b)

c).

2. a).
b)?
c)
3.
4.Explain Charging and discharging properties of Batteries. What is the difference between a
string and an array of PV solar cells.
5. Write short note on
a. Types of LED
b. Use of Buck boost converter in Grid connected PV system
c. How testing of LEDs is done?
6. Give a brief insight on working principle of LED and buck boot converter
 Question:-1
A.What is the difference between a string and an array of PV solar cells.
An array of PV solar cells
 A solar panel or PV module is made up of
several cells, while multiple solar panels
wired in a series or parallel is called a solar
array.
 If we have two or more solar panels wired
together, that is a solar / PV array.
 the solar panel or module as the housing for
the cells. So a 12V solar panel / module has
36 or 72 cells connected in parallel or series.
To increase power, several solar panels or
modules may be wired together to create a
solar or PV array.
 It depends upon Your location, electricity
usage and available space on your roof (or
ground) will determine how many panels
make up array.
 The combination of series and parallel
connections may lead to several problems in
PV arrays.
A string of PV solar cells
 A string consists of solar panels
wired in a series set into one input
on a solar string inverter.
  String sizing refers to solar panels
can and should be wired to an
inverter for best results.
 A string panel can wire up to 8
solar panels into one inverter input.
Most inverters have 3 string inputs
so up to 24 solar panels can be
connected.
 The number of solar panels will
depend on the inverter operational
range. 
 A series-connected set of solar cells
or modules is called a "string".
 A. Explain how the testing of PV strings is done?

Answer:-The String Tester application is activated, the Z200 Analyzer will set
up a series of measurements based on deriving the basic solar cell impedance,
which gives the user a fast overview of the general health state of the PV
module string under test. Series resistance in PV panels derives from different
components of solar power installations. In the exterior of the PV system, we
find series resistance in cables and worn connectors. Within the PV module, we
find resistance in the junction box connections and bypass diodes. The solar
cells in the PV module represent the most complex source of series resistance. 
The silver busbar and “fingers” on the cell surface have series resistance, and
we also find resistance in the front and back contact materials. Although the
many series resistance components are complex, the general understanding is
that high resistance is problematic, and low series resistance is desirable in solar
PV systems. 
With the Z200 PV Analyzer PV testing becomes easy and the build-in
troubleshooting features help the operator to quickly solve problems in the field.

The Z200 PV Analyzer will automatically measure and calculate a range of

solar panel string impedance values. After interpretation, these values helps
greatly as characteristic pattern for any type of fault that may be present in the
PV array. Increased series resistance reduces the solar PV system fill factor
“FF”. But note that when a high series resistance exists in a solar PV system,
there is a danger of electrical power dissipation in the areas with high resistance
also.
Such power dissipation causes burn marks and disconnections in Solar PV
strings. Often cabling and module connectors turn out to be the actual problem.
Below we see an example of Solar PV system cable-connectors with series
resistance caused by wear, tear, and moisture.
 B. Among different types of PV cell which type is commercially used and
why?

Answer:- There are three types of PV cell technologies that dominate the world
market: monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and thin film.

Silicon Solar Cells

The majority of the solar cells on the market today are made of some type of
silicon - by some estimates, 90% of all solar cells are made of silicon. However,
silicon can take many different forms. Variations are most distinguished by the
purity of the silicon; purity in this sense is the way in which the silicon modules
are aligned. The greater the purity of the silicon molecules, the more efficient
the solar cell is at converting sunlight into electricity. The majority of silicon
based solar cells on the market - about 95% - are comprised of crystalline
silicon, making this the most common type of solar cell. But there are two types
of crystalline - monocrystalline and polycrystalline.

Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Monocrystalline solar cells, also called "single crystalline" cells are easily
recognizable by their colouring. But what makes them most unique is that they
are considered to be made from a very pure type of silicon. In the silicon world,
the more pure the alignment of the molecules, the more efficient the material is
at converting sunlight into electricity. In fact, monocrystalline solar cells are the
most efficient of all; efficiencies have been documented at upwards of 20%.
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of what are called "silicon ingots," a
cylindrically shaped design that helps optimize performance. Essentially,
designers cut four sides out of cylindrical ingots to make the silicon wafers that
make up the monocrystalline panels. In this way, panels comprised of
monocrystalline cells have rounded edges rather than being square, like other
types of solar cells.

