DJM20042 Electronic Systems: Semicoductor

DJM20042
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 1 :
SEMICODUCTOR
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 1
Student Learning Outcomes
Upon completion this unit, you should be able to:
– Define conductor, insulator and semiconductor, and state the

different characteristic among of them.
– Name at least three semiconductor materials and state the
most widely used.
– Name the basic structure of material and explain how it is
formed with atoms.
– Define doping and name the two types of semiconductor
material formed with doping process.
– Name the current carriers in N and P-type material.
– Explain how current flows in semiconductor material under
condition no bias, forward biasing and reverse biasing.
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 2
PERIODIC TABLE
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 3
Number of Electrons
Atomic Number 11
Symbol Na
Atomic Mass 22.99
 An atom is neutral
 The net charge is zero
 Number of protons = Number of electrons
 Atomic number = Number of electrons
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 4
Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to generate
and control the flow of an electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:

1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow.
2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses
electrical current flow.
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical
current flow.
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 5
Conductors
• Good conductors have low
resistance so electrons flow through
them with easy.
• Best element conductors include:

– Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, &
nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:

– Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:

– Salt water
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 6
Conductor Atomic Structure
• The atomic structure

of good conductors
usually includes only
one electron in their
outer shell(valence
electron).
• It is easily striped
from the atom,
producing current Copper
flow. Atom
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 7
Insulators
• Insulators have a high
resistance so current does not
flow in them.
• Good insulators include:

– Glass, ceramic, plastics, &
wood
• Most insulators are

compounds of several
elements.
•
• The atoms are tightly bound
to one another so electrons
are difficult to strip away for
current flow.
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 8
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are
materials that essentially
can be conditioned to act
as good conductors, or
good insulators, or any
thing in between.
• Common elements such as

carbon, silicon, and
germanium are
semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most

widely used semiconductor.
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 9
Semiconductor Valence Orbit
• The main characteristic of a semiconductor
element is that it has four electrons in its outer or
valence orbit.
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021 10
Difference between Conductor ,Semiconductor and Insulator
Difference between Conductor ,Semiconductor and Insulator
Conductor and Insulators.
Atomic Model
the gap is smaller

and can be crossed
when a photon
is absorbed
the conduction band

and valence band
overlap, so there is no gap
Covalent Bond
Electron
14P
An electron shared by
two neighboring atoms to
14P 14P 14P form a Covalent Bond.
This way an atom can

14P
have a stable structure
with eight valence band
electrons.
Silicon crystal
Conduction Electron and Holes.
An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room

temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence
band into the conduction band, becoming free
electron called ‘Conduction Electron’
It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in
the valence band.
Thermal energy produces free electron and hole pair
Electron (in conduction band)
14P Hole (in valence band)
14P 14P 14P
14P
Hole/electron flow through a semiconductor
+ -
+ Free Electron (in conduction band)
-
+ -
+ -
+ 14P 14P 14P -
+ A C D F -
+ -
B E
+ 14P 14P 14P -
Hole
+ -
+ (in valence band) -
The electron moves F-E-D-C-B-A

The hole moves A-B-C-D-E-F (pseudo movement)
Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor
1). Intrinsic = pure
Example : carbon, silicon, gernanium
2). Extrinsic = impure or doped

characteristic of semiconductor can be altered by
adding impurity element through doping process
(extrinsic material)
Two type:
a) N-type
b) P-type
Doping
• Doping means mixing a pure semiconductor with
impurities to increase its electrical conductivity
Can be done in two ways:
1) Increasing the number of electrons by mixing

pentavalent elements such as phosphorous, arsenic,
antimony (means adding donor impurities)
2) Increasing the number of holes by mixing trivalent

elements such as aluminum, boron, gallium (means
adding acceptor impurities)
N-TYPE
• N-type is created by introducing
impurity elements that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent) –
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus
• Note that four covalent bonds
are still present, however there is
additional fifth electron due to
impurity atom
• The remaining electron is free to
move within the newly formed n-
type material
• Diffused impurities with five
valence electrons are called
donor atoms Figure 1.9 Antimony impurity in N-type material
N-type semiconductor
Has many free electrons in conduction band and few
holes in valence band
P-TYPE
• P-type is created by doping with
impurity atoms having three
valence electrons – boron
gallium, indium
• Note that there are insufficient
number of electrons to complete
covalent bonds resulting a hole
• This hole is ready to accept a
free electron
• The diffused impurities with three
valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms.
Figure 1.11 Boron impurity in P-type material

