general, V2 V1
x
1
E x dx y 1
Ey dy z
1
Ez dz
Relation between Electric Field and Potential
V V V
1. Ex , Ey , Ez .
x y z
dV
2. If V is a function of single variable r, E .
dr
Electric Potential Energy

1. For a two point charge system
r Kq1q2
U
q1 q2 r
2. For a three point charge system
q3
r31 r23
1  q1q2 q 2q3 q3q1 
U  
4 0  r12 r23 r31 
q1 q2
r12
CAPACITOR
It is a device used to store electric energy in the form of electric field.
CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of a conductor is measure of ability of conductor to store electric charge and hence electric energy
on it.
When charge is given to a conductor its potential increases. It is found that
V Q
or, Q V
Q = CV
where C is the capacitance and its unit is farad (F).
C depends on
Shape and size of conductors and their relative placement w.r.t. each other.
Medium surrounding the conductor.

Capacitance of Isolated Spherical Conductor
C=4 0r
Capacitance of Earth Ce = 4 0Re = 711 F
Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

1. Electric field in between plates
+Q –Q
Q
E= + –
A 0 0
+ –
E
Qd d
2. Potential difference between the plates = A + –
0 0
+ –
0A
3. Capacitance = d
d
Plate area = A
2
Q A QE
4. Force of attraction between the plates =
2A 0 2 0 2
Parallel Plate Capacitor with Dielectric Slab
 1
(a) Induced charge Qi Q 1  , K is dielectric constant. –Qi +Qi
 K  +Q –Q
(b) Capacitance, C 0A .
t
(d t)
K
(c) For conducting slab, K =

t
d
0A
Qi = – Q and C
d t
(d) The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C. If its plates are connected by an inclined conducting
rod, the new capacitance is infinity.
Spherical Capacitor
1. Potential difference between plates
b a
V KQ  
 ba  –Q
2. Electric field at any point P between plates +Q
r P
a
KQ
E b
r2
3. Potential at any point P between plates
KQ KQ
V
r b
4 0ab
4. Capacitance C
b a
4 0b 2
5. If the inner surface is grounded, capacitance C
b a
Cylindrical Capacitance of a Long Capacitor
Potential difference between plates
2KQ  b 
V l n 
l a
Dielectric Polarisation
When a dielectre slab is placed between the plates of capacitor its polarisation take place. Thus a charge
–Qi, appear on its left face and +Qi appears on its right face.
+Q –Qi +Qi –Q
 1
Qi Q 1 
 k
Q Q E0
E0 ;E
A 0 A 0k k
E0 E
Effective Capacitance in Some Important Cases
0A
1. C
t1 t2 t3 t4
K1 K2 K3 K4
+ K1 K2 K3 K4 –
t1 t2 t3 t4

For two dielectrics,
d
If t1 t2
2
0A 2 0A + K1 K2 –
C
d d  1 1 
d  
2K1 2K 2  K1 K 2 
 2K1K 2  0 A 2K1K 2
 C   K eq d/2 d/2
 K1 K 2  d K1 K 2
0 [K1A1 K 2 A2 K 3 A3 ]
2. C A1
d K1
A2
+ K2 –
A3 K3
For two dielectrics,
A A/2
If A1 A2 K1 A/2
2
 A A
0  K1 K2 
 2 2
C
d A/2 K2 A/2
 K1 K 2  0 A K1 K 2
C   K eq
 2  d 2
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
1. Capacitors in Series (three capacitors)
Q Q Q
V1 V2 V3
C1 , C2 and C3
V = V1 + V2 + V3 C1 C2 C3
1 1 1
V Q 
 C1 C2 C3  V1 V2 V3
Q V
V
Ceq
1 1 1 1
Ceq C1 C2 C3
2. Two Capacitors in Series
Q Q
V1 V2 C1 C2
C1 C2
V
1 1 1
Ceq C1 C2 V1 V2
C1C2
Ceq Q = CeqV
C1 C2
Potential Dividing Rule
C2 C1
V1 V V2 V
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 Q1
3. Capacitors in Parallel
C2 Q2
Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V, Q3 = C3V V
Q = C1V + C2V + C3V C3 Q3
Q = (C1 + C2 + C3)V and Q = CeqV

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, charge Q and potential difference V across it is given by
1 Q2 1
U CV 2 QV
2 2C 2
Sharing of Charge
Case-1 : Two capacitors charged to potentials V1 and V2 are connected end to end as shown
C1V1 C2V2 V1
(a) Final common potential V
C1 C2 A
C1C2 C1
(b) Charge flown through key (V1 V2 ) in the direction A to B. V2
C1 C2
B
C1C2 C2
(c) Loss of energy = (V1 V2 )2
2(C1 C2 )
Case-2 : If positive terminal is connected to negative terminal

V1
C1V1 C2V2 C1
(a) Final common potential V
C1 C2
C1C2
(b) Loss of energy = (V1 V2 )2 V2 C2
2(C1 C2 )

Inserting a Dielectric Slab
1 When battery is disconnected (isolated) (charge is constant)
Q0 = initial charge
C0 = initial capacitance
V0 = initial potential
E0 = initial energy
(a) New capacitance = KC0
Q0 V0
(b) New potential difference = KC K
0
2
1 V  E0
(c) New energy stored = (KC0 ) 0 
2 K  K
(d) Note that charge on each plate remains same.

2. When battery is connected (voltage is constant)
(a) C = KC0
(b) V = V0
(c) Q = KQ0
1
(d) E (KC0 ) (V0 )2 = KE0
2
Combining Charged Drops

When n droplets of radius r0 having equal charge Q0 combined to form a bigger drop of radius R.
4 3 4
(a) n r0 R3
3 3
R n1/ 3r0
(b) C = n 1/3C0
R
(c) Total charge = nQ0
nQ0 nQ0
(d) V n 2 / 3V0
C n1/ 3C0
1 Q2 (nQ0 )2
(e) Total energy = 2 C = n5/3 U0
2n1/ 3C0

Chapter 11
Current Electricity
GROUPING OF RESISTORS (SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION)

1. Series Grouping
R1 R2 R3 RS = R1 + R2 + R3
2. Parallel Grouping
R1
R2 Rp
1 1 1 1
Rp R1 R2 R3
R3
Illustrations :
R
nR/(n + 1)
1.
nR
R1 R1 R2
R1 + R2
2.
R2
R1
R2 R3 R2 Rp
3.
A R1 B R3 1 1 1 1
Rp R1 R2 R3
Cell Terminology
1. EMF (E)
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when no current is being drawn from it.
2. Internal Resistance (r)
The opposition to flow of current inside the cell.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Current Electricity 85

3. Terminal Potential Difference
I R I
It is the potential difference across the terminals of a cell
when current is supplied by it.
E = IR + Ir, V = IR V
E – V = Ir .... (i)
E r
E V 
r = R Cell
 V 
Grouping of Cells (Series and Parallel Combination)

1. Series Grouping :
E1 E2 E3
+ – r1 + – r2 + – r3 n cells
i
(a) Eequivalent = E1 + E2 + E3 + ....... En

(b) requivalent = r1 + r2 + r3 + ...... rn
(c) Current i
E i
r R i
Note : If polarity of m cells are made reverse in the series combination of n identical cells then
equivalent emf Eequivalent = (n – 2m)E and internal resistance requivalent = nr
2. Parallel Grouping :
E1 r1
E1 E2 E3
......
r r2 r3 E2
(a) Eequivalent = 1 r2
1 1 1
........
r1 r2 r3 E3 r3
1 n cell
(b) requivalent =
1 1 1 i
......
r1 r2 r3 En rn
(c) If all cells have equal emf. E and internal resistance r then
Eequivalent = E R
r
requivalent =
n
E
Current i
r
R
n
86 Current Electricity Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
3. Mixed Grouping of Cell :

Let n cells be connected in series in one row and m rows of cells in parallel. If cells are identical each
of emf E.
Total number of cells = mn
Total emf = nE
Let i to be current through external load R.
mnE
i
mR nr
i will be maximum if mR = nr
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
1. Junction Rule : It is based on conservation of charge.
I I1
I = I1 + I2
I2
2. Loop Rule : It is based on conservation of energy.