Beyond being most efficient in their output of electrical power, monocrystalline

solar cells are also the most space-efficient. This is logical since you would
need fewer cells per unit of electrical output. In this way, solar arrays made up
of monocrystalline take up the least amount of space relative to their generation
intensity.

Another advantage of monocrystalline cells is that they also last the longest of
all types. Many manufacturers offer warranties of up to 25 years on these types
of PV systems.

Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Polycrystalline solar cells, also known as polysilicon and multisilicon cells,

were the first solar cells ever introduced to the industry, in 1981. Polycrystalline
cells do not go through the cutting process used for monocrystalline cells.
Instead, the silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, hence the square
shape of polycrystalline. In this way, they're much more affordable since hardly
any silicon is wasted during the manufacturing process.

However, polycrystalline is less efficient than its monocrystalline cousin.

Typically, polycrystalline solar PV system operated at a 13-16% efficiency -
again, this is due to the fact that the material has a lower purity. Due to this
reality, polycrystalline is less space-efficient, as well. One other drawback of
polycrystalline is that has a lower heat tolerance than monocrystalline, which
means they don't perform as efficiently in high temperatures.

Thin Film Solar Cells

Another up and coming type of solar cell is the thin film solar cell with growth
rates of around 60% between 2002 to 2007. By 2011, the thin film solar cell
industry represented approximately 5% of all cells on the market.

While many variations of thin film products exist, they typically achieve
efficiencies of 7-13%. However, a lot of research and development is being put
into thin film technologies and many scientists suspect efficiencies to climb as
high as 16% in coming models.
Thin film solar cells are characterized by the manner in which various type of
semi-conducting materials (including silicon in some cases) are layered on top
of one another to create a series of thin films.

The major draw of thin film technologies is their cost. Mass production is much
easier than crystalline-based modules, so the cost of mass producing thin film
solar cells is relatively cheap. The product itself is also flexible in nature, which
is leading to many new applications of solar technologies in scenarios where
having some type of flexible material is advantageous. Another perk is that high
heat and shading have less of a negative impact on thin film technologies. For
these reasons, the thin film market continues to grow.

One major drawback is that thin film technologies require a lot of space. This
makes them less of an ideal candidate for residential applications where space
become an issue; as a result, thin film is taking off more in the commercial
space. And thin film solar cells have a shorter shelf life than their crystalline
counterparts, which is evidence by the shorter warranties offered by
manufacturers.

Thin film technology using various photovoltaic substances, including

amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium and gallium selenide.
Each type of material is suitable for different types of solar applications.
Question:-2
A. Explain the V-I and P-V characteristics of PV solar cell

Answer:- P-V and I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

Solar energy is an ever-present, sustainable energy source and one of

the most realistic and common types of renewable energy. It can be
directly transformed into solar energy by photovoltaic (PV) battery.
PV arrays are distinguished by nonlinear voltage and current,
depending on the temperature and irradiance of the grid. Array may
either stand alone or link to the grid. The PV array has a specific point
for generating full strength. Daytime variations in temperature and
irradiance and even changes across multiple seasons of the year. The
implementation of superior methods of utilization of renewable
energies during the 21st century and subsequent rapid development
contributed to a wider variety of applications, especially in relation to
solar power. In general, the use of solar energy is rising rapidly and
has become an important contributor to the general consumption of
energy particularly in the domestic sector. Demand has grown from
20% to 25% over the last 20 years. The demand for photovoltaic
systems has recently grown exponentially. In reality, solar
photovoltaics delivers approximately 4,800 GW between 2004 and
2009, grid-connected photovoltaic capacities rise to 21 GW and rose
at an average rate of 60% annually in this field[3,4]. The fast use of
different fossil fuels has culminated in a decline of their deposit and
has affected the climate significantly, triggering biosphere destruction
and global warming. Solar energy, increasingly available, has allowed
it to be extracted and utilized correctly. Solar electricity may be a
grid-connected generation unit or a separate generating unit, based on
the accessible grid in the local region. It may also be used to provide
electricity to rural areas where grid power is limited. The simple
portability process anywhere and when needed is another advantage
of utilizing solar energy. In order to tackle the present scenario of
energy use, useful strategies need to be built to effectively and
economically utilize solar radiation utilizing solar modules [5, 6]. The
Solar Panel comprises essentially of separate solar cells (normally 32
or 72 cells). The solar cell operating theory is fundamentally identical
to photovoltaic effect. Generally, the photovoltaic effect is provided
as a possible difference at the p-n junction as it comes into contact
with visible or other radiation. The I-V and P-V curves of a solar
module are of considerable significance because the study of these
curves, like Maximal Power Point Tracking (MPPT), is used to
analyze different techniques and algorithms [7]. Figure 1 displays the
usual I-V and P-V curves.