P-type semiconductor
Has few free electrons in conduction band and
many holes in valence band.
Electron versus Hole Flow
Majority and Minority Carriers
• In an n-type material - electron is called majority carrier
and hole the minority carrier
• In a p-type material – hole is majority carrier and electron
is the minority carrier
Majority and minority carriers
Electrons are
• Majority carriers in N-type semiconductor
• Minority carriers in P-type semiconductor
Holes are
• Majority carriers in P-type semiconductor
• Minority carriers in N-type semiconductor
PN Junction
The contact surface between a p-type
and an n-type semiconductor is called a
PN junction.
For every electron that diffuses across

the junction and combines with a hole, a
positive charge is left in the n region and
a negative charge is created in the p
region, forming a barrier potential.
This action continues until the voltage of

the barrier repels further diffusion.
The blue arrows between the positive

and negative charges in the depletion
region represent the electric field.
Semiconductor Diode
• Diode is formed by bringing these two material together P-type
and N-type
• Electrons and holes at joined region will combine, resulting in a
lack of carriers in the region near the junction (depletion region).
Diodes
 Diode, semiconductor material, such as silicon, in which half is
doped as p-region and half is doped as n-region with a pn-junction
in between.
 The p region is called anode and n type region is called cathode.
p n
Depletion
region
Diode symbol
 It conducts current in one direction and offers high (ideally

infinite) resistance in other direction.
A diode is formed by putting a N-type and P-type of
semiconductor together
P-N Junction
P type N type
Anode Cathode
Note: Both N and P-type of materials are electrically neutral
Migration of holes from P to N and electrons
from N to P causes a formation of depletion
layer
P type N type
--+ +
Anode --+ + Cathode
--+ +
--+ +
This gives rise to barrier potential(Eγ) preventing further

migration of holes and electrons
1). No Bias (VD = 0V)
• Under no-bias conditions, any minority carries (holes) in the n-type
material find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly
into p-type material.
• Majority carriers (electrons) of n-type material must overcome the

attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in n-type material and
the shield of negative ions in p-type material to migrate into the area
beyond the depletion region of p-type material.
• In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in

any one direction for semiconductor diode is zero
2). Forward Biased
 Forward bias is a condition that allows current through
PN junction.
 A DC voltage (Vbias) is applied to bias a diode.

 Positive side is connected to p-region (anode) and
negative side is connected with n-region.
 Vbias must be greater than ‘barrier potential’.
 Knee voltage: The forward voltage at which the
flow of the current during the PN Junction of the
diode begins increasing very quickly.
 reduce the width of depletion region.
As more electrons flow into the
V depletion region reducing the
+ F– I F (mA)
number of positive ions and
similarly more holes move in
IF reducing the positive ions.
–
C
Current limiting R
This reduces the width of
resistance + VBIAS depletion region
+ –
B Knee
A VF
0
0 0.7 V
33
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021
Forward Biased diode
•The diode behaves like a ‘ON’ switch in this mode .
• Resistance R and diode’s body resistance limits the
current through the diode
• VBias has to overcome Vdiode in order for the diode to
conduct.
Forward-biased PN junction
Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0V)
• A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the
association p-type and positive and n-type and
negative has been established.
• The application of forward-bias potential will pressure

the electrons in n-type and hole in p-type to
recombine with ions near the boundary and reduce
the width of depletion region.
• The resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from p-