(a) For any closed loop, total rise in potential + total fall in potential = 0.
(b) For any open part from a point A to point B, if VA is potential at A and VB is potential at B, then as
we move from A to B.
VA + total rise in potential + total fall in potential = VB.
Note : By convention rise in potential is taken as positive and fall in potential is taken as negative.
METER BRIDGE
It is based on Wheatstone bridge principle. It is used to find an unknown resistance.
Unknown
R X
D
G
100 –
A B C
E
( )
P R
When there is no deflection in galvanometer then bridge is called balanced and for balanced bridge ,
Q S
R X  100 
Unknown X R 
100  
Note : Location of null point is independent of resistivity or area of cross-section of wire AB.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Current Electricity 87

INSTRUMENTS
1. Ammeter
(a) Shunt resistance is added in parallel to the galvanometer coil to make it into an ammeter.
 ig 
Shunt resistance S  G .
 i ig 
 
2. Voltmeter
(a) A large resistance is added in series to the galvanometer coil to make it into a voltmeter.
V
R G
ig
R-C CIRCUIT
1. Charging
C R
E K
Key K is closed at t = 0.
Current starts flowing and charge of capacitor starts increasing.
At any instant t, q is charge on capacitor. I is current in the circuit.
(a) q = q0 [1 – e–t/RC] where q0 = EC is maximum charge
q I
–t
E t / RC RC
(b) I e = I0e q0
R I0
0.63q0
0.37 I0
t t
RC RC
At t = 0, I = E/R
(c) RC = time constant. During charging, in t = RC, q = 0.63q0.

(d) In RC circuit an uncharged capacitor behaves like closed switch at t = 0 and open switch at t = .
2. Discharging RC Circuit
+ –
+ – R
+ –
+ –
+ –
q0
K
Key K is closed at t = 0
(a) q = q0e–t/RC
88 Current Electricity Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
dq q0 q
(b) I  I = +I0e–t/RC where, I 0
dt RC q0
(c) RC = time constant ( )
at t = 0, q = q0 0.37 q0
at t = RC, q = 0.37 q0 0.135 q0
t
at t = 2RC, q = 0.135 q0 RC 2RC
(d) The charge and potential difference both decay exponentially like radioactive decay with half-life
= 0.693 RC
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

Joule’s Law
When a constant current I is passed through a device having resistance R, then the amount of heat produced
in time t
H = I2Rt in joules
I 2Rt
H in calories, where J = mechanical equivalent of heat = 4.186 or 4.2 J/cal
J
t 2
In general of a variable current I passes through a resistor, heat produced across R in time t is H
0 I Rdt
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In an electrical circuit, the maximum power can be drawn from the battery when external resistance is same
as the internal resistance of the battery. Power drawn in the external resistor is
E r
E 2R dP (R r )2 2R(R r) I
P I 2R 2
 E2 4
0
(R r) dR (R r)
R=r R

Chapter 12
Magnetic Effects of Current
and Magnetism
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
BIOT-SAVART LAW dB

Magnetic field due to current carrying element is given by r P
idl sin dl
0
dB
4 r2
i (dl r) i
0
dB 3
4 r

The direction of magnetic field due to small element dl is in the direction of dl r
Units : 1. S.I. unit of magnetic field is tesla (T)
2. CGS unit of magnetic field is gauss.
3. 1 gauss = 10–4 tesla.
Magnetic Field Due to Straight Current Carrying Wire

Magnetic field at P
0i 2
B (cos 1 cos 2)
4 r
i r
P
0i
or B (sin sin )
4 r
1
1. For an infinite long wire
0i
= = 0 or , B
1 2
2 2π r
2. For semi-infinite long wire
, 0, B 0i
= 0°, = 90°, or
1 2 2 4 r
90 Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
CIRCULAR LOOP
1. At the centre of a current loop
0 idl sin 90
dB 2
dl
4 r
r
0i 0i i
B
4 r 2  dl 4 r 2
2 r
0i
B (Outward).
2r
i i
(Outward field perpendicular to the plane of loop) (Inward field perpendicular to the plane of loop)
2. On the axis of a loop
I
R
B (towards right perpendicular to the plane of loop)
x
0 2 I R2 0 2M
B
4 (R 2 2 3/2
x ) 4 (R 2 x 2 )3 / 2
0 2M
For x >> R, B [Current carrying loop acts as an magnetic dipole]
4 x3
where M = I × R2 is called magnetic dipole moment
M IA
S.I. Unit : A-m2
Various Cases of Magnetic Field (Straight Wire and Circular Loop)
I
I
1. 2.
P P
r r
0I 0I
BP [sin ] BP [sin sin ]
4 r 4 r
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism 91
to b
r P
a O I
3. I 4.
0I 8 0I a2 b2
BP [sin 1] B0
4 r 4 ab
8 2 0I
when a = b B0
4 a
i
r
i i
5. O 6.
O
i
0i
B0
4r
Magnetic field at O
3 0 i
B0 where ‘a’ is length of each side of regular hexagon
a
i
i
i1
b
a i O
7. O 8.
0i  1 1 i
B0  
4 a b i2
B0 = 0 (for any value of )
i
i 3
i/3 O
i i r r i
9. 3 10.
i
At the centre of At O, B = 0
cube, B = 0
i1 r1 O r2 i2
11. 12.
r r
O
At O, B = 0, such that 0 I
i1 i2r B0
r1 r ; r2 2r 2
i1 i 2 i1 i 2 ( is radian)
I I
r r
13. O I 14. O I
I I
0I 0I 0I
B0 B0
2 r 4r 4r
I P
15.
BP = 0 (at point P)
AMPERE CIRCUITAL LAW

It states that the line integral of resultant magnetic field over a closed path is equal to 0 times the algebraic
sum of the current threading the closed path in free space. Ampere's circuital law has the form
Upward Inward
Current Current
i1 i2
dl
B
 B .d i 0 ( i1 i2 )
 B.dl 0 i enc
Here  B.dl implies the integration of scalar product B. dl around a closed loop called an Amperian loop.
The current ienc is the net current encircled by the loop.
Applications of Ampere's Circuital Law

(1) Magnetic field due to a long thin current carrying wire
dl Amperian loop

 B·dl 0I
0I
B
2 r
(2) Magnetic field inside a long straight current carrying conductor
i R
r Amperian loop
Amperian loop r
dl , B dl
R
B
I
I r2
nR 2
 I 
 B·dl 0
 nR 2
r2 

0 r
B i.e. Bin r
2 R2
Graphical variation of magnetic field
B
–R
x
R
(3) Inside a hollow tube of current, magnetic field is zero.
SOLENOID
A long solenoid having number of turns/length ‘n’ carries a current I.
The magnetic field B is given by,

BP = 0nI (in between)
0 nI
Bend (near one end)
2
Force on a Moving Charge in Magnetic Field
F q (v B )
F = qvB sin

F is perpendicular to both v & B and is in the direction of v B when q > 0 and opposite to v B when
q < 0.
MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD B.