CONCEPT:-
The basic principle to measure the I-V curve of a PV generator is
based on the control of the current supplied between the zero current
point (VOC) and the short circuit point (ISC). Different methods are
proposed for this: variable resistor, capacitive load, electronic load,
bipolar power amplifier, and four quadrant power supply. However,
the cost, volume of measurements, speed, repeatability, accuracy, and
ease of use and maintenance of a test system are factors that must be
taken into account. An extensive review of different methods for
measuring I-V curves of PV generators.
 B. How does the web based solar data helps in deciding the capacity and installation
of PV solar farm?

Answer:- Solar Energy Potential

The location where the solar power plant will be installed is highly related with
the solar energy potential of the location. The information about the solar
energy potential of a location can be determined from the global radiation
values (kWh/m2-day), sunshine duration (hours), and PV-type area energy
generation (kWh/year). In this study, these values of the cities are obtained from
solar energy potential atlas (GEPA) of Directorate General of Renewable
Energy in Turkey [14]. In Figures 1–5, each city’s global radiation values,
sunshine duration, and total amount of energy/PV area are shown.

Global radiation values

Sunshine duration
The data in the figures are used as inputs to the proposed methods. Since the
cities are in the same region and are close to each other, the suitable location of
the installation cannot be estimated from the figures easily. However, they are
very useful while using together with other methods. For this reason, they have
been thoroughly examined.

Feeder Capacity of the Distribution Centre

When an electric energy production facility is installed in a region, the

infrastructure of the region should be examined. Therefore, the transformer
capacities, the number of lines, cable sections, and so forth are considered as the
parameters. In this context, the allocated capacity should also be considered.
The allocated capacity of the transformer centre for solar and wind energy
power plants within unlicensed electricity generation is obtained with the
notification of Directorate General of Turkish Electricity Transmission
Corporation (TEİAŞ) .

Surface Slope

Another main criterion is surface slope. The slope of the surface where a solar
power plant will be installed is usually kept below 5% [16]. The data in the
study [17] is considered for the average slope data of the cities. Aksa ray has
2%, Konya has 1%, Karaman has 3%, Nesher has 7%, and Nide has 5% of
surface slope coefficient. This suggests that the cities of Nesher and Nide are
problematic in terms of installation. However, these cities, which are good in
terms of the amount of sunlight, have not been extracted from the analysis.
 C. What observations are made from Insolation –time plot?

Answer:- Insolation is the incident solar radiation onto some object.

Specifically, it is a measure of the solar energy that is incident on a specified
area over a set period of time. Generally, insolation is expressed two ways. One
unit is kilowatt-hours per square meter (kWh/m2) per day [1] which represents
the average amount of energy hitting an area each day. Another form
is watts per square meter (W/m2) which represents the average amount
of power hitting an area over an entire year.
It is convenient to define a surface solar constant—that is, a value of
insolation on a surface that, at sea level, faces the vertical sun on a clear day.
This “constant” has the convenient value of about 1000Wm-2 or “one sun.” At
other than vertical, owing to the larger air mass through which the rays have to
pass, the insolation is correspondingly smaller.
American meteorologists depart from the SI and define a new—and
unnecessary—unit called a Langley. It is one gram calorie per cm2 per day. To
convert Langley to Wm-2, multiply the former by 0.4843.
The insolation depends on:
1.the orientation of the surface relative to the sun, and
2.the transparency of the atmosphere.
Question:-3
What are the components of roof top grid connected PV solar system?
Explain in brief along with layout.

