Navigational Aids Dead Reckoning
ECET-ELEC1-M
Definition of Navigation
 Came from Latin words NAVIS which means
“boat”, and AGIRE which means “guide”
 Traditionally meant the art or science of
conducting ships and other watercrafts
from one place to another
 The art and science of piloting and sailing, it
is the procedure of moving a craft from one
point to another along a desired path.
Methods of Navigation
 Celestial Navigation
 Piloting
 Dead Reckoning
 Electronic Navigation
Celestial Navigation
 The oldest method of manual navigation
 Uses the Sun, Moon, Stars, and Wind
movement
 Uses a Sextant, Chronometer and some
astronomical tables
 Sextant is a device used to measure the
altitude of the celestial body
 Chronometer measures the time of
observation
Pilotage
 Also known as Visual Contact
 A method of navigation that uses visual
contacts by following terrains features such
as rivers, coastlines, mountain ridges, roads,
etc.
 Possible only with good weather condition
or with good visibility
 Also known as Deduced Calculation
 A method by which the position of a ship or
aircraft is determined by calculating the
following:
1. previous position of the craft
2. direction of travel from the previous
position
3. speed of the craft
4. time travelled
Electronic Navigation
 Method based on the use of Electromagnetic
Waves (EMW) to find the position of the craft.
 Modern navigators rarely rely exclusively on
their own measurements and calculations. They
often use position calculations derived by high-
tech electronic navigational instruments.
 These instruments usually can determine
positions faster and more accurate than
humans.
Major Navigational Agencies
1.) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Operates navigational aids and air traffic control
systems for both civil and military aircraft in the US
and its possessions.
2.) Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
The agency that licenses transmitters and
operators in USA.
3.) International Air Transport Association (IATA)
The international association representing scheduled
airlines.
4.) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
A UN agency that allocates standards and
recommended practices, including navigational aids,
for all civil aviation.
5.) International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
An agency if the UN that allocates frequencies for
best use of the radio spectrum.
RADAR Fundamentals
RAdio Detection And Ranging
Radio — relatina to EMW with frequency range
between 10KHz to 300 GHz
Detection — act of noticing or discovering the
existence of something
Ranging — act of determining the distance between
something
RADAR — a system that uses radio waves to detect,
determine the direction and distance and/or speed
of objects such as aircraft, ships, terrain.
Note: The term RADAR was coined in 1941 , as an
acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. The term
has since entered the English language as a standard
word, radar, losing the capitalization in the process.
Brief History of RADAR
1904 Christian Hulsmeyer first implemented the use
of radio waves to detect the presence of distant
metallic object. He demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting the presence of ship in dense fog but not
its distance.
Applications of RADAR
 Military
 Weather monitoring
 Police detection of speeding traffic
 Air traffic control
Basic Radar Concept
 Radio Frequency (RF) energy is
transmitted to
 Once an "object" is present and the
transmitted RF hits it, a reflected wave
will return.
 This returned energy is called ECHO.
 Radar sets use the ECHO to determine
the direction and distance of the
reflecting objects.
Doppler Effect
 Named after Christian Doppler in 1842
 This is the apparent change in frequency
and wavelength of a wave that is perceived
by an observer moving relative to the
source of the waves
 Doppler confirmed that the sound pitch was
higher as the sound source approached
him, and lower as the sound source receded
from him.
Stealth Mode
How to eliminate echo coming from the receiver of
RADAR.
 Absorptive materials
(such as carbon, fiber, glass)
 Application of edges – it prevents the echo
come from the receiver of RADAR, Reflection
and Diffraction is the main reason.
Why does a commercial airplane have curves in their
structure?
 To be located on RADAR because of civil
passengers on it.
Note:
 Appear weak when you are strong.
 Appear strong when you are weak.
Radar System Components
Transmitter — creates radio waves and modulates to
form pulse train
Receiver — provides amplification of the returned
signals
Synchronizer — coordinates the timing for range
determination
Duplexer — a switch which alternately connects the TX
or RX to the antenna
Antenna — takes the radar pulse from the 1.) Radar RANGE
transmitter and puts it in the rain.
To obtain RANGE General Solution
Radar Frequency Bands In any units R=
In Nautical Miles R=
L — Band 1 GHz-2 (Long)
Long Range air traffic control In Yards R= 164x

S — Band 2 GHZ - 4 GHZ (Short) Where:

Terminal air traffic control long range weather C= speed of light, 3x 108 m/s
marine radar = time lapsed,sec

C — Band 4 GHZ- 8 GHz (Compromise) 2.) Minimum RANGE

Satellite Transponder Weather
To obtain min RANGE General Solution
X — Band 8 GHz- 12 GHz (Unknown) In any units Rmin=
Missile Guidance Marine radar Medium- resolution
Mapping Ground surveillance In Nautical Miles Rmin=
In Yards Rmin= 164x (PW+Rt)
Ku — Band 12 GHz - 18 GHZ (Under K)
High-resolution Mapping Satellite altimetry Where:

K — Band 18 GHZ - 27 GHz (Kurz, means short) PW = pulse width,sec

Rt= recovery time,sec
Limited use due to absorption by water vapor Used
for detecting clouds by meteorologists Detecting
3.) Maximum Unambiguous RANGE
over-speeding motorists.
Ka — Band 27 GHZ - 40 GHZ (Above K)
To obtain max RANGE General Solution
Mapping Photo Radar
In any units Rmax=
Notes: speed of light value in terms of: In Nautical Miles Rmax=
c = 3 x 108 meters/sec
In Yards Rmax= 164x PRT
c = 186,000 miles/sec
c = 162,000 nmi/sec Where:
PRT = Pulse Repetition Time, sec
Radar Reference Coordinate PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency, Hz
1.) Range refers to the line from the radar set directly
to the object. Also known as Line of Sight (LOS) 3.) Maximum RANGE (in terms of radar parameter)