Case-1 : v B
×v × × ×
F v
× ×
r
× ×
O
× × ×F ×
F
× × × v×
mv 2 mv p 2km p2
F qvB r (k is kinetic energy). As k .
r qB qB qB 2m
Results
1. During revolution its speed is constant
2. During revolution its kinetic energy is constant
3. Work done by the magnetic force is zero
4. Velocity and momentum change continuously in direction, not in magnitude.
2 r 2 m
5. T (Independent of speed and radius)
v qB
6. Frequency f qB (Cyclotron frequency)

2 m
Case-2 : If v is not perpendicular to B . Let be the angle between v and B .
v sin
r
B
v cos
pitch
The particle moves in a helical path such that
mv sin 2 m
r ,T , Pitch = v cos ×T
qB qB
Case-3 : If charged particle is moving parallel or anti-parallel to field B then force is zero and it moves in
a straight line
Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a machine used to accelerate charge particle (like proton, deutron, -particle). It uses both
electric and magnetic field. Speed of particle is increased by electric field.
qB
Cyclotron frequency
2 m
q 2B 2Rmax
2
K max
2m
To accelerate electrons Betatron and Synchrotron are used. A synchrotron accounts for the variation in mass
with speed. A Betatron uses the induced electric field produced by a time varying magnetic field to accelerate
charged particles.
Force on a current carrying conductor in uniform field
B
I = Current through the conductor, = Length of the conductor
Bsin
F IB sin

F I ( B)

The direction of is always in the direction of current.
Some Important Cases
F = BI(2R)
BI(2R)
× × × × × × × × × ×
× × × F = BIL
iLB I I
L
× × × × × × × × × × × × O × ×
(1) i (2) (3) (4) T
R
I O R
× 2IBL × L
L × × × × × × × × × ×
× × i × ×
iLB
× × × × × × × × × ×
BI(2R)
Net F = 0
T = BIR
(tension in the wire)
FORCE BETWEEN TWO CURRENT CARRYING WIRES
to
F F I1 I2
I1 I2
Attraction Repulsion
r
to
0 I1I 2
F (force/unit length) is given by F .
2 r
0 I1I 2
The force on a segment of length ‘l’ is l
2 r
Force on a small current carrying segment placed near long and perpendicular current carrying wire.
0 i1i 2  l
log  1
 d 
FPQ
2
PQ 0
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

It is a device used to measure small current through the circuit.
Principle
When a current carrying coil is suitably placed in a magnetic field, torque acts on it. In moving coil
galvanometer radial field is used which is obtained from magnet having concave shape poles. In this type of
field plane of the coil is always parallel to the magnetic field so maximum torque acts on it.
Pointer Scale
g
p rin
S
N Coil
S
Soft iron
core
Cylinder

= NIAB [ = 90° due to radial field] ( Angle between M and B )
=C ( = Angle of twist)
where is angle turned by the pointer and C is restoring torque/twist in the suspension wire.
C
I
NBA
NBA
Current sensitivity =
I C
NBA
Voltage sensitivity =
V IR CR
MAGNETISM
BAR MAGNET
Magnetic field due to a Bar Magnet
B
Equatorial line or M 0 2 for a short

Broad side on B= 3 3 cos + 1 dipole only
position 4r
0 M 1
B= 2 2 3/2 r tan = tan
4 (r + I ) r 2
0 M Angle between M and B is +
Bshort = 3
4 r
+ P (Axial line or
S M N end on position)
0 2Mr
2l B= 2 2 2
4 (r – I )
r
0 2M
Bshort = 3
4 r
1. B axial is parallel to M .
2. B equatorial is antiparallel to M .
3. B M when + = 90° i.e., = 90° –
1 1
as tan tan cot tan or tan 2.
2 2
TORQUE ON A BAR MAGNET IN MAGNETIC FIELD
B
mB
N
2l
= mB × 2l sin
S
= m × 2l × B sin mB
= MB sin
Results :

1. M B , max = MB [when = 90°],
min =0 [when = 0 or 180°]

2. Net force on dipole is zero.

3. U M. B Umin = –MB at = 0°
Umax = MB at = 180°
4. Work done by external agent in rotating bar magnet from angular position 1 to 2 is
W = MB [cos 1 – cos 2]
5. A bar magnet kept in a non-uniform magnetic field experience a net force and may experience a torque.
Oscillations of a Bar Magnet in Magnetic Field

For small displacements from equilibrium position, bar magnet oscillates simple harmonically such that
MB
Angular frequency ;
I
I
Time period T 2
MB
Some important cases related to time period are given below

A bar magnet of length L is,
Pole strength Area of cross-section of magnetic dipole (m A)

M m 2l
L/2 L/2
-1
se
ca T = T/2 T = T/2
1. Cut into two halves
ca
se L
-2
T =T
A/2
T =T
A/2
I
where T 2
MB
2. Two bar magnets having magnetic moments M1, M2 and moment of inertias I1, I2 are joined as shown.
I1
I1 I 2 M1
(a) T1 2
(M1 M 2 )B
M2
I2
I1 I 2
(b) T2 2
(M1 M 2 )B
I1
M1
T22 T12 M1
T22 T12 M2 M2
I2
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
The basic components of earth’s magnetic field at a place are shown
Geographic meridian
1. = Angle of declination
2. = Angle of dip/inclination BH
3. BH = B cos BV
Magnetic
B
meridian
4. BV = B sin
5. BH2 + BV2 = B2
Note : The needle of a vertical compass in magnetic meridian points toward B.
BV
6. tan
BH
7. When the dip circle is not in magnetic meridian and dip circle is at an angle of 1 to magnetic meridian.
1
s
co
BH Apparent angle of dip = 1
1
BH
= True dip
BV B
[ = True dip angle, 1 and 2 = apparent dip angle in two arbitrary perpendicular)
BV
tan 1 (apparent dip) [Vertical component remains same]
BH cos 1
tan
tan 1
cos 1
8. cot 2 cot 2 1 cot 2 2, plane
PARA, DIA AND FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

All the elements of the nature are studied under the action of magnetic field and classified into three parts
according to following properties.
B0
1. Magnetic Intensity (Magnetising Force) : H
0
B0 is magnetic field in vacuum

SI unit = A/m
2. Intensity of Magnetisation : Magnetic moment developed/volume
M
I (Unit A/m)
V
Pole strength ∵ M m l
I  
area ∵ V A l
3. Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density (B) : Number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit
area normally through a magnetic substance.
B = B0 + 0I
B0 applied magnetic field 
B= 0H + 0I
 
 0 I magnetic field due to magnetisat ion 
B= 0 (H + I)
I
4. Magnetic Susceptibility : m (no unit)
H
B
5. Magnetic Permeability : B= H
H
From above B = 0(H + I)
H= 0 (H + I)
I
1
0 H
r 1 m where r = relative permeability.
Curie Law
Magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature.
1
m
T
Variation of I with H
1. Diamagnetic 2. Paramagnetic
I
H
H
I
3. Ferromagnetic (Hysteresis)
OB = Retentivity (residual magnetism even after magnetising field is reduced to zero)
OC = Coercivity (reverse magnetic field required to reduce residual magnetism to zero)
Area ABCDEFA = Energy loss/cycle during magnetisation and demagnetisation.
I
A I
B
C
O H H
F
D E
Steel
(High coercivity, high retentivity) Soft iron
(Low coercivity, low retentivity)

Chapter 13
Electromagnetic Induction
MAGNETIC FLUX

B.A BA cos ( = Angle between B and A )
A
B
k
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

d B
e (for a loop), for a plane coil having N turns
dt
Nd B d (N B )
e
dt dt
Note : Negative sign indicates opposition (explained by Lenz’s law).
Induced EMF in different cases

1. × B(+) 2. × × 3. × ×
× v
vsin v
v
l A(+) B(–)
B(–)
A(+) O R e = Bvl sin
e = Bv(2R)
A(–)
e = Bvl
4. 5. 6.
A B
A(+) r
A B B(–)
l (–) O
(+) R
1 1 1
e= Bl2 e= BR2 = 0 eOA = Br2
× 2 × 2 ×
AB
× 2 ×
×
Disc Part of Disc
102 Electromagnetic Induction Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
7. 8. 9.
× × (B) × × × A ×
A D
R
v v v
l R l
O
B C
B
A D
I =0 I
I =0
Bvl Bvl R
2BvR 2BvR Bvl
I
B C
Bvl
× × × × × I ×
R
10.
× × × ×
I
v r
R1 l R2  R1 R2
Bvl
× × × × Bvl
I
Sliding rod also has a R1R2
resistance ‘r ’ r
R1 + R2
11. 12.
× × × × × ×
× × × × × × v
× × × × × × i
× ×R× × × × b a
× × × × × ×
× × × × × ×
Einduced = 0 0 iv  a
ln 1
Ring 2  b 
MUTUAL AND SELF INDUCTANCE

Mutual Induction
Important cases :
1. Mutual inductance of two long solenoids :
0 N1N 2 A
M
l
N1 = Number of turns in one solenoid
N2 = Number of turns in other solenoid l
A = Area of cross-section of narrower solenoid
l = Length of solenoid
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Electromagnetic Induction 103
2. Two loops : R >> r
r I a
r
R b
r b
0 r2 8 a2 b2 2 0 r b
(a) M (b) M r (c) M a log  
2R 4 ab 2  r 
(For r << a, r << b)
Direction of Induced emf

(a) I is increasing (b) I is decreasing
e = LdI/dt e = LdI/dt
I I
(c) I is increasing (d) I is decreasing

e = LdI/dt e = LdI/dt
I I
Energy in Inductor
1 2 1 B2 I
Energy U B LI , Energy density =
2 2 0
Combination of Inductors
1. Inductor in series
L1 L2
When mutual inductance is neglected L = L1 + L2

When mutual inductance is considered L = L1 + L2 ± 2M
‘+’ sign is taken when flux of one coil supports the flux in other coil. ‘–’ sign is taken when flux of one
coil opposes the flux of other.
Here, M K L1L2 where K = coefficient of coupling.
2. Inductor in parallel
L1
L2
1 1 1
L L1 L2 (Neglecting mutual induction)
104 Electromagnetic Induction Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
L-R- CIRCUIT WITH D.C. SOURCE

Growth of Current
R L
At t = 0 the switch S
is closed
i
S
E t=0
E t
 L
i i e  . Here
R  R
Graph for variation of current (i) with time (t) is shown here.
i
E/R
E
0.63
R
t= t
INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD

A changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This field is non-conservative and always forms closed

dB
loop. Consider a region of magnetic field. The magnetic field strength is increasing at a rate . This creates
dt
anticlockwise electric field lines. Electric field strength at distance r from point O is given by
dB r
E For inside point
dt 2
R 2 dB
E For outside point
2r dt
Graphical variaton
B E
E r
E 1/r
r r
LC OSCILLATIONS
A charged capacitor is connected to an inductor and switch
is closed at t = 0. +
+
–
– S
–
+ –
+ –
The charge and current vary sinusoidally as, + –
q = q0 cos t [∵ at t = 0, q = q0] L
i = i0 sin t [∵ at t = 0, i = 0]
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Electromagnetic Induction 105

Graphical representation of this variation is as shown.
i q
t t
q0 1 1
i0 , , is frequency of LC oscillations
LC LC 2 LC
2
1 2 qmax
The maximum charge and maximum current in LC oscillation are related as LI max
2 2C
qmax Imax LC

Chapter 14
Alternating Current and
Electromagnetic Waves
AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE OF AC

1. Mean or Average value for time interval ‘t’
t t
1 1
E mean
t 
Edt , Imean
0
t 
Idt
0
The total charge flown in time ‘t’ in a wire is Q = Imean × t

2. Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
RMS value of ac is equal to that value of dc, which when passed through a resistance for a given time interval
will produce the same amount of heat as produced by the ac when passed through the same resistance for
same time. RMS values are also known as virtual or effective value.
t t
1 1 2
 
2
E rms E 2 dt , Irms
2
I dt
t t
0 0
PHASOR AND AC CIRCUITS

Different ac Circuits R
1. Resistive Circuit
I = I0 sin t E = E0 sin t
E0
I0 Generator
R
2. Inductive Circuit L
I = I0 sin ( t – /2)
E0
I0
X L , where XL = L = 2 fL
E = E0 sin t
Capacitive Circuit + –
+ –
–
1. I = I0 sin ( t + /2) + –
+ –
+ –
E0 1 1
2. I0 E = E0 sin t
X C , where XC =
C 2 fC
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Alternating Current and Electromagnetic Waves 107
SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
I L C I R I
V1 V2
E = E0 sin t
E0
V = rms value of applied voltage
2
V1 = rms voltage across L-C = VL – VC

V2 = rms voltage across R = VR
Phase Relationship
I and VR are in same phase in case of resistance.
VL leads I by 90° in case of inductor.
VC lags behind I by 90° in case of capacitor.
In general, V VR2 (VL VC )2
I R2 ( XL XC )2
(a) Impedance = Z R2 ( XL X C )2
R R
(b) Power factor = cos
Z R 2
( XL X C )2
POWER CONSUMED IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT
T
1
T 0
Pav EIdt
If E = E0 sin t and I = I0 sin ( t + )
E 0 I0
Pav cos
2
E0 I0
. cos
2 2
Ev Iv cos [Ev = Virtual or rms voltage, Iv = Virtual or rms current]
cos is known as power factor.

The inductor and capacitor are wattless components of ac circuit as their power consumption is zero.
108 Alternating Current and Electromagnetic Waves Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves. They transport energy and momentum and carries
information. They are transverse in nature and hence they can be polarised.
An electromagnetic wave is the one constituted by oscillating electric and magnetic fields which oscillate
in two mutually perpendicular planes; the wave itself propagates in a direction, perpendicular to both the
directions of oscillations of electric and magnetic fields.
Important Points Regarding Electromagnetic Waves Characteristics

y
E0
x-axis
(direction of propagation
B0 is E × B )
B (Transverse in nature)
1. Both electric and magnetic field vary in phase with each other.

2. Ey E0 sin( t kx ) jˆ, Bz B0 sin( t kx )kˆ, speed v
k
1 1
3. In vacuum, c . In a medium v .
0 0
c
Refractive index of the medium r r .
v
E E0 Erms
4. = c (speed) =
B B0 Brms k
1 2 1 B02 1 2 1 B02
5. Average energy density Uav 0E0 0E0
2 2 0 4 4 0
6. Poynting vector S represents instantaneous intensity at a point
E B EB
S or S . Here E B represents the direction of flow of energy.
0 0
7. Intensity : Average rate of flow of energy per unit time per unit area in the direction of wave propagation.
Erms Brms 1 E 0 B0
I = Sav =
0 2 0
I
I = c × Uav or U av
c
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Alternating Current and Electromagnetic Waves 109
P
For a point source of power P, Intensity at a distance r from the source is I .
4 r2
I P
Now U av
c 4 r 2c
1 2 P P
 0E0 2
 E0
2 4 r c 2 r 2c 0
E0 P 0
B0
c 2 r 2c
8. Radiation pressure (for normal incidence)
(a) For perfectly absorbing surface P = I/c
(b) For perfectly reflecting surface P = 2I/c
(c) For all other surfaces I/c < P < 2I/c
(d) For a surface of reflectance r
I
P (1 r )
c

9. The direction of wave propagation is always along E B and E, B, c are always perpendicular.
10. Speed of electromagnetic waves only depends upon the medium. All the electromagnetic waves travels
with equal speed (i.e. 3 × 108 m/s) in vacuum.
11. When a electromagnetic wave travels from one medium to another then its speed changes but frequency
remains same.
c
12. Speed of electromagnetic waves in any medium = [where is the refractive index of the
electromagnetic waves]

Chapter 15
Optics
PLANE MIRROR
Following are some important points regarding image formation by plane mirror :
Real object
O I
Virtual image
u0 v0
1. Object distance = Image distance, |u0| = |v0|.
du dv
2. , i.e., speed of object w.r.t. mirror is equal to speed of image w.r.t. mirror. For example, if object
dt dt
is at rest and mirror is moving with velocity x towards object then velocity of image will be 2x.
3. For extended object, it can be seen that height of object = height of image.
Height of image
Magnification = 1
Height of object
A A
B B
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Optics 111

4. Image is laterally inverted, i.e., it has front back reversed.
y y
x x
5. Keeping incident ray fixed, if a plane mirror is rotated by an angle , reflected ray rotates by an angle 2 .
6. For two mirrors inclined at an angle ‘ ’. Number of images formed by the mirrors for a point object are
360 360
(a) 1 , if = even number
360 360
(b) 1 , when = odd and object is placed symmetrically.
360 360
(c) , when = odd and object is placed unsymmetrically.
REFLECTION FROM CURVED SURFACES
R
1. f where,
2
f = Focal length
u = Object distance
2. 1 1 1 v = Image distance
f v u I = Size of image
O = Size of object
I v f v f
3. m
O u f f u
4. Magnification is negative for inverted image and positive for erect image.
5. If object O is moving with velocity v0 as shown in figure then velocity of image vimage = –m2v0
O
v0
. .
1 1 1
.
v u f
dv v 2  du 
dt u 2  dt 
vimage = –m2v0
112 Optics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
6. If object is moving with velocity v0 as shown in figure then velocity of real image vimage = mv0
v0
Image formation for Concave Mirror

Table : Position and nature of image for a given position of object
S.No. Position of object Ray diagram Details of image
P
1. At infinity C F Real inverted, very small
[m (0–)]; at focus or
M in focal plane.
O M
2. Between F and C P Real, inverted, large

C F
(m < – 1) beyond C
I M
3. Between F and P Virtual, erect (m > + 1)

Behind the mirror
C FO P
For Convex Mirror

Table: Position and nature of image for a given position of object
S.No. Position of object Ray diagram Details of image
1. In front of mirror Virtual, erect, diminished
O
(m < + 1) between P and F
P I F C

Laws of Refraction (Snell’s Law)
Consider a light ray crossing a series of media as shown.
1sin 1 = 2sin 2 = 3sin 3 = 4sin 4 = 1sin 1
sin = Constant
3
3
Incident and refracted are parallel

if they are in same medium
REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Consider that rays from object O are going from medium 2 to 1 ( 2 > 1) and image is formed at I.
OP PI
(By Snell’s law)
2 1
1 1
PI OP x
2 2 P
∵ 1 < 2, PI < OP
x I
   
Shift x 1  Shift = x 1
1
   2
O
Velocity of image = (Velocity of object)
Glass-slab
O
Different results for refraction by glass slab are :
x
1. Incident and emergent rays are parallel. i Medium 1 (air)
O
t sin(i r ) Medium 2
2. l = lateral displacement = r ‘ ’
cos r glass
l
for small values of i, sin(i – r) i – r and r 0.
incident ray
 i  1 emergent
l = t i  ti 1  ray
   
3. l lmax, when i 90º
4. O O 5. t O O
‘ ’  1
 1 ‘ ’ t 1– 
t 1–   
 
t
If an object is placed at distance x from plane mirror then image will be formed at distance of x from mirror.
O I
Now if a glass slab of thickness t is introduced between object and mirror then image will shift toward object
 
by 2t 1 1 
 
 
O I I
shift
t
x
Critical Angle
If a ray is travelling from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, then critical angle may be defined as
the angle of incidence in denser medium corresponding to which angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90°.
If 1 = refractive index of rarer medium
Normal
2 = refractive index of denser medium
1
and ic = critical angle
r = 90°
then 2sin ic = 1 sin 90°
Grazing
ic emergence
1
sin i c 2(> 1)
2
Spherical Refracting Surface Normal

For object O, image formed by refracting surface is at I.
1
2
Object distance (u) and image distance (v) are related as
O P C I
2 1 2 1
u R
v u R v

Some Important Relations for Lenses
Converging (Convex) lens Diverging (Concave) lens
O = Optical centre O = Optical centre

O F = Focus O F = Focus
F F
f>0 f<0
1 1 1
1. Lens formula
v u f
I m 0 for inverted image

2. Linear magnification m
O m 0 for erect image
v f f v
3. In lenses, m
u f u f
4. A convex mirror or a concave lens can form a real image if object is virtual as shown.
P I
real image I O F C O O
virtual
object
5. If an object moves along the axis of a convex lens from infinity towards its focus with a constant speed, then
v2
vi = m2v0, for a lens vi = v0
u2
6. If an object moves perpendicular to axis of a convex lens with a velocity v0 then vi = mv0
LATERAL MAGNIFICATION
AB vB vA
mL
AB uA uB
uA
For short object A B
uB
p
dv
mL B A
du vA
vB
v2
For a concave mirror, mL
u2
v2
For a convex lens, mL
u2
Lens and Mirror

A point object is placed in front of a convex lens. A convex mirror is placed behind the lens, so that final image
coincides with the object itself.
Case 1 Case II
O I O I P
u v
C u v
Final image is real and inverted and coincides with O Final image is real and erect and coincides with O
Lens Maker’s Formula (For thin lenses)
1  2  1 1 
For a thin lens, P (Power )  1  
f  1   R1 R2 
O I I1
(R1) v
1 2 (R1) 1
u v
COMBINATION OF LENSES
1. In contact : P1 P2
P = P1+ P2, P is taken with sign f1 f2
1 1 1
f f1 f2
2. P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2
P1 P2
1 1 1 d
f f1 f2 f1f2 (Applicable only for parallel rays)
f1 f2
where d is the separation between two lenses in air
d
Silvering of Lenses
1. When a convex lens is silvered it will behave like a concave mirror.
2. When a concave lens is silvered it will behave like a convex mirror.
3. Case-1 : When one face ( of radius of curvature R2) of a double convex lens is silvered
Peq = 2Pl + Pm R2
1  1 1  2 R1
2( 1)  
Feff  R1 R2  R2

PRISM AND DISPERSION
A
Angle of prism
A
i e
r1 r2
Incident Emergent ray
ray
B C
Base
Note :
1. The variation of with i is unsymmetrical.
2. Under minimum deviation, ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
3. If prism is isosceles or equilateral, refracted ray is parallel to base of prism under minimum deviation.
A
4. If A > 2C or cosec
, there will be no emergent light whatever may be the angle of incidence.
2
5. A = 2C is called limiting value of angle of prism.
6. If A < C, total internal reflection at second face can never take place.
7. In case, one face is silvered, for incident ray to retrace its path after
A
reflection from 2nd face.
r2 = 0 r1 = A
i r1 sin i
sin A
8. Angle of deviation is maximum when angle of incidence = 90º.
9. A thin hollow prism as shown produces zero deviation.
Dispersion
B C D A V
A 2 4 6
... [Cauchy’s formula]
R
R
= ( – 1)A
White Y
As, < ray
V R V
 V > R
 V< R
= angular dispersion = V R ( V R )A
= Mean deviation = ( – 1)A
V R
= mean refractive index =
2
( V R )A V R d
Dispersive power
( 1)A 1 1
d = difference in refractive index
Combination of Prisms
= 1 + 2, = 1 + 2
Case-1 : For dispersion without deviation

=0 A
 ( 1)A ( 1)A 0
Case-2 : For deviation without dispersion A
=0
 ( V R )A ( V R )A 0
Chromatic Aberration
This is the phenomena observed when different colours come to focus at different points on the principal axis.
This defect can be removed by using an achromatic lens combination.
b c
As, a 2 4
White light
and R> Y > v
fV fY fR
R< Y < v
 1  1 1 
fR > fY > fv as ( 1) 
 f  R1 R2 
Achromatic Combination
A combination free from chromatic aberration is achromatic combination.
1. Lenses in contact
1 1
Power P P1 P2
f1 f2
Condition for achromatism

f1 f2
1 2
0 or
f1 f2 1P1 + 2P2 =0
P1 and P2 or f1 and f2 should be opposite sign also 1 2 as P will become zero.
1 1 d
2. P P1 P2 dP1P2
f1 f2 f1f2
1f2 2 f1
Condition for achromatism d .
1 2
f1 d f2
Note : (a) f1 and f2 can be of same or opposite sign
f1 f2
(b) = d
1 2
2

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Simple Microscope / Magnifying Glass : It uses a single convex lens of focal length f
D
m , where u is distance of object
u
Case-1 :
F
B
f
(Final image at infinity)
D
For relaxed eye, u f , image at m= >0
f
Case-2 :
A
B F B
D
(Final image at least distance of distinct vision)
D
For strained eye, image is at D m= 1 >0
f
2. Compound Microscope
It uses two convex lens objective (fo) and eyepiece (fe)
uo = object distance from objective (uo is close to fo)
vo = image distance from objective (close to length of tube)
vo
Magnification by objective mo = (–ve)
uo
D
Magnification by eyepiece me =
ue
Magnification for microscope
vo D
m = mo × me =
uo ue
Case-1 :
Eyepiece
Objective lens
B Fe
F0
vo D LD
Relaxed eye : m  
uo fe fo  fe 
Length of tube L = V0 + fe
Case-2 :
Eyepiece
Objective lens
Fe B
B
A
(Final image at least distance of distinct vision )
vo  D L D
Strained eye : m 1  1 
uo  fe  fo  fe 
fe D
Length of tube V0
fe D

3. Astronomical Telescope : fo is focal length of
objective and fe is focal length of eye-piece.
m = mo × me here mo < 0, me > 0., m < 0

Case-1 :
fo
For relaxed eye i.e., normal adjustment. m
fe
Length of tube L = fo + fe
Objective
Eyepiece
Fo Fe
B
C1 C2
fo fe
Case-2 :
Objective
Eyepiece
B Fe B Fo
A
D
(Final image at least distance of distinct vision)
fo  fe 
For strained eye : m 1 
fe  D
length of tube L < fo + fe
WAVE OPTICS
Plane Wavefront (Plane sheet source)

1. Amplitude = constant A r0
2. Intensity = constant I r0
Refraction in form of Wavefronts
1. 2.
Plane
Plane Converging Diverging
wavefront
wavefront wavefront wavefront Diverging
wavefront
3.
Plane Plane
wavefront wavefront
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
B
Wave-1 : y1 = A sin t
Wave-2 : y2 = B sin ( t + ) R
Resultant wave : y = y1 + y2 y = A sin t + B sin ( t + )

A
y = R sin ( t + )
B sin
where tan
A B cos
and R A2 B2 2 AB cos
Intensity (Amp)2 I1 A2, I2 B2, I R2
As, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I 2 cos

Relation between phase difference and path difference
For the two points A and B on a wave,
AB =2
XAB = A B
2
x
Condition for Maxima

When cos = 1 or = 2n or x = n (path difference)
2
Rmax = A + B, Imax = I1 I2
Condition for Minima
When cos = – 1 or = (2n –1) or x (2n 1)

2
2
Rmin = A – B, Imin = ( I1 I2 )
2 2
Rmax A B Imax  I1 I 2   1  I1
  , where
Rmin A B Imin  I I 2   1  I2
 1 
Interference
Phenomenon of redistribution of energy on account of superposition of waves is known as interference.
Coherent Sources
Condition for sustained interference-Sources must be coherent i.e., phase difference between them must be
constant.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment

P
S1
M y
D
d D
O 2d
d
S C 4I0
x N d
=D
S2
D
Screen
For waves reaching P from S1 and S2, path difference x d sin .
yd  y
For small x ∵ sin tan
D 
D 
Condition for Maxima

D
For maxima x = n y n (n = 0, 1, 2, …)
d
or d sin =n
n
sin =
d
Condition for Minima

( 2n 1) D
For minima x (2n 1) y (n = 1, 2, …)
2 2d
(2n 1)
or d sin
2
(2n 1)
sin
2d
If and d are comparable then, as –1 sin 1
(2n 1)
1 1
2d
2d 2d
n
2 2
From here you can find maximum number of dark fringes observed on the screen.
For example, if d = 2 , then
4 4
n
2 2
3 5
n so, n can have four values i.e., –1, 0, 1, 2.
2 2
This means that only four minima are observed on the screen.
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is the phenomenon of light observed due to superposition of secondary wavelets starting from different
points of a wavefront which is not blocked by an obstacle or which are allowed by an aperture (of size
comparable to the wavelength of light).
In other words you can say diffraction is the phenomena of entering of light in the region of geometrical shadow,
due to bending around obstacle edges.
Diffraction by Single Slit

Plane
wavefront
r1 P
r2 A
a/2
x
O
a/2
B
Slit
Screen
a
1. x sin
2
2. For ‘O’ waves from all points in the slit travel about the same distance and are in phase.
a
3. At P, waves r1 and r2 have a phase difference x sin .
2
a
4. When sin 1 , there will be destructive interference.
2 2
when a sin 1 = , first minima will be formed at P.
5. In general a sin n = n is position of nth minima.
 
6. Angular position of first minima 1 sin 1  
a 
  2
7. Angular spread of central maximum is 2 = 2 sin 1   . If << a, then angular spread = .
1
a a
8. When >a sin > 1 which is not possible

diffraction cannot be observed.
9. < < a, then sin (in radians)

a
2 D
10. Width of central maximum =
a
D
11. Width of other fringes = .
a
4I 0
12. If I0 is the intensity of central maximum, then intensity of nth maxima is I n
(2n 1)2 2
I0 : I1 : I2 : : 1 : 0.045 : 0 : 016.
13. The intensity of fringe goes on decreasing in case of diffraction while it remain nearly same in the interference.
Polarization
Polarization is a phenomenon exhibited by transverse waves only.
Polarizer Analyser
A
C
Unpolarized Polarized D Polarized

light of B light of light of
I
intensity I0 intensity I0 intensity = 0 cos2 (Law of Malus)
2 2
where = angle between the transmission
(i.e., AB and CD) axis of the two polaroids
Polarization by Reflection
Unpolarized
light
Air Reflected fully
polarized
Air i i Reflected, partially ip ip
polarized
Medium
Medium ( ) r ( ) r
Refracted
Refracted
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
1. Reflected light is partially polarized.

