Petroleum Technology

Chapter Four
Reservoir Properties
Shayma Hamza
Lecturer in Petrochemical Engineering
Duhok Polytechnic University
Reservoir Pressures

• Reservoir is an accumulation of hydrocarbon in porous permeable

sedimentary rocks.
• Hydrocarbon reservoirs are found over a wide range of present day
depths of burial, the majority being in the range 500-4000 m.
• Determining the magnitude and variation of pressures in a reservoir is an
important aspect in understanding various aspects of the reservoir, both
during the exploration phase but also once production has commenced.
• Oil and gas accumulations are found at a range of sub-surface depths. At
these depths pressure exists as a result of the depositional process and
from the fluids contained within the parous media.
Reservoir Pressures

• These pressures are called lithostatic pressures and fluid pressures.

• The lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock which is
transmitted through the sub-surface by grain-to grain contacts.
• This lithostatic or sometimes called geostatic or overburden pressure is
of the order of 1 psi/ft.
• The overburden pressure gradient varies according to depth, the density
of the overburden, and the extent to which the rocks are supported by
water pressure.
• If we use this overburden pressure gradient of 1 psi/ft. then the
overburden pressure Pov, in psig at a depth of D feet is
Reservoir Pressures

𝑃𝑜𝑣 = 1 𝐷
• The overburden pressure is balanced in part by the pressure of the fluid
within the pore space, the pore pressure, and also by the grains of rock
under compaction.
• In unconsolidated sands, loose sands, the overburden pressure is totally
supported by the fluid and the fluid pressure Pf is equal to the
overburden pressure Pov .
• In deposited formations like reservoir rocks the fluid pressure is not
supporting the rocks above but arises from the continuity of the aqueous
phase from the surface to the depth D in the reservoir.
• This fluid pressure is called the hydrostatic pressure.
• The hydrostatic pressure is imposed by a column of fluid at rest. Its value
depends on the density of the water, which is affected by salinity.
• For a column of fresh water, the hydrostatic pressure is 0.433 psi/ft.
• For water with 55,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is 0.45 psi/ft
• For 88,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is about 0.465 psi/ft.
• Its variation with depth is given by the equation.

• There is another fluid pressure which arises as a result of fluid movement and
that is called the hydrodynamic pressure.
• This is the fluid potential pressure gradient which is caused by fluid flow. This
however does not contribute to in-situ pressures at rest.
• Fluid pressure in hydrocarbon accumulations are dictated by the
prevailing water pressure in the vicinity of the reservoir.
• The water pressure at any depth is:

𝑑𝑃
𝑃𝑤 = 𝐷
𝑑𝐷
Reservoirs whose water pressure gradient when extrapolated to zero
depth give an absolute pressure equivalent to atmospheric pressure are
called normal pressured reservoirs.
Example-1: If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft,
calculate the pore pressure in a normally pressurized formation at 7400ft.

Solution:
𝑃𝑜𝑣 = 0.47 ∗ 7400 = 3478 𝑝𝑠𝑖
• Under certain conditions, fluid pressures may depart substantially from
the normal pressure and we may have:
• Overpressure reservoirs are those where the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the
• Underpressured reservoirs are below normal pressure +C for
overpressure
𝑑𝑃 reservoir
𝑃𝑤 = 𝐷+𝐶
𝑑𝐷 -C for
underpressure
reservoir
normal pressure
• Pressure gradients in hydrocarbon systems are different from those of
water systems and are determined by the oil and gas phase in-situ
specific gravities of each fluid.

𝑑𝑃 𝜌𝑔
= = 0.08 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑑𝑃 𝜌𝑜
= = 0.35 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
𝑜𝑖𝑙
 𝑑𝑃 𝜌𝑤
= = 0.45 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

• Water is always present in reservoir rocks and the pressure in the water
phase Pw and the pressure in the hydrocarbon phase Po are different.
• If P is the pressure at the oil/water contact where the water saturation is
100%, then the pressure above this contact for the hydrocarbon and
water are :
• The difference between these two pressures
is the capillary pressure Pc:
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃 𝑤

𝑃𝑐 = (𝜌𝑤−𝜌𝑜) ℎ
• The free water level, FWL, is not coincident
with the oil-water contact OWC.
• The water contact corresponds to the depth
at which the oil saturation starts to increase
from water zone.
• The free water level is the depth at which the capillary pressure is zero.
• The difference in depth between the oil-water contact and the free water
level depends on the capillary pressure which in turn is a function of
permeability, grain size etc.
Example-2: calculate the pressure gradient for the reservoir fluids
containing both oil and a free gas cap. Below are the fluids data:

Gas density= 24.34 Ib/ft3 (8495-8560) ft

Oil density= 41.82 Ib/ft3 at (8560-8730) ft
Water density= 68 Ib/ft3 at (8730-8820) ft
Solution:
𝑑𝑃 24.34
= = 0.17 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑑𝑃 41.82
= = 0.29 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝑑𝑃 67.68
= = 0.47 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝐷 144
 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑐 =𝐷 = 0.47 ∗ 8730 = 4103.1 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 =𝐷 = 0.47 ∗ 8820 = 4145.4 𝑝𝑠i

 Depth Pressure
8495 4043.4
Gas zone 8560 4053.8 8560 4053.8
Oil zone
8730 4103.1
 8400
water zone 8730 4103.
8500
Gas zone
8820 4145.4
8600
Oil zone

8700

8800
Water zone

8900
4000 4050 4100 4150
Pressure, psi
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
• Hydrocarbon accumulations are invariably associated with formation
waters which may constitute extensive aquifers underlying or contiguous
to the hydrocarbons, or which may exist only within the hydrocarbon as
connate or interstitial water.
• There will always be two, and frequently three, phases present within the
reservoir during its producing life (oil, gas, water).

• The proportions, the compositions and the physical properties of the

phases present may change as production proceeds, and pressures
change in the essentially isothermal system.
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
• The analysis of reservoir performance depends upon the prediction of
the physical properties of the coexisting phases at any time
• The volume unit of measurement in the industry is the stock tank unit,
conventionally the barrel or cubic meter or stock tank
• Since stock tank oil is the result of a processing operation (gas
separation).
• By convention, stock tank conditions used in the industry are 60°F and 1
atmosphere pressure. The volumetric equivalence of one standard barrel
of fluid (1 BBL) is as follows:
1 BBL = 5.615 cubic ft (𝑓𝑡3)
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
1 BBL = 0.159 cubic meters (𝑚3)
• A barrel at stock tank conditions of temperature and pressure is denoted
STB.
• The cubic foot at standard conditions of 60°F and 1 atmosphere has
found considerable industry usage in gas volume measurement and is
represented as SCF.
• It is most frequently necessary to relate the volume of a fluid phase
existing at reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure to its
equivalent volume at standard conditions. The relationship forms a term
known as a formation volume factor
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
• In the petroleum industry, oil density has long been described using an
expanded inverse scale authorized by the American Petroleum Institute
- the API gravity.
• The usual range starts with water density at 10° and rises to volatile oils
and straw colored condensate liquids around 60°-70°.
• The relationship between API gravity and the specific gravity of the liquid
(relative to water) at 60°F (SG60) is as follows:

• In addition to oil gravity or density, the volume of gas associated with unit
volume of stock tank oil is a characterization property.
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
• Expressed as a gas-oil ratio or GOR, the units at a reference condition of
60°F and 1 atmosphere pressure are commonly SCF/STB and SCM/SCM.
• Many North Sea oils are in the region of 37° API with GORs around 600
SCF/STB. Hydrocarbon
Example-5: For the following oil samples, calculate the API gravity.
Sample-1: the specific gravity is 0.75
Sample-2: the specific gravity is 0.88
Sample-3: the specific gravity is 0.95

Solution:
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
Sample Sample
Sample-

Fluid API Notes

Heavy oil <20 High viscosity, high oil density and negligible gas-oil
ratio. At surface may form tar sands etc.
Black oil 30-45 Also known as a dissolved gas oil system and constitutes
majority of oil reservoirs.
Nature of Reservoir Fluids
Volatile oil 40-75 Very low oil specific gravities. The liquid phase has very
high ratios of dissolved gas to oil
Gas condensate A gas phase at reservoir conditions but can undergo
retrograde behaviour to yield low density oils in the
reservoir.
Dry gas Essentially light hydrocarbon mixture existing entirely in
gas phase at reservoir conditions.

Mole fraction compositions of hydrocarbon reservoir fluids

Nature of Reservoir Fluids
Dry gas Condensate Volatile oil Light black oil
C1 0.9 0.75 0.6-0.65 0.44
C2 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.04
C3 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04

C4 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.03

C5 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02

C6+ 0.08 0.2-0.15 0.43
GOR 10000+ 3000-6000 2000