Answer:- Rooftop Solar PV system: How it works?

Solar PV rooftop system is basically a small power plant at your rooftop. The
Grid interactive Roof Top Solar Photo Voltaic (PV) mainly consists of three
major components. These are the solar PV modules, mounting structure for the
modules and the inverter or power conditioning units. Solar PV modules form
an array and it requires a mounting structure to hold PV modules at the required
angle for maximized generation. The solar panels convert solar energy in the
form of light into electricity in DC form (Direct Current). The DC electrical
energy is converted to AC (Alternate Current) power by the inverter/power
conditioning unit which is connected to the power grid through AC distribution
board. The AC power output can be measured through metering panel
connected to it. The 415 V AC output of the system can be synchronized with
the grid and the electricity can be exported to the grid depending upon solar
power generation and local consumption. The Solar energy system is divided into
two types of solar grid system :-

1. Off – Grid System

2. On – Grid System

Off -grid inverter – These inverters work independently and have no contact with
the power grid system.

Grid inverter– These inverters are connected to the power grid system and are the
most common type of inverters used in residential applications.

Grid synchronization
Electrical inverters convert direct current generated from solar PV modules
to alternating current. Therefore, solar modules need to be connected to
inverters. Nowadays we have smart Grid-interactive inverters. These inverters
can produce AC power that matches voltage and frequency of the grid and the
power line it connects to. There is another requirement of adding an isolation
transformer. For safety purposes, isolation transformer is used to transfer
electrical power from inverter to the connected load while isolating the load
from the power source. In addition, the injection of DC power into the grid can
be avoided by using an isolation transformer at the output of the inverter.
Power generated from the rooftop solar system during the daytime can be
utilized fully by powering the building loads and feeding excess power to the
grid as long as grid is available. Whenever, solar power is not available due to
shadow or a cloudy day, the building loads can be served by drawing power
from the grid or DG sets. Smart inverters automatically understand the power
situation and always give preference to power generated from solar modules.
String inverter: String inverters are in high demand due to their feasible cost
and durable technology. In these multiple strings are connected to build a single
string inverter. It comes with a drawback that if a single string gets damaged or
comes under the shadow it may lead to the performance degradation of an entire
inverter.

Metering:-If the project location has feed-in-tariff applicable, the separate feed-
in-meter (export meter) is suitable. Feed-in-tariff meter records gross generation
from the rooftop solar system. However, conventional energy meter (Import
meter) record electricity consumption of the building. Currently, the state of
Gujarat have feed-in-tariff scheme and hence feed-in-tariff meters are applicable
in Gujarat. However, where feed-in-tariff provision is not applicable, project
developer can have net metering system (bi-directional meter).
Key facts about rooftop solar systems;

1. The solar panels should be south facing to maximize the production

(In India). The angle of panel should be 25-30 degrees with respect to
the land surface
2. The weight exerted by the Solar Panels and the structure is around 10
Kgs per square meter.
3. The solar installation require about 100-150 square feets of area per
Kilowatt.
4. No frequent maintenance is required for the solar system except
regular cleaning of surface of the panels.
 5. There are two types of rooftop solar installations. First is for captive
use and second is for feed in tariff based grid connected system. In
captive use, rooftop solar system installer himself consumes all
electricity generated by the system. However, in second type i.e. feed
in tariff based grid connected system, installer can also feed/sale
excess power to the grid.
6. In captive rooftop solar systems, there are two types. The first one is
standalone systems and other is grid connected system.

Benefits of Rooftop Solar PV systems

1. Cost of electricity is increasing. Electricity utility companies are

bound to increase the cost per unit of electricity due to increase in
cost of fuel.
2. Many regions in the country are facing severe power cuts extending
to 12 -14 hours in a day.
3. Grid tied solar PV systems are the most common systems for captive
power generation. It is technologically feasible to have hybrid
systems such as Solar PV +Grid or Solar PV +Diesel Generator
4. It cost about Rs. 2 Lakhs/KW with battery storage and 1.5 Lakh/KW
without battery storage. It seems high as compared to conventional
diesel power generators. However, operational cost for diesel
generator is very high. Considering the replacement cost of power
generation from diesel generators, solar PV systems provide
attractive returns.
s