2. When i = ip (polarizing angle), reflected light is completely polarized, ip is also called Brewster’s angle.
3. When reflected light is completely polarized, reflected and refracted light are perpendicular to each other.
4. This was found experimentally by Sir David Brewster.
At this situation ip + r = 90°
= tan ip. This is called Brewster’s law.
1
tan i p
sin i c
sin i c . tan i p 1 [Here ic is critical angle]

Chapter 16
Dual Nature of Matter and
Radiation, Atoms and Nuclei
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES
The following points should be kept in mind :
1. Any particle in motion can act like a wave. Wave associated with a particle is called Matter wave or
de-Broglie wave.
h h h
2. de-Broglie wavelength of a particle .
mv p 2mEk
where p = mv is momentum of particle
Ek = kinetic energy.
3. For an electron accelerated through V volts.
h 12.27 150
Ek eV Å or Å
2meV V V
0.286
4. For a proton accelerated through V volts, Å
V
0.101
5. For an -particle accelerated through V volts, Å
V
nh h 2 r
6. For an electron revolving in nth orbit of Bohr’s Hydrogen atom, mvr , .
2 mv n
X-RAYS
Variation of intensity (I) of X-rays with wavelength :
Intensity (I)
K
K
min Wavelength ( )
128 Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation, Atoms and Nuclei Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Important points related to the above curve :
1. At certain sharply defined wavelength, the intensity of X-rays is very large as marked K and K . These
are known as characteristic X-rays.
2. At other wavelengths intensity varies continuously. These are known as continuous X-rays.
3. Minimum wavelength or cut off wavelength or threshold wavelength of continuous X-rays,
hc 12400 Å
min , where V is applied voltage in volts.
eV V
4. The minimum wavelength does not depend on the material of target. It depends only on the accelerating
potential.
5. Continuous X-rays are due to continuous loss of energy of electrons striking the target through successive
collisions.
6. Characteristic X-rays are due to the transition of electrons from higher energy level to the vacant space
present in the lower energy level.
hc
7. Wavelength of K , ( transition from L to K )
EL EK
hc
8. Wavelength of K , (transition from M to K )
EM EK
Moseley’s law : Applicable to characteristic X-rays only.
Mathematically a(Z b) a and b are Moseley’s constants, is frequency of X-rays.
Z is atomic number of the target atom.
For K X-ray,
3Rc
a=
4
b=1
Diffraction of X-Rays
Bragg’s Law : 2d sin = n [condition for constructive interference]
where, = wavelength of X-ray.
d = separation between crystal planes.

d
= angle between X-ray beam and crystal plane.
2d sin : Path difference
Davisson and Germer’s accidental discovery of the diffraction of electrons was the first direct evidence confirming
de Broglie’s hypothesis that particles have wave properties as well.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation, Atoms and Nuclei 129
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The emission of electrons from a metallic surface when illuminated with light of appropriate wavelength
(or frequency) is known as photoelectric effect. It was discovered by Hertz in 1887.
Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect

Light of frequency consists of stream of packets or quanta of energy E = h . These are called photons.
In the process of photoemission, a single photon gives up all its energy to a single electron. As a result, the
electron can be ejected instantaneously.
Light of frequency
Cathode or and intensity I
photosensitive Anode
metal
e
Photoelectrons
A
V
Potential divider
Exp. set up photoelectric effect
Work Function ( ) : It is the minimum energy of photon required to liberate an electron from a metal surface.
Threshold Frequency ( 0) : The frequency of incident radiation below which photoelectric effect does not take
place. h 0 = .
Stopping Potential (V0) : The smallest negative value of anode potential which just stops the photocurrent
is called the stopping potential.
If the stopping potential is V0 then eV0 = KEmax = Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted.
The following important points should be kept in mind :
1. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons varies between zero to KEmax.
2. If ( > 0) is frequency of incident photon, h 0 is work function then h – h 0 = KEmax. This is Einstein’s
photoelectric equation. Here h is Planck’s constant.
3. Efficiency of photoelectric emission is less than 1%. It means it is not necessary that if the energy of
incident photon is greater than work function electrons will definitely be ejected out.
4. If frequency of incident radiation ( ) is doubled, stopping potential (V0) or kinetic energy maximum (K.E.max)
gets more than doubled.
5. If on a neutral ball made up of metal of work function , radiation of frequency (greater than threshold
frequency) is incident, number of photoelectrons emitted from the ball before the photoelectric emission
(h )4 0R
stops is given by n .
2
e
6. Saturation current depends upon intensity of incident light whereas stopping potential depends upon
frequency of light as mentioned in graphs also.
Graphs for Photoelectric Effect (Lenard’s Observations)

Following graphs are important :
V0 Photocurrent
Metal 1 I2 IS1 and IS2
Metal 2 IS2 saturation
I1
IS1 currents
Stopping
potential I2 > I1
Slope = h/e = tan
= constant
2 > 1
1. 2.
1
Frequency
e 0 0
V0
0 > 0 Stopping Retarding potential
2
potential
e
Saturation Photocurrent
Photocurrent
2
2 > 1
3. 4. 1
Intensity : Constant
I
Intensity –VS2 –VS1
ATOMS AND NUCLEI

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
In 1913 Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, introduced a revolutionary concept i.e., the quantum concept to explain
the stability of an atom. He made a simple but bold statement that “The old classical laws which are applicable
to bigger bodies cannot be directly applied to the sub-atomic particles such as electrons or protons”.
Postulates of Bohr’s Theory

1. Electron revolves round the nucleus in circular orbits.
2. Electron can revolve only in those orbits in which angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus
h
is an integral multiple of
2
nh
i.e., mvr
2
n = principal quantum number of the orbit in which electron is revolving.

3. Electrons in an atom can revolve only in discrete circular orbits called stationary energy levels (shells).
An electron in such a shell is characterised by a definite energy, angular momentum and orbit number.
While an electron is in any of these orbits it does not radiate energy although it is accelerated.
4. Electrons can jump from one stationary orbit to another stationary orbit. Electrons in outer orbits have
greater energy than those in inner orbits. The orbiting electron emits energy when it jumps from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state and absorbs energy when it makes a jump from lower orbits to higher
orbits. This energy (emitted or absorbed) is in form of photons.
E3
E2
E1
Nucleus
E2 – E1 = h
where, E2 = higher energy state
E1 = lower energy state
and = frequency of photons of radiation/emitted absorbed.
Mathematical Analysis of Bohr’s Theory

v
r Electron
+
Nucleus
+Ze
Electric force of attraction provides the centripetal force
1 (Ze) e mv 2
...(i)
4 0 r2 r
where, m = mass of electron

v = velocity (linear) of electron
r = radius of the orbit in which electron is revolving
Z = atomic number of hydrogen like atom
nh
Angular momentum about the nucleus, mvr ...(ii)
2
(a) Velocity of electron in nth orbit
Putting value of mvr from equation (ii) into equation (i),
1  nh 
Ze 2  v
4 0 2 
Z  e2  Z
v   .v 0 ...(iii)
n  2 0 h  n
where,
c
v0 = 2.2 × 106 m/s
137
v0 1
where c = 3 × 108 m/s = speed of light in vacuum, = fine structure constant
c 137
(b) Radius of the nth orbit

Putting value of v from equation (iii) in equation (ii), we get,
Z e 2  nh
m r
n 2 0 h  2

n2  0h2  n2
r  2
.r0 ...(iv)
Z  me  Z
where,
r0 = 0.53 Å.
(c) Total energy of electron in n th orbit
From equation (i)
1 Ze 2
K.E. mv 2
2 8 0r
1 (Ze ) ( e )
and P.E. 2 K.E.
4 0 r
P.E. = – 2 K.E.
Total energy, E = K.E. + P.E. = – K.E.
Z 2  me 4  Z2
E .E 0
n 2  8 02 h 2  n2
where, E0 = –13.6 eV.

(d) Time period of revolution of electron in nth orbit
2 r n3
T .T0
v Z2
where,
T0 = 1.51 × 10–16 s.
(e) Frequency of revolution in nth orbit
1 Z2
f .f0
T n3
where,
f0 = 6.6 ×1015 Hz.
(f) Magnetic field at the centre due to revolution of electron
0I 0e 0e v
B
2r 2r T 2r 2 r
2
v Z  Z  Z3
B  B  2  B
r 2 n n  n5
(g) Wavelength of photon
1  1 1 2
R 2 Z
 n1 n22 
where,
is called wave number.
R = Rydberg constant
= 1.09677 × 107 m–1
= 1.09677 × 10–3 Å–1 (for stationary nucleus)
 1  –1
 912  Å
 
BINDING ENERGY
The amount of energy needed to separate the constituent nucleons to large distances is called binding energy.
If the nucleons are initially well separated and are brought to form the nucleus, this much energy is released.
BE (ZM p NM n M )c 2 (Where M = mass of nucleus and N = A – Z)
Mp = Mass of proton, Mn = Mass of neutron.
Binding Energy Curve

B.E./nucleon is very low for light nuclei. This means energy will be released if two nuclei combine to form a
single middle mass nucleus. The release of energy in a fusion process is based on this fact.
10
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
56
32 Fe 100
Mo
O S
127
16
I 184 197
W An 238
U
8
4 18
He O
14
N
6 6
Li
4
3
H
2
2
H
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Mass number (A)
Likewise, the low B.E. per nucleon for heavy nuclei indicates that if a single heavy nucleus breaks up into
middle mass nuclei, energy will be released. Release of energy in fission process is based on this fact.
Note : 1. Binding energy per nucleon is practically constant for 30 < A < 170.
2. B.E. per nucleon is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170).
RADIOACTIVITY
Law of Radioactive Disintegration
dN
N
dt
dN
N ( is decay constant)
dt
t
N N0e
dN t
Activity A N0e
dt
λt
A A0 e
Half Life (T1/2)
ln 2 0.693
T1/ 2
Let N0 be the initial number of active nuclei and N be the number of active nuclei remaining after n half lives
0
then N .
2n
Application : Let R1 be activity of radioactive substance at t = T1 and R2 be the activity at t = T2, then
R1 = N1 and R2 = N2
Number of nuclei disintegrated in (T2 – T1) is
R1 R2 (R1 R2 )T
N1 N 2
ln 2
where T is the half life of radioactive substance.
Average Life (Tav)
1 T1/2
Tav or Tav = 1.44 T1/2 or T1/2 = 0.693 Tav
ln 2

Chapter 17
Electronic Devices and
Communication Systems
DIODE AS RECTIFIER
A device to convert ac into dc.
1. Half Wave Rectifier
I0
I0 Irms
I0 2
Input RL Output I0
Imean
Irms
Step down form factor 1.57
transformer Imean
Important points :
a. Input frequency = Out put frequency.
b. Maximum Efficiency = 40.6%
2
ac component Irms
c. Ripple factor r 2
1 1.21 .
dc component Imean
0.406 RL
d. Efficiency of half wave rectifier
rf RL
2. Full Wave Rectifier
I0 I0
Input I0 Irms
Output
RL 2
2I 0
Centre tap Imean
transformer
a. Out put frequency = 2 × input frequency
b. Maximum Efficiency = 81.2%.
c. Ripple factor r = 0.48.
0.812 RL
d. Efficiency of full wave rectifier
rf RL
136 Electronic Devices and Communication Systems Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Symbols used for transistors are shown here :
PNP NPN
P N P N P N
h h e h h e e h e e
h h h h h h
e h e e e e e e
e e
h
e
h e h
e
h
h h eh e
Emitter BaseCollector Emitter BaseCollector
E C E C
B B
Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier
Ie Ib Ic
PNP NPN
Ic Ic
Ib RL Ib RL Output
Output Ie
Ie
Input
VBB VCC VBB VCC

Input vi = Vi sin t Output v0 = V0 sin ( t ± )
Vi
V0
Important Points related to CE-Amplifier

1. There is phase reversal of 180°.
Ic
2. DC current gain .
Ib
Ic
3. AC current gain ac .
Ib
V0
4. AC voltage gain Av .
Vi
5. AC power gain = ac × Av [maximum in CE mode]
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Electronic Devices and Communication Systems 137
RL
6. Resistance gain Rg (Ri = input resistance).
Ri
1 1
7. 1
8. < 1, >1
Ic
9. Transconductance g m
Vi
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Communication of information to each other is a basic human activity. For example, one person wishes to tell
something or give a message to another person sitting near him. Then he speaks and transmits sound waves
through air medium or channel. The other person receives the message by listening through his/her ears. In
modern communication systems the information is first converted into electrical signals or electromagnetic waves
and then sent electronically. This has the advantage of speed, reliability and possibility of communicating over
long distances.
The key to communication system is to obtain an electrical signal voltage or current which contains the
information. For example, a microphone can convert speech signals into electrical signals. Similarly, pressure
can be sensed by piezoelectric sensor which gives pressure in terms of electrical signal. A signal is defined
as a single-valued function of time (that conveys the information) and which, at every instant of time
has a unique value.
Transmission
Generation
of
Transmitter Receiver
Information
Signal
Channel
Basic units of all communication systems

1. An AM-wave is equivalent to the summation of three sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are c, ( c+ m)
mVc mVc
and ( – m) and the amplitudes are respectively Vc, and
c
2 2
2. The frequency fc is known as carrier frequency and (fc + fm) and (fc – fm) are known as Upper side band
and Lower side band respectively.
Note : In an AM-wave the difference between upper side band and lower side band (which is equal
to 2fm) is known as the band width.
Graphically, the carrier frequency and the side bands can be shown as :
Amplitude
Ac
mAc
2
f (Hz)
(fc – fm) fc (fc + fm)
138 Electronic Devices and Communication Systems Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Space Wave Propagation or Tropospheric Wave Propagation

The transmitted waves, travelling in a straight line, directly reach the receiver end and are then picked up by
the receiving antenna. This mode of communication is termed as Line of sight communication.
Q
d h
A P B
O
Ray pat h of tr ans mi tted wav es fol lowi n g
space-wave (or line of sight) mode of propagation.
The transmitter is located at the ground on a tall lower.
Range
 r : Radius of earth 
d= 2rh  h : Height of transmitting antenna 
 
This distance is of the order of 40 km.


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Physics and Measurement

DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

S. No. Physical quantity Dimensional formula Useful result

Stress, Pressure, Energy ML –1 T–2 –

2 Physics and Measurement Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Rules for counting the significant figures

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Physics and Measurement 3

Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

Rounding Off of Uncertain Digits

a Mean absolute Error

4 Physics and Measurement Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

(ii) In Difference : If Z = A – B, then maximum absolute error is Z = A + B and maximum fractional

LEAST COUNT OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Physics and Measurement 5

Table : SI Units and Dimensions of Some Important Physical Quantities

S.No. Quantity SI Unit Dimensional Formula

6 Physics and Measurement Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

19. Universal Gravitational Nm2 kg–2 [M–1L3T–2]

DISTANCE TRAVERSED AND SPEED

Distance traversed (Path length)

8 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

Sn th = Displacement of the particle in nth second

Tangent (v-t graph)

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 9

Shaded area = vf – vi = change in velocity during interval ti to tf

Also, A1 + A2 = Distance covered in time (tf – ti)

8. In velocity-position graph, the acceleration of particle of any position x0 is given as.

10 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

Velocity of ball when it reaches ground

‘–’ sign indicate that velocity will be in downward direction.

(c) Speed of particle when it hits the ground = u

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 11

12 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

(b) | R | ( A2 B2 2 AB cos )1/ 2

(e) If | A | | B | then <

(f) Rmax = A + B, when = 0 and Rmin = |A – B| when = 180°.

(g) R2 A2 B 2 , if = 90° i.e., A and B are perpendicular.

(h) If | A | | B | | R | , then = 120°.

Subtraction of vector B from vector A is simply addition of vector B with A i.e., A B A ( B)

Using parallelogram law,

Note : If | A | | B | x (say) , then R = x 2(1 cos ) = 2 x sin .

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 13

vector P and Q along P and Q respectively.

SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

Scalar product is commutative i.e., A . B B.A .

Mathematically, if is the angle between vectors A and B , then

14 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

direction of vector A B (Fig. b).

RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 15

Distance drifted along the river D t vx

16 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 17

5. Instantaneous velocity v u2 (gt )2 2u(gt ) sin

18 Kinematics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank

The angular displacement vector is d d kˆ y

Relations among various quantities.

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Kinematics 19