type to n-type has not changed in magnitude, but the
reduction in width of depletion region has resulted in
a heavy majority flow across the junction
35
JKM/PUO/PCTAN2021
3). Reverse Biased
 Reverse bias is a condition that
prevents current through junction.
 Positive side of Vbias is connected to
the n-region whereas the negative side
is connected with p-region.
 Depletion region get wider with this
configuration.
The positive side of bias
voltage attracts the majority
carriers of n-type creating
VBIAS VBR 0 more positive ions at the
VR 0 junction.
– + Knee
This widens the depletion
I=0A
region.
R
VBIAS
– +
IR
Reverse Biased diode
•The diode behaves like a ‘OFF’ switch in this mode .
• If we continue to increase reverse voltage VD
breakdown voltage of the diode is reached
• Once breakdown voltage is reached diode conducts
heavily causing its destruction.
Reverse-biased p-n junction

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0V)
• The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion
region of n-type will increase due to large number of free
electrons drawn to the positive potential
• The number of uncovered negative ions will increase in p-
type resulting widening of depletion region
• This region established great barrier for the majority
carriers to overcome – resulting Imajority = 0
• The number pf minority carriers find themselves entering
the depletion region will not change resulting in minority-
carrier flow vectors of the same magnitude
• The current exists under reverse-bias conditions is called
the reverse saturation current and represented by Is
• Therefore, ID= -Is
Reverse Breakdown
 If the external bias voltage is increased to a value call
breakdown voltage the reverse current can increase
drastically.
 Free minority electrons get enough energy to knock valance

electron into the conduction band.
 The newly released electron can further strike with other

atoms.
 The process is called avalanche effect.
Depletion Region
• depletion region is due to P-N junction

• forward bias : smaller depletion region
• reverse bias : larger depletion region
• use the reverse voltage 500V for ES
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
• Since the diode is two-terminal device, the application of a
voltage across its terminals leaves three possibilities:
– No bias (VD = 0V)
– Forward bias (VD > 0V)
– Reversed bias (VD < 0V)
Breakdown
• Diode breakdown is caused by thermally generated
electrons in the depletion region.
• When the reverse voltage across diode reaches
breakdown voltage these electrons will get sufficient
energy to collide and dislodge other electrons.
• Breakdown Voltage is the characteristic which the minimum
voltage level at which an insulator starts behaving as a
conductor and conducts electricity. It is also known as the
Dielectric Strength of the material.
• The number of high energy electrons increases in
geometric progression leading to an avalanche effect
causing heavy current and ultimately destruction of
diode.

DJM20042 Electronic Systems: Semicoductor

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DJM20042

– Define conductor, insulator and semiconductor, and state the

• Electronic materials include:

• Best element conductors include:

• Alloys are also good conductors:

• Good conductors can also be liquid:

• The atomic structure

• Good insulators include:

• Most insulators are

• Common elements such as

• Silicon is the best and most

the gap is smaller

the conduction band

This way an atom can

An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room

It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band

14P Hole (in valence band)

14P 14P 14P

The electron moves F-E-D-C-B-A

2). Extrinsic = impure or doped

Can be done in two ways:

1) Increasing the number of electrons by mixing

2) Increasing the number of holes by mixing trivalent

Figure 1.11 Boron impurity in P-type material

For every electron that diffuses across

This action continues until the voltage of

The blue arrows between the positive

 It conducts current in one direction and offers high (ideally

Note: Both N and P-type of materials are electrically neutral

This gives rise to barrier potential(Eγ) preventing further

• Majority carriers (electrons) of n-type material must overcome the

• In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in

 A DC voltage (Vbias) is applied to bias a diode.

• The application of forward-bias potential will pressure

• The resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from p-

Reverse-biased p-n junction

 Free minority electrons get enough energy to knock valance

 The newly released electron can further strike with other

 The process is called avalanche effect.

• depletion region is due to P-N junction

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