2.) Elevation Angle Refers to the angle between the Rmax= √

horizontal plane and the LOS
Where:
3.) True Bearing or Azimuth Angle Refers to the angle Pt = peak pulse power,Watts
measured clockwise from true north in the horizontal Gt = gain of radar antenna
plane. RCS = radar cross-section,m2
Pr(min) = minimum received power,Watts
Sample Problem:
Rmax =
1. Calculate the range of a steady target that
produced an echo and is received by the In any units:
radar equipment once every 385us.

In meters: Rmax = = 150,000

R= =
Rmax = 150,000 meters
R= 57.750 m
Rmax = = 93
In miles:
R= =
Rmax = 93miles
R= 35.80 miles

In nmi: = = 81
R= =
Rmax = 81 nmi
R= 31.185 nmi
In Nautical Miles:
In Nautical Miles:
Rmax= = = 80.90614887 miles
In R= = = 31.14886731 nmi
In Yards:
In Yards: Rmax= 164x PRT = 164x 1000 = 164,000 yards
R= 164x
R= 63,140 yards 4. A radar facility operates at 10 Ghz with a peak
pulse power of 450 KW, and 40 dBi antenna
2. Calculate the minimum range in yards for a gain. If the target RCS is 20m2 and the minimum
radar system that transmit pulses for 38ps receivable power is 1 pW, determine the
and a recovery time of 0. 1us. maximum range.
Given:
Given: f=10 x 10 9 Hz
PW= 38us Pt = 450 x 10 3 W
RT= 0.1us RCS = 20 m2
R=? Pr (min)= 1x 10 -12 W
Rmin= 164x (PW+Rt) Gt = 40 dBi (convert into gain)
= 164x (38us+0.1us)
Rmin= 6248.4 yards
Rmax= √ =
3. Calculate the maximum unambiguous range
for radar facilities with a PRF of 1000 pulses Lambda:
per second.
=
Given:
PRT= 1000 pps
In any units:
Remember:
= and = = = = 0.03 meters

= = = 0.0000186 miles
 [Squared both to become =√
= = = 0.0000162 nmi

General formula:
Gain:
=√
Gt (db) = 10 log Gt

= Seatwork No. 1
Navigational Aids Problem solving.
[ = log Gt ]-1
1. A radar has pulse duration of 50µs and pulse
repetition time of 5ms. Calculate the maximum and
( )-1 or = Gt [SHIFT SOLVE] minimum useful range. (In meters, miles, and yards)

Gt= 10,000 Minimum Range:

Meters
In any units: Rmin= = = 7500 meters

Rmax= √ =√ Rmin= = = 4.65 miles

Rmax= 142,139.1967 meters Rmin= = 164 x 50 =8200 yards

Maximum Range:
Rmax= √
Rmax = = = 750000 meters
Rmax= 3539.237456 miles
Rmax = = = 750000 meters

Rmax= √ Rmax= = 164 x 5 ms = 820 yards

2. 32.8mi is the maximum unambiguous range for a

Rmax= 3303.01645 nmi radar system with a PRT equal to ______________?

Rmin= 32.8mi
Derivation for Formula:
PRT= = = = 352.68 us
-4
[ Rmax= √ ] [ raised to - 4 to cancel √ ] Or
Rmax =
(Rmax )4 =
Shift solve = 352.68 us
=

√ =√
3. If a radar system has a pulse width of 5 Research No. 1
microseconds, the range is ______________yards? Research No. 1 (MH 370)
PW= 5us
Formula:
Rmin = 164 x (PW + RT) Malaysia Airlines Flight 370
Rmin = 164 x 5 us
Rmin = 820 yards

4. Calculate the antenna gain in dB for a radar facility

that operates at 8.91GHz with a peak pulse power of
475 KW, maximum range of 115.24Km, target RCS is
25metersquared, minimum receivable power of
1.32pW.

Given:
f =8.9 x 10 9 Hz The missing aircraft, 9M-MRO, taking off from Paris in
Pt = 475 540 x 10 3 W 2011
RCS = 25 m2 Disappearance
Prmin= 1x 32 -12 W
Date 8 March 2014;
Rmax= 115.24 x 10 3 m 7 years, 7 months ago
Derivation for
Summary Cause unknown, some debris found
Site Southern Indian Ocean (presumed)
[ Rmax= √ ] - 4 [ raised to - 4 to cancel √ ]
Aircraft
Aircraft type Boeing 777-200ER
(Rmax )4 = Operator Malaysia Airlines
IATA flight No. MH370
= ICAO flight No. MAS370
Call sign Malaysian 370
√ =√ Registration 9M-MRO
Flight origin Kuala Lumpur International Airport
Destination Beijing Capital International Airport
=√ [Derived Formula]
Occupants 239
Passengers 227
Solve for lambda:
Crew 12
Fatalities 239 (presumed)
= = = 0.03367003367 meters
Survivors 0 (presumed)

( )
Gt=√ = 6547.256847

dB=10log Gt
dB= 10log(6547.256847)
dB= 38.16059